AD  VER  TISEMENTS. 


Refrigerating  and 


t    r 
t    t 


Ice 


Mea 


HASLAM5 
the 


imers 


ZING   MEAT, 
tence. 


Makers    OT     UMO    tnuiuco,    iuu    iu    tuuw    B.H.P. 

The  Haslam  Foundry  &  Engineering  Co.  Ltd. 

(INCORPORATED  WITH  PONTIFEX  &  WOOD,  Ltd.), 

UNION  FOUNDRY,  DERBY, 

And  175  to  177  SALISBURY  HOUSE,  LONDON,  B.C. 


Telegraphic  Address — 
"ZERO,  DERBY." 


Telephone  No.  778  Derby. 
ABC  and  Bentley's  Codes  used. 


A  D  VER  TISEMENTS. 


CARBONIC   ANHYDRIDE  &   AMMONIA 

REFRIGERATING 
MACHINERY 

USED  BY 

BRITISH  &  FOREIGN  GOVERNMENTS,  AND 
ALL  LEADING  STEAMSHIP  COMPANIES 
THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD. 

ALSO    BY 

COLD  STORAGE  AND  ICE-MAKING  COMPANIES, 

MEAT  FREEZING  WORKS,  BREWERIES,  PUBLIC 

INSTITUTIONS,  DAIRIES,  &c.  &c. 


Full  information  furnished  by 


J.   &   E.    HALL   LTD., 

10  St  Swithin's  Lane,  London,  E.C. 

And  Dartford  Ironworks,  Kent. 


AD  VER  TISEMENTS. 


ANHYDROUS 
AMMONIA, 


LARGEST  CONSUMERS 


IN 


THE  UNITED  KINGDOM. 

SUPPLIERS  TO  THE  ADMIRALTY. 

MAXIMUM  EFFICIENCY,  MINIMUM  COST, 


IMMEDIATE    DELIVERY. 


Telegrams : 
ANHYDROUS,  LONDON. 


Telephone  No.,   1729  AVENUE, 
(3  Lines.) 


REFRIGERATION,    COLD    STORAGE,    AND 
ICE-MAKING 


WORKS  BY  THE  SAME  AUTHOR. 
Crown  Svo,  cloth.     3*.  6d.  net. 

THE  POCKET  BOOK  OF  REFRIGERATION 
AND  ICE-MAKING. 

Fifth  Edition,  Enlarged.     205  pages,  with  many  Illustrations. 

"As  a  pocket  book  to  users  of  refrigerating  plant  it  is,  of  course,  of  the 
greatest  possible  value,  having  regard  to  its  comprehensive  character."— 
The  Marine  Engineer. 

"  It  is  a  most  useful  companion  for  those  engaged  or  interested  in  the 
rapidly  growing  industries  connected  with  refrigeration  and  cold  storage." — 
Mechanical  World. 

Demy  8v0,  cloth.     *]s.  6d.  net. 

AERIAL  OR  WIRE-ROPE  WAYS : 

Their  Construction  and  Management.     With  Numerous 
Illustrations. 

"The  book  can  safely  be  recommended  as  a  useful  general  treatise  on  the 
subject."— Civil  Engineering. 


Medium  Svo,  cloth.     2$s.  net. 

TEA  MACHINERY  AND  TEA  FACTORIES 

Describing  the  Mechanical  Appliances  required  in 

the  Cultivation  and    Preparation  of  Tea  for   the 

Market. 


London : 

CROSBY  LOCKWOOD   &   SON,  7  Stationers'  Hall  Court,  E.G., 
and  I21a  Victoria  Street,  Westminster,  S.W. 


REFRIGERATION   ii 
COLD  STORAGE  AND 
ICE-MAKING 

A    PRACTICAL    TREATISE 
ON    THE    ART  AND    SCIENCE    OF    REFRIGERATION 

WITH   WHICH    IS   INCORPORATED 

"REFRIGERATING    AND    ICE-MAKING   MACHINERY" 

(THIRD  EDITION) 


BY 

A.    J.    )VALLIS-TAYLER,    C.E. 

ASSOC.  M.  INST.  C.E. 

AUTHOR  OF  "REFRIGERATING  AND  ICE-MAKING  MACHINERY,"  "THE  POCKET-BOOK  OF 

REFRIGERATION  AND  ICE-MAKING,"  "  SUGAR  MACHINERY,"  "  TEA  MACHINERY," 

"BEARINGS  AND  LUBRICATION,"  "AERIAL  OR  WIRE  ROPE  TRAMWAYS," 

"  MOTOR  VEHICLES  FOR  BUSINESS  PURPOSES," 

ETC.,    ETC. 


BDttion,  tborougblg  IRevfeefc 

WITH  FOUR  HUNDRED  AND   FOURTEEN  ILLUSTRATIONS 


umert.V  '  •'*  •    V 


LONDON 
CROSBY    LOCKWOOD    AND    SON 

7   STATIONERS'   HALL  COURT,   LUDGATE   HILL 
AND   i2iA  VICTORIA  STREET,   S.W. 

1912 


A.   J.   WALLIS^TAYLER,   C.E,  A.M.I.C.E., 

"  ESQU1MALT/' 

ROBIN    HOOD    LANE, 

SUTTON,    SURREY. 

Inspections,  Surveys,  Tests,  Reports,  Expert   Evidence,  Working 
and  other  Drawings,  Technical  Translations  from  or  into  French, 


*'-     f"\  ?»T  f.      fr  *"•<•  • 

c^       -  ;l  »''.  r:»       vj.  o  I 
."/•" '.!'    ... ;.  «'xC 'JlUv.^   /V::~.'^ 


PREFACE 


THE  preservation  of  comestibles  collected  during  times  of  plenty, 
for  uses  when  the  sources  of  supply  fail,  has  been  practised  by 
man  from  the  remotest  ages  and  in  the  most  uncivilised  regions. 
Amongst  primitive  races,  in  order  to  avoid  famine  the  preserva- 
tion of  food  for  use  during  certain  times  of  the  year  was  absolutely 
essential,  and  in  civilised  countries  it  is  a  factor  mainly  responsible 
for  the  maintenance  of  the  balance  between  the  demand  and  the 
supply. 

Probably  the  most  ancient  method  employed  for  the  preserva- 
tion of  food  stuffs  is  desiccation  or  drying,  and  it  is  an  excellent  one, 
meat,  for  instance,  so  treated  loses  none  of  its  nutritive  qualities  as 
it  undergoes  no  chemical  change.  The  remaining  methods  used 
are  heating  and  sealing  in  air-tight  packages,  treatment  by  means 
of  chemicals,  and  refrigeration. 

The  conservation  of  meat  and  other  food  stuffs  by  the  latter 
method,  which  is  now  so  extensively  used,  is  that  with  which  the 
author  is  here  solely  concerned.  By  means  of  refrigeration  or 
thermal  control  meat  can  now  be  transported  round  the  world 
whilst  retaining  its  original  freshness.  And  fish,  milk,  butter, 
eggs,  and  fruits  of  almost  every  variety  can  also  be  preserved  and 
transported  in  good  condition.  In  fact,  as  stated  in  the  Preface 
to  the  first  edition  of  this  book,  refrigeration  is  a  subject  of  great 
and  daily  increasing  interest,  and  the  field  of  usefulness  of  the  art 
is  continually  widening.  When  the  author  produced,  in  1895,  his 
smaller  work  entitled  "  Eefrigerating  and  Ice-Making  Machinery," 
the  literature  dealing  specifically  with  the  subject  was  of  a  very 
limited,  and  chiefly  of  a  scattered  description,  but  at  the  present 
time  there  are  a  number  of  books  published,  and  the  periodical 
literature  has  also  been  largely  augmented. 


274253 


vi  PREFACE. 

The  success  attained  by  "Refrigerating  and  Ice-Making 
Machinery"  encouraged  the  production  of  the  present  larger 
volume,  with  the  second  edition  of  which  was  incorporatad  the 
third  edition  of  the  above-mentioned  smaller  book. 

In  this,  the  third  edition  of  the  larger  volume,  an  additional 
chapter  dealing  with  dairy  refrigeration  has  been  added,  the 
introductory  chapter  has  been  partly  re-written  and  brought  up 
to  date,  as  have  also  been  those  chapters  dealing  with  examples 
of  modern  refrigerating  machinery,  marine  refrigeration,  manu- 
facturing industrial  and  constructional  applications,  ice-making, 
and  the  management  and  testing  of  refrigerating  machinery.  A 
large  number  of  the  illustrations  contained  in  the  previous  editions 
have  been  replaced  by  blocks  of  more  modern  machines,  and 
forty-six  entirely  new  engravings  have  been  added.  The  author 
takes  this  opportunity,  moreover,  of  acknowledging  the  valuable 
assistance  rendered  by  Mr  G.  J.  Wells,  W.Sc.,  A.M.I  C.E.,  in 
revising  the  chapter  devoted  to  the  theory  of  refrigeration. 

Those  requiring  in  a  very  concise  form  the  primary  details 
regarding  ice-making  and  refrigerating  machinery,  cold  storage, 
insulation,  &c.,  will  find  their  wants  supplied  by  the  fifth  edition 
of  "The  Pocket  Book  of  Refrigeration  and  Ice-Making,"  by  the 
same  author,  and  as  this  little  volume  comprises  in  addition  to  the 
above  a  very  considerable  number  of  important  tables  and  other 
useful  memoranda,  conveniently  arranged  for  immediate  reference, 
it  forms  also  a  valuable  companion  to  the  larger  book. 

A.  J.  WALLIS-TAYLER. 

SUTTON,  December  1911. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  I. 
INTRODUCTION. 

PAOR 

Origin  of  Artificial  Refrigeration— History  and  Progress  of  the  Trade  in 

Fresh  Provisions  1-7 

CHAPTER  II. 

THE  THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  MECHANICAL 
REFRIGERATION. 

Relation  to  First  Two  Laws  of  Thermo-dynamics — Definition  of  Heat 
—Specific  Heat— Latent  Heat— Mechanical  Equivalent  of  Heat- 
Calculations  made  with  respect  to  Heat — Temperature — Laws  of 
Gases — Construction  of  Chart  Applicable  to  any  Value  of  n — Work 
Demanded  of  a  Refrigerating  Machine — Greatest  Theoretical 
Efficiency  of  a  Refrigerating  Machine  8-20 

CHAPTER  III. 
THE  LIQUEFACTION  PROCESS. 

Use  of,  by  the  Ancients — Various  Machines  Operating  on  the — Gene- 
ral Laws  Governing  Production  of  Cold  by  —  Principal  Freezing 
Mixtures  -  21-24 

CHAPTER  IV. 
THE   VACUUM  PROCESS. 

Principles   of — First    Machine    working  on — More    Recent   Types    of 

Machines  Working  on  -  -         25-33 

CHAPTER  V. 
THE  COMPRESSION  PROCESS  OR  SYSTEM. 

Early  History  of — Principles  of — Cycle  of  Operations  Obligatory  in — 
Improvements  in — Ether  Machines — Sulphurous  Acid  Machines — 
Carbonic  Acid  Machines  -  -  34-47 

CHAPTER  VI. 
THE  COMPRESSION  PROCESS  (continued). 

Ammonia  Machines — Properties  of  Ammonia — Cycle  of  Operations — 
Wet  and  Dry  Compression  Principle — Construction  of  Gas  Com- 
pressors—Various  Examples  of  Modern  Machines  -  -  48-116 


viii  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  VII. 
THE  COMPRESSION  PROCESS  (continued}. 

PAGES 

Properties  of  Ether — Modern  Ether  Machines — Properties  of  Methyl  - 
Chloride — Methyl-Chloride  Machines — Properties  of  Sulphurous 
Acid — Sulphurous  Acid  Machines — Properties  of  Carbonic  Acid — 
Carbonic  Acid  Machines  -  117-151 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

CONDENSERS  AND    WATER  COOLING  AND  SAVING 
APPARATUS. 

Submerged  Condensers — Amount  of  Cooling  Water  required — Atmo- 
spheric or  Open-air  Evaporative  Surface  Condensers — Amount  of 
Condenser  Surface  required — Amount  of  Cooling  Water  required 
— Supplementary  Condensers  or  Forecoolers — Double-pipe  Con- 
densers—Hendrick's  Condenser— Water-cooling  and  Saving  Appa- 
ratus— Water-cooling  Towers  -  152-173 

CHAPTER  IX. 

THE  ABSORPTION  AND  BINARY  ABSORPTION 
PROCESS  OR  SYSTEM. 

The  Principle  of  the  Absorption  Process — Early  Machines — Later 
Pattems  of  Machines — The  Binary  Absorption  Process,  or  Machines 
Using  a  Compound  or  Dual  Liquid  -  -  174-210 

CHAPTER  X. 
THE  COLD-AIR  SYSTEM. 

Principles  of— Early  Machines — Modern  Patterns  of  Machines— The 
Allen  Dense-Air  Ice  Machine — Maximum  Theoretical  Efficiency  of 
Cold- Air  Machines — Comparative  Tests  of  Cold- Air  Machines  -  211-245 

CHAPTER  XI. 
COCKS,    VALVES,   AND  PIPE  JOINTS  AND   UNIONS. 

Expansion  or  Regulating  Cocks  and  Valves — Stop-Cocks  and  Valves — 
Suction  and  Discharge  Valves — Pipe  Joints  and  Unions — Means  for 
Increasing  the  Cooling  Surface  of  Pipes  -  246-269 

CHAPTER  XII. 
REFRIGERATION  AND  COLD  STORAGE. 

Refrigeration  by  means  of  the  Cold-Air  Machine — Refrigeration  by 
means  of  Compression  or  Absorption  Machines — The  Brine  Circula- 
tion System — The  Direct  Expansion  System — The  Cold-Air  Blast 
System— Piping  for  Cold  Stores  -  -  270-284 


CONTENTS. 


IX 


CHAPTER   XIII. 
REFRIGERATION  AND  GOLD  STORAGE  (continued}. 

PAGES 

The  Construction  and  Arrangement  of  Cold  Stores  and  of  Cold  Storage 
Rooms  or  Chambers — Ventilation — Air  Circulation — Insulation — 
Railway  Vans  -  -  285-371 

CHAPTER  XIV. 

REFRIGERATION  AND   GOLD  STORAGE  (continued). 
Hoisting  and  Conveying  Machinery  -     372-380 

CHAPTER  XV. 

REFRIGERATION  AND   COLD  STORAGE  (continued). 

Proper  Methods  of  Storing,  and  Temperatures  for  the  Cold  Storage  of 
Various  Articles — Specific  Heat  and  Composition  of  Victuals — 
Meat  and  Fish — Butter — Cheese  —  Milk  —  Eggs  —  Fruits  —  Vege- 
tables— Morgues  or  Mortuaries — Table  of  Temperatures  for  Cold 
Storage  of  Various  Articles  -  381-395 

CHAPTER  XVI. 
MARINE  REFRIGERATION. 

Carbonic  Acid  Machines — Ammonia  Machines — Cold-Air  Machines — 
Arrangement  of  Cargo  Holds  and  Stores— Ice- making  on  Board 


Ship — Barges    - 


396-421 


CHAPTER   XVII. 
REFRIGERATION  IN  DAIRIES. 

Methods  of  Using  Mechanical  Refrigeration  in  Dairies — Examples  of 
Mechanical  Refrigerating  Installations  in  Dairies— Milk  or  Cream 
Coolers — Ice-cooled  Creamery  Refrigerators— Air  Circulation  System 
—Cylinder  System — Insulation  of  Dairy  or  Creamery  Refrigerators 
— Sizes  of  Ice  Chambers — General  Particulars — Materials — Ice 
Refrigerating  Machine  422-438 

CHAPTER  XVIII. 

MANUFACTURING,   INDUSTRIAL  AND  CONSTRUC- 
TIONAL APPLICATIONS. 

Chocolate  Manufacture — Breweries — Paraffin  Works — Artificial  Butter 
Manufactories — Tea  Factories — Sugar  Factories  and  Refineries — 
Blast  Furnaces — Wine  Making — Various  other  Manufacturing  and 
Industrial  Applications — Dynamite  Factories— Manufactories  of 
Photographic  Accessories— Distilleries— Chemical  Works— India- 
rubber  Works— Glue  Works — Constructional  Applications  :  Tun- 
nelling, Sinking  Shafts,  Laying  Foundations,  &c.  -  -  439-483 


x  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  XIX. 
ICE-MAKING. 

PAGES 

Various  Methods  of  Ice-Making— The  Can  System— The  Wall  or  Plate 
System — The  Stationary  Cell  System — Miscellaneous  Arrangements 
for  Making  Clear  or  Crystal  Ice  by  Agitation — Holden  System  of 
Ice-Making — Water  De-aerating  or  Distilling  Apparatus— Vacuum 
System  of  Ice-Making — Imitation  of  Natural  System— Ice  Factories 
— Ice  Elevating  and  Conveying  Machinery — Ice-Making,  General 
— Brine — Storing  Ice — Ice-Crushing  or  Breaking  Machinery  -  484-538 

CHAPTER  XX. 

THE  MANAGEMENT  AND   TESTING  OF  REFRI- 
GERATING MACHINERY,  ETC. 

Management — Ammonia  Compression  Machines — Oil  Separators  or 
Collectors — Accumulations  of  Deposit  in  the  Condenser — Breaking 
Joints — Lubricating  Qualities  of  Ammonia — Compressor  Piston- 
rod  packings — To  Charge  and  Work  a  Carbonic  Acid  Machine — 
Freezing  or  Choking  up  of  Compression  System — Lubrication  of 
Refrigerating  Machinery — Leaks  in  Ammonia  Apparatus — Leaks  in 
Carbonic  Acid  Machines — Effect  of  a  Coating  of  Ice  on  Direct  Ex- 
pansion Pipes — Defrosting  Refrigerating  Coils — Incrustation  on 
Condenser  Coils — Cold-Air  Machines — Testing — Interpretation  of 
Compressor  Diagrams — Absorption  Machines — Amouut  of  Water 
required  in  Refrigerating  Apparatus — Determination  of  Moisture 
in  Air — Psychrometers —  Hygrometers — Electrical  Temperature 
Tell-tales  and  Long-distance  Thermometers  —  The  Thermograph 
—The  Telethermometer  or  Electrical  Thermometer — Lighting  Cold 
Stores  -  -  539-578 

CHAPTER  XXI. 
COST  OF  WORKING. 

Main  Items  of  Expense — Absorption  Machines — Compression  Machines 

—Vacuum  Machines— Cold-Air  Machines— Cost  of  Ice.Making       -     579-587 

CHAPTER  XXII. 
THE  PRODUCTION  OF   VERY  LOW  TEMPERATURES. 

Early  Investigators  and  Experimenters — The  Cascade  System — The 
Regenerative  Method — Properties  of  Liquid  Air — Physical  Con- 
stants of  Liquefied  Gases  -  -  588-601 

APPENDIX. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  REFRIGERATION. 

Books-Periodicals  -  602-604 

INDEX        -  -  -  ......     605-632 


LIST  OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 


1.  Diagram  showing  Method  of  Constructing  Curve  PV*  =  C      -  13 

2.  Diagram  showing  Method  of  Constructing  Curve  PVW  =C  ' .  •'           -  14 

3.  Diagram  showing  Method  of  Constructing  Chart         -            -             -  15 

4.  Carre's  Sulphuric  Acid  Vacuum  Freezing  Machine  26 

5.  Lange's  Exhaust  Pump  for  Vacuum  Freezing  Machine  29 

6.  Harrison's  Rotating  Exhaust  Pump  or  Cylinder  30 

7.  Perkins'  Early  Type  of  Compression  Machine  -  35 
8.*  Diagram  Illustrating  the  Operation  of  a  Refrigerating  Machine  on 

the  Compression  Principle  -  37 

9.  Harrison's  Ether  Compression  Machine  38 

10.  Tellier's  Apparatus  for  the  Distillation  of  Methylic  Ether      -             -  41 

11.  Tellier's  Methylic  Ether  Compression  Machine                         -            -  41 

12.  Expansion  Valve  or  Distributor  of  Tellier's  Methyllic  Ether  Machine  42 

13.  Original  Type  of  Windhausen  Compressor  with  Liquid  Piston  for 

Treating  the  Gas  in  Two  Stages     -  46 

14.  Suction  Valve  of  Windhausen  Compressor  for  Treating  Gas  in  Two 

Stages  47 

15.  Outlet  or  Discharge  Valve  of  Windhausen  Compressor  for  Treating 

Gas  in  Two  Stages  -                                  -    - •           -            -            -  47 

16.  Diagram  Illustrating  Loss  Due  to  Clearance  Space  in  Compressor 

Cylinder       -  54 

17.  Double-acting  Vertical  Type  De  La  Vergne  Ammonia  Compressor. 

Vertical  Section  through  Compression  Cylinder   -  58 

18.  Double-acting  Vertical  Type  De  La  Vergne  Ammonia  Compressor. 

Side  Elevation  of  Complete  Machine         -  s  59 

19.  Diagrammatical  View  showing  Complete  Installation  of  a  Refriger- 

ating Plant  on  the  De  La  Vergne  Ammonia  Compression  System  60 

20.  Diagram  taken  from  Single-acting  De  La  Vergne  Ammonia  Com- 

pressor without  Sealing,  Lubricating,  and  Cooling  Fluid  62 

21.  Diagram  taken  from  Single-acting  De  La  Vergne  Ammonia  Com- 

pressor with  Sealing,  Lubricating,  and  Cooling  Fluid      -  63 

22.  Diagram  taken  from  Double-acting  De  La  Vergne  Ammonia  Com- 

pressor with  Sealing,  Lubricating,  and  Cooling  Fluid       -  64 

23.  Horizontal  Type  of  Belt-driven  Sterne  Ammonia  Compressor  65 

24.  Small    Single-acting    Vertical   Type  Frick   Ammonia  Compressor. 

Vertical  Central  Section  through  Cylinder            -                         -  67 


xii  LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 

FIG.  PAGE 

25.  Large    Single-acting    Vertical    Type  Frick   Ammonia  Compressor. 

Vertical  Central  Section  through  Cylinder  68 

26.  Large    Single-acting    Vertical   Type  Frick  Ammonia  Compressor. 

Sectional  Elevation  of  Complete  Machine-  69 

27-32.  Diagrams  taken  from  Frick  Compressor       -  -  70 

33.  Enock's  Patent  Safety  Compressor.     Vertical  Section  -  72 

34.  Enock  Safety  Crossheads  and  Springs  -  -  .  73 

35.  Enock  Patent  Compressor.     Inclosed  Type,  with  Coupled  Vertical 

Steam  Engine  74 

36.  20-ton  Open  Type  of  Ammonia  Compressor,  Fitted  with  Enock's 

Patent  Safety  Crosshead     -  .75 

37.  Enock  Inclosed  Type  65-ton  Compressor  77 

38.  Enock  Self-oiling  Midget  Type  Compressor     -  78 

39.  Linde  Horizontal  Type  of  Compound  Ammonia  Compressor.  Plan 

View  79 

40.  American  Pattern  Linde  Horizontal  Type  of  Ammonia  Compressor. 

Part  Sectional  View                                                                          "r~_.  81 

41.  Horizontal  Type  of  Belt-driven  Humboldt  Ammonia  Compressor       -  82 

42.  Two-Cylinder  Single-acting  Fixary  Compressor  84 

43.  Double-acting  Ammonia  Compressor,  Pulsometer  Engineering  Co.,  Ltd.  86 

44.  Small  Single-acting  Kilbourn  Inclosed  Type  Ammonia  Compressor 

and  Condenser  -  88 

45.  Double-acting    Horizontal    Type    Triumph    Ammonia   Compressor. 

Sectional  View         -  89 

46.  Double-acting    Horizontal    Type    Triumph    Ammonia    Compressor 

and  Tandem  Compound  Condensing  Engine.     Plan  View  90 

47.  Double-acting  Puplett  Ammonia  Compression  Machine  92 

48.  Horizontal  Type  Compound  Haslam  Ammonia  Compressor.    Vertical 

Central  Section         -  ...  93 

49.  Horizontal   Type  of  Haslam   Double-acting  Ammonia  Compressor 

with  Compound  Drop-Valve  Engine  95 

50.  Horizontal  Type  of  Haslam  Double-acting  Ammonia  Compressors 

with  Compound  Steam-Engine       -  -  96 

51.  Horizontal  Compound  Type  of  Haslam  Ammonia  Compressor  with 

Compound  ' '  Drop- Valve  "  Steam-engine  -  98 

52.  Single-acting    Vertical   Type  Ammonia  Compressor,    York   Manu- 

facturing Co.     Sectional  Elevation  of  Complete  Machine  100 

53.  Horizontal  Type  of  Belt-driven  Tuxen  and  Hammerich  Ammonia 

Compressor  -  . .  -  ,      101 

54.  Vertical    Type    of    Steam-driven    Buffalo    Ammonia    Compressor. 

Vertical  Central  Section  through  Cylinder  -         103 

55.  Vertical  Type    of    Steam-driven    Hercules   Ammonia  Compressor. 

Vertical  Central  Section  through  Cylinder  -         107 

56.  Double-acting  Horizontal  Type  Barber  Steam-driven  Ammonia  Com- 

pressor -         109 

57.  Double-acting  Horizontal  Type  Barber  Electrically-driven  Ammonia 

Compressor  -  -         110 

58.  Small  Single-acting  Horizontal  Type  Barber  Steam-driven  Ammonia 

Compressor-  .  .  .  .  .  ,  -         111 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS.  xiii 

FIG.  PAGE 

59.  Double-acting     Horizontal    Type     Vulcan    Ammonia    Compressor. 

Central  Section  through  Cylinder  -  •    ,        112 

60.  Small  Single-acting  Vertical  Inclosed  Type  Vulcan  Ammonia  Com- 

pressor.    Elevation  partly  in  Vertical  Section      -  '    -         113 

61.  Small  Single-acting  Vertical  Inclosed  Type  Vulcan  Ammonia  Com- 

pressor.    Transverse  Section  -         114 

62.  Belt-driven  Horizontal  Type  West  Ether  Compression  Machine         -         118 
6,3.  Single-acting  Inclosed  Type  Douane  Methyl  Chloride  Compressor. 

Vertical  Central  Section      -  -         121 

64.  Belt-driven   Double-acting  Vertical    Type   Quiri    Sulphurous   Acid 

Compression  Machine  -         122 

65.  Belt-driven  Double-acting  Horizontal  Type  Quiri  Sulphurous  Acid 

Compressor  -  -         123 

66.  Belt-driven  Horizontal  Inclosed  Type  Douglas -Conroy  Sulphurous 

Acid    Compression    Machine.     Elevation    partly    in    Vertical 
Section         -  -        125 

67.  Belt-driven  Horizontal  Inclosed  Type  Douglas-Conroy  Sulphurous 

Acid  Compression  Machine.     Plan  of  Compressor  -         126 

68.  Belt-driven   Horizontal  Inclosed  Type  Douglas-Conroy  Sulphurous 

Acid  Compression  Machine.     Section  on  line  A-B,  Fig.  67  -         127 

69.  Belt-driven  Horizontal  Inclosed  Type  Douglas-Conroy  Sulphurous 

Acid  Compression  Machine.     Section  on  line  C-D,  Fig.  67  -         128 

70.  Vertical  Type  of  Belt-driven    Humboldt    Sulphurous  Acid   Com- 

pression Machine  -         130 

71.  Belt-driven     Vertical     Type     Hall    Carbonic    Acid     Compression 

Machine        -  -         131 

72.  Belt-driven    Vertical     Type     Hall     Carbonic    Acid     Compression 

Machine.     Sectional  View  -  '-132 

73.  Belt-driven     Vertical     Type     Hall     Carbonic     Acid     Compression 

Machine.     Cross  Section  through  Cylinder  •'-       133 

74.  Belt-driven     Vertical     Type     Hall     Carbonic     Acid     Compression 

Machine.     Vertical  Central  Section  through  Cylinder     -  -         133 

75.  Belt-driven     Vertical     Type     Hall     Carbonic    Acid     Compression 

Machine.     Vertical  Section  through  Spiral  Packing  Ring         .  •'-         134 

76.  Belt-driven    Vertical     Type     Hall     Carbonic    Acid     Compression 

Machine.     Vertical  Central  Section  through  Suction  Passage      -         135 

77.  Belt-driven     Vertical     Type     Hall     Carbonic     Acid     Compression 

Machine.     Vertical  Central  Section  through  Safety  Valve  -         135 

78.  Horizontal  Type  of  Steam-driven  Hall  Carbonic  Acid  Compressor      -         136 

79.  Horizontal    Type    of    Duplex    Steam-driven    Hall    Carbonic    Acid 

Compressor  -  •  :  -         137 

80.  Vertical    Type  of    Belt-driven    Hall    Carbonic    Acid    Compressor. 

Most  Recent  Pattern  -         139 

81.  Horizontal  Type  of  Belt-driven   Hall  Carbonic  Acid   Compressor. 

Most  Recent  Pattern  -         140 

82.  Vertical    Type    Steam-driven    West    Carbonic    Acid    Compression 

Machine        -  141 

83.  Vertical  Type  West  Carbonic  Acid  Compression  Machine.     Vertical 

Central  Section  through  Compressor  Cylinder       -  -142 


xiv  LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 

FIG.  PAGB 

84.  Vertical  Type  West  Carbonic  Acid  Compression  Machine.     Vertical 

Central  Section  through  Valve.     Enlarged  Scale  -  -         143 

85.  Vertical  Type  Belt-driven   Kroeschell  Carbonic  Acid  Compression 

Machine        -..  145 

86.  Horizontal  Type  Belt-driven  Kroeschell  Carbonic  Acid  Compressor  -  147 

87.  Vertical  Type  of  Belt-driven  Humboldt  Carbonic  Acid  Compressor  -  148 

88.  Large  Duplex  Horizontal  Type  of  Haslam  Carbonic  Acid  Compressor  150 

89.  Chew's    Patent    Condenser,    Submerged    Type.      Vertical    Central 

Section  -        153 

90.  Schou's  Patent  Condenser  -         155 

91.  Diagram  showing  Simple  Method  of  Distributing  Water  in  Atmo- 

spheric Condenser    -  158 

92.  Diagram  showing  Objections  to  Common  Plan  of  Distributing  Water 

in  Atmospheric  Condensers  -         159 

93.  Diagram  showing  Method  of  Avoiding   Spattering  in  Distributing 

Water  in  Atmospheric  Condenser  -  159 

94.  Arrangement    for    Removing   Liquefied  Agent    from   Atmospheric 

Condenser     -  160 

95.  Haslam's  Open-air  Evaporative  Surface  Condenser      «•  161 

96.  Haslam  Interlaced  Type  of  Ammonia  Condenser  -         162 

97.  Triumph  Atmospheric  or  Open-air  Evaporative  Surface  Condenser    -         163 

98.  Rau's  Atmospheric  or  Open-air  Evaporative  Surface  Condenser          -         163 

99.  100.  Westerlin-Campbell    Double-pipe    Condenser.     Side   and   End 

Elevations    -  -         166 

101.  Haslam  Double-pipe  Ammonia  Condenser        /  167 

102.  Haslam  Open  Type  of  Water  Cooler     -  169 

103.  Puplett's  Water  Saving  and  Cooling  Apparatus  •         170 

104.  Triumph  Water-Cooling  Tower.     Elevation     -  -         171 

105.  Haslam  Water-Cooling  Tower   -  172 

106.  Carre's  Continuous-Acting  Ammonia  Absorption  Machine       -  -         176 

107.  Pontifex-Wood    Improved    Continuous- Acting  Ammonia    Absorp- 

tion Machine  -         188 

108.  109.  Pontifex-Wood    Improved    Ammonia    Pump.      Elevation    and 

Vertical  Central  Section   •  •  189 

110,  111.  Hill's  Ammonia  Absorption   Machine  with  Supplementary  or 

Auxiliary  Absorber.     Diagrams  showing  Front  and  End  Views  -         195 

112.  Hill's    Ammonia    Absorption     Machine    with     Supplementary    or 

Auxiliary     Absorber.       Diagrammatical     View     of    Complete 
Machine       -  -        196 

113.  Tyler  &  Ellis'  (Cracknell's  Patent)  Ammonia  Absorption  Machine. 

Front  View  -  -        198 

114.  Tyler  &  Ellis'  (Cracknell's  Patent)  Ammonia  Absorption  Machine. 

Side  Elevation  -         199 

115.  Tyler  &  Ellis'  (Cracknell's  Patent)  Ammonia  Absorption  Machine. 

Vertical  Longitudinal  Central  Section       .  199 

116.  Lyon's  Patent  Ammonia  Absorption  Machine.     Plan  -  -        200 

117.  Lyon's  Patent  Ammonia  Absorption  Machine.     Front  Elevation       -        201 

118.  Lyon's    Patent    Ammonia    Absorption    Machine.     Vertical    Longi- 

tudinal Section         -  -  -  -  .  -  -        202 


LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS.  xv 

FIG.  PAGE 

119.  ISenssenbrenner  Patent  Ammonia  Absorption  Machine  -  -        203 

120.  Diagram    Illustrating    Coleman's    Electrically-heated     Absorption 

Machine       -  -        203 

121.  Diagram  Illustrating  Leading  Type  of  American  Ammonia  Absorp- 

tion Machine  -  -        206 

122.  Diagram  showing  Paths  of  Ammonia,  Cooling  Water,  and  Ammonia 

Liquor  through  Various  Members  of  Absorption  System  •  207 

123.  Original  Pattern  Windhausen  Cold-air  Machine.     Plan  View  -  217 

124.  Original  Pattern  Windhausen  Cold-air  Machine.     Side  Elevation     -  218 

125.  Modified     Form      of    Windhausen     Cold-air    Machine.       Vertical 

Central  Section        -  -  .      220 

126.  Improved  Type  Giffard  (1877)  Cold- Air  Machine.     Sectional  Side 

Elevation      -  ^  223 

127.  Haslam  Cold-air  Machine.     Horizontal  Pattern  .  226 

128.  Haslam  Cold-air  Machine.     Diagonal  Pattern-  -  228 

129.  Haslam  Cold-air  Machine.     Vertical  Pattern  -             -  229 

130.  Lightfoot   Double-acting    Cold-air    Machine,    Horizontal  Pattern. 

Vertical  Central  Section     •  "  -        232 

131.  Lightfoot  Single-acting  Cold-air  Machine.     Sectional  Elevation         -         233 

132.  Cole's  "Arctic"  Cold-air  Machine  with  Auxiliary  Cooling  Arrange- 

ment.    Sectional  Elevation  -        234 

133.  Cole's   "Arctic"  Cold-air  Machine  with  Air-drying  Arrangement. 

Small  Size.     Belt-driven  Type        -  235 

134.  Cole's   "Arctic"  Cold-air  Machine  with  Air-drying  Arrangement. 

Large  Size.     Steam-driven  Type    -  -        236 

135.  136.  Cole's   "Arctic"  Cold-air  Machine  with  Air-drying  Arrange- 

ment.    Side  Elevation  partly  in  Section  and  Transverse  Section        237 

137.  Indicator  Diagram  from  Double-acting  Expander  of  Cole's  "  Arctic  " 

Dry  Cold-air  Machine  .   -        >.  .        238 

138.  Indicator  Diagram  from  Single-acting  Expander  of  Cole's  "Arctic" 

Dry  Cold-air  Machine  - .       238 

139.  Allen  Dense-air  Ice  Machine.     Diagrammatical  View  •        239 

140.  Taper  Spindle  Expansion  or  Regulating  Valve.      View  partly  in 

Vertical  Section       -  -.        246 

141.  Taper  Spindle  Expansion  or  Regulating  Valve.     Vertical  Central 

Section  -        247 

142.  Triumph  Angle  Expansion  or  Regulating  Valve.     Vertical  Central 

Section  -        248 

143.  Triumph  Globe  Expansion  or  Regulating  Valve.     Vertical  Central 

Section  .  -        248 

144.  Frick   Angle   Expansion  or    Regulating  Valve.       Vertical  Central 

Section  -        249 

145.  De  La  Vergne  Expansion  or  Regulating  Cock.      Vertical  Central 

Section  -  -  -        250 

146.  De  La  Vergne  Expansion  or  Regulating  Cock.     View  of  Plug  partly 

in  Section     -  -        250 

147.  De  La  Vergne  Expansion  or  Regulating  Cock.     Plan  -  -        250 

148.  Triumph    Safety   Combination    Expansion    Valve    and    Stop-Cock. 

Vertical  Central  Section      -  -  -  -  -  251 


xvi  LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 

FIG.  PAGE 

149.  Haslam  Improved  Type  of  Expansion  Valve    -  -  251 

150.  De  La  Vergne  2^-in.  Stop-cock.     Vertical  Central  Section  -  252 

151.  De  La  Vergne  1-in.  Stop-cock.     Vertical  Central  Section  -  253 

152.  Frick  Shut-off  or  Stop  Valve.     Vertical  Central  Section         -  -  254 

153.  154.  Frick  Stop  Valves.     Perspective  Views    -  -  254 
155,  156.  Haslam  Standard  Types  of  Ammonia  Valves  for  Connections 

over  1  in.  Diameter  ^  -        255 

157.  Haslam  Small  Steel  Valve  for  Gauge  and  other  Connections  under 

1  in.  Diameter  -  255 

158.  Discharge  Valve,  Hercules  Compressor.     Vertical  Central  Section    -  256 

159.  Suction  Valve,  Hercules  Compressor.     Vertical  Central  Section        -  256 

160.  Triumph  Suction  Valve.     Vertical  Central  Section     -  -  257 

161.  162.  Triumph  Pattern  Suction  Valves  for  Frick  Compressor.    Vertical 

Central  Sections       -  -        258 

163,  164.  Triumph  Pattern  Suction  Valves  for  De  La  Vergne  Compressor. 

Vertical  Central  Sections    -  -        258 

165.  Triumph  Pattern  Valve  for  Calahan  Compressor.     Vertical  Central 

Section  ;    -  259 

166.  De  La  Vergne  Pipe  Joint.     Perspective  View  -  261 

167.  De  La  Vergne  Pipe  Joint.     Vertical  Central  Section  -  262 

168.  Kilbourn  Joint  for  Connecting  Pipes  to  Plates.     Vertical  Central 

Section  263 

169.  Kilbourn  Joint  for  Connecting  Different  Lengths  of  Pipe.     Vertical 

Central  Section  through  Joint         -  .,'-''*      264 

170.  Flange  Coupling  or  Union  for  Lead  Gasket.    Vertical  Central  Section        265 

171.  172.  Frick  Coupling  or  Union  for  Large  Pipes.     Vertical  Central 

Section  and  End  View         -  -        265 

173.  Frick  Coupling  or  Union  for  Small  Pipes.     Vertical  Central  Section          266 

174.  Flange  Coupling  or  Union  for  Sheet  Packing.     Elevation  partly  in 

Vertical  Central  Section  266 

175.  De  La  Vergne   Soldered   Pipe   Joint,   Bend  or   Elbow.      Vertical 

Central  Section         -  266 

176.  Return  Socket  Bend.     Vertical  Central  Section  *  266 

177.  Flange  Bend  or  Elbow.     Vertical  Central  Section  266 

178.  179.  Frick  Evaporating  Coil  Bend.     Side  View  partly  in  Section  and 

End  View     -  -  267 

180,  181.  Flange  Return  Bend.     End  View  and  Side  View  -  267 

182.  Return  Bend  or  Head  Formed  in  Halves.     Side  Elevation     -  -  268 

183.  Return    Bend    or    Head    Formed    in    Halves.       Vertical    Central 

Section  268 

184.  185.  Discs  or  Gills  for  Increasing  the  Surface  of  Refrigerating  Pipes. 

View  showing  Gill  fixed  on  Pipe,  and  View  showing  One-half  of 

Gill  removed  -        268 

186.  Diagram  showing  the  Variation  in  Capacity,  &c.,  of  a  Refrigerating 

Machine        -  -        277 

187.  Arrangement  of  Cooling  Pipes  in  Refrigerating  Chamber.     Trans- 

verse Section  -        289 

188.  Arrangement  of  Cooling  Pipes  in  Ceiling  Lofts.     Transverse  Sec- 

tion  290 


LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS.  xvii 

FIG.  PAGE 

189.  Hill's   Arrangement  for  Refrigerating  Cold    Rooms  or  Chambers. 

Diagrammatical  View  -        290 

190.  Hill's  Arrangement  for   Refrigerating   Cold   Rooms  or  Chambers. 

Elevation  of  Chamber  partly  in  Vertical  Section  -  -        291 

191.  Williamson's  Patent  Cold  Storage  Chamber     -  -        293 

192.  Haslam's    Patent    Brine-Cooling    Battery,    for   Cooling   Air  to  be 

Circulated  through  Cold  Storage  Rooms.     Plan  View      -  -        295 

193.  Douglas'  Patent  Apparatus  for  Cooling  Air  for  Use  in  Cold  Storage 

Rooms  or  Chambers.     Vertical  Central  Section    -  -        296 

194.  Cooper's  Apparatus  for  Washing,  Cooling,  and  Drying  Air  for  Use 

in  Cold  Storage  Rooms  or  Chambers.     Diagrammatical  View     -        298 

195.  Arrangement  of  Cooling  Pipes  in  Beef  Chill-rooms  Fitted  with  the 

De  La  Vergne  Patent  Pipe  System.     Transverse  Section  -        299 

196.  Beef  Chill-room  in  Cold  Store  Fitted  with  Haslain  Patent  Brine- 

Cooling  Battery.     Transverse  Section        -  -        299 

197.  Refrigerating    Installation   on   the    Humboldt   System   Erected  at 

Municipal  Abattoir,  Riga.     Plan  -  300 

198.  Refrigerating  Installation   on    the    Humboldt    System   Erected   at 

Municipal  Abattoir,  Riga.     Vertical  Longitudinal  Section          -         301 
199-201.  Refrigerating  Installation  on  the  Humboldt  System  Erected  at 

Municipal  Abattoir,  Riga.     Transverse  Sections  -  -         302 

202.  Hog  Chill-room  Fitted  with  the  De  La  Vergne  Patent  Pipe  System. 

Transverse  Section  -  •-        304 

203.  Arrangement  of  Cooling  Pipes  iru  Chill-room  and  Curing  Cellar  in 

Bacon  Factory.     Transverse  Section  -         305 

204.  Small  Cold  Store  for  Butchers,  &c.,  Cooled  by  Cold-air  Machine. 

Plan  View    -  -         307 

205.  Small  Cold  Store  for  Butchers,  &c. ,  Cooled  by  Ammonia  Compression 

Machine.     Sectional  Elevation       -  .        308 

206.  Small  Cold  Storage  Room  for  Hotel  or  Private  Residence.     Vertical 

Section  -        309 

207.  Cold  Storage  Rooms  and  Ice-Making  Plant  in  Hotel.     Perspective 

View  -         310 

208.  209.  Rotating  Air-Lock  Door  for  Cold  Storage  Rooms  in  Hotels,  &c. 

Sectional  Elevation  and  Horizontal  Section  .         311 

210.  Diagram  showing  Gravity  Air  Circulation  in  Cold  Storage  Room  or 

Chamber  with  Ceiling  Piping  -  -         314 

211.  Diagram  showing  Gravity  Air  Circulation  in  Cold  Storage  Room  or 

Chamber  with  Side  Wall  Piping    -  -        315 

212.  Diagram  showing  Gravity  Air  Circulation  in  Cold  Storage  Room  or 

Chamber  with  Screened  Wall  Piping         -  -  -        316 

213.  Diagram  showing  Gravity  Air  Circulation  in  Cold  Storage  Room  or 

Chamber  with  Screened  Wall  Piping  and  Ceiling  Extensions       -         317 

214.  Diagram  showing  Gravity  Air  Circulation  in  Cold  Storage  Room  or 

Chamber  with  Gay's  Arrangement  of  Piping         -  -  -        317 

215.  Diagram  showing  Gravity  Air  Circulation  in  Cold  Storage  Room  or 

Chamber  with  St  Glair  Pipe  Loft  System-  .  -  318 

216.  Diagram  showing  Mechanical  or  Forced  Air  Circulation  with  Air 

Forced  into  the  Room  at  Each  End  and  Drawn  Out  at  the  Centre        320 
b 


xviii  LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 

FIG.  PAGE 

217.  Diagram  showing  Mechanical  or  Forced  Air  Circulation  with  False 

Ceiling  for  Distributing  Cold  Air  from  the  Coil-room       -  -         321 

218.  Diagram  showing  Mechanical  or  Forced  Air  Circulation  with  Air  Ad- 

mitted at  Sides  of  Ceiling  and  Drawn  Out  at  the  Centre  thereof         322 

219.  Diagram  showing  Mechanical  or  Forced  Air  Circulation  with  Air 

Admitted  at  One  Side  of  Ceiling  and  Drawn  Out  at  the  Other 
Side  -  -        323 

220.  Diagram  showing  Mechanical  or  Forced  Air  Circulation  with  Air 

Admitted  at  Each  Side  of  Floor  and  Drawn  Out  at  Centre  of 
Ceiling  -        324 

221.  Diagram  showing  Mechanical  or  Forced  Air  Circulation  with  Air 

Admitted  at  One  Side  of  Floor  and  Drawn  Out  at  Other  Side  of 
Ceiling  -        324 

222.  Diagram  showing  Mechanical  or  Forced  Air  Circulation  with  Air 

Admitted  at  Two  Ducts  on  Each  Side  of  Wall  and  Drawn  Out 
through  Perforated  False  Ceiling  -  -        325 

223.  Diagram  showing  Mechanical  or  Forced  Air  Circulation  with  Air 

Admitted  at  One  Broad  Duct  ou  Each  Side  Wall  and  Drawn  Out 
through  Perforated  Ceiling  -         327 

224.  Diagram  showing  Mechanical  or  Forced  Air  Circulation  with  Air 

Admitted  through  Perforated  Floor  and  Drawn  Out  through 

Perforated  Ceiling  -  -  328 

223.  Door  for  Cold  Store  with  Taylor's  Patent  Fittings  357 

226,  227.  Frick  Co.  Method  of  Insulating  a  Cold  Store.  Vertical  and 

Horizontal  Sections  -  358 

228-235.  Frick  Co.  Methods  of  Wall,  Floor,  Ceiling,  Partition,  Door,  and 

Window  Insulation-  -  359 

236.  Frick  Co.  Method  of  Tank  Insulation.  Vertical  Section  -  361 

237-246.  Barber  Manufacturing  Co.  Methods  of  Wall,  Floor,  Ceiling,  and 

Tank  Insulation  -  . .  362 

247-254.  Triumph  Ice  Machine  Co.  Methods  of  Wall,  Floor,  Ceiling,  and 

Tank  Insulation  -  .  -  363 

255-265.  Triumph  Ice  Machine  Co.  Methods  of  Wall  and  Floor  Insulation  364 

266.  Refrigerator  Van  or  Waggon,  Great  Southern  and  Western  Railway, 

Ireland.     Sectional  Side  Elevation  -         366 

267.  Refrigerator  Van  or  Waggon,  Great  Southern  and  Western  Railway, 

Ireland.     End  Elevation  Partly  in  Section  ]    •        367 

268.  Refrigerator  Van  or  Waggon,  Great  Southern  and  Western  Railway, 

Ireland.     Sectional  Plan  -         368 

269.  Refrigerator  Car  or  Waggon,  Illinois  Central  Railway,  U.S.     Side 

Elevation  Partly  in  Section  -        369 

270.  Refrigerator  Car  or  Waggon,  Illinois  Central  Railway,  U.  S.    Sectional 

Plan-  .-        369 

271-276.  Childs' Patent  Automatic  Electrically-driven  Beef  Hoist-         jjg        373 

277.  Childs'   Patent  Automatic   Electrically-driven   Beef  Hoist.      View 

showing  a  Quarter  of  Beef  in  Position        -  ; .-        375 

278.  Mutton  Hoist  in  London  Cold  Store      -  •        376 

279.  External  Carcass  Hoist  at  Nelson's  Cold  Storage  Wharf,  London. 

At  Rest        -  -        .-  *   ••    •   -  -  -  377 


LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS.  xix 

KIO.  PAGE 

280.  External  Carcass  Hoist  at  Nelson's  Cold  Storage  Wharf,  London. 

At  Work      -  -         379 

281.  Lawton's  Apparatus  for  Preserving  Fruit.     Diagrammatical  View    -         390 

282.  Hall  Horizontal  Duplex  Marine  Type  of  Steam-driven  Carbonic  Acid 

Compression  Machine  -         399 

283.  Hall  Vertical  Marine  Type  of  Steam-driven  Carbonic  Acid  Compres- 

sion Machine  »        400 

284.  Hall  Small  Marine  Type  of  Steam-driven  Carbonic  Acid  Compression 

Machine.     Vertical  Central  Section  -         401 

285.  De  La   Vergne   Vertical   Single-acting   Marine   Type  of  Ammonia 

Compression  Machine  -         402 

286.  Puplett  Horizontal  Marine  Type  of  Steam-driven  Ammonia  Com- 

pression Machine      -  -         403 

287.  Puplett  Horizontal  Marine  Type  of  Belt-driven  Ammonia  Compres- 

sion Machine  -         403 

288.  Haslam     Vertical    Self-Contained    Marine    T}-pe    of    Steam-driven 

Ammonia  Compression  Machine      -  -         404 

289.  Haslam    Horizontal    Marine    Type    of     Steam-driven     Compound 

Ammonia  Compressor  -         405 

290.  291.  Kilbourn  Horizontal  Self-contained  Marine  Type  of  Steam-driven 

Double-acting  Ammonia  Compressor.     Plan  and  Elevation,  partly 

in  Section     -  406 

292.  Kilbourn    Horizontal    Double-acting    Marine    Type   of    Belt-driven 

Ammonia  Compressor  -         407 

293,  294.  Marine   Type   of    Ammonia   Condenser.       Plan  and  Elevation, 

partly  in  Section      -  -         408 

295.  Insulation  of  Cargo  Holds  on  board  S.S.  "Campania"  and  "Lucania." 

Transverse  Section  -  -  -         409 

296.  Plan  of  Refrigerating  Machine-room  on  Cunard  Steamers        •  -         410 

297.  Insulation    of    Provision    Stores  on    board   S.S.    "Campania"   and 

"Lucania."     Transverse  Section  through  Ceiling  •         412 

298.  Insulation   of    Provision   Stores   on   board    S.S.    "Campania"   and 

"Lucania."     Vertical  Longitudinal  Section  through  Ceiling        -         412 

299.  Enock  Electrically-driven  Ammonia  Compression  Machine,  Marine 

Pattern  -  .  413 

300.  Hall  Vertical  Marine  Type  of  Steam-driven  Cold-air  Machine  -  414 

301.  Haslam  Vertical  Marine  Type  of  Steam  driven  Cold-air  Machine       -  415 

302.  Haslam  Vertical  Marine  Type  of  Steam-driven  Cold-air  Machine  and 

Ice-making  Apparatus         »  -        416 

303.  Arrangement  of  Cold  Storage  Chamber  on   board  Large  Passenger 

Steamer.     Sectional  Plan    -  -         418 

304.  Ice-making  or  Congealing  Tanks  or  Boxes  for  Use  on  Shipboard. 

Plan,  Side,  and  End  Elevations,  and  Detail  View  419 

305.  Haslam   Method  of   Sterilising  the   Cold   Air   for    Use    in    Ships' 

Holds  -        420 

306.  Complete  Milk-Cooling  Plant  with   Warm   Milk   Tank  and   Milk 

Pumps.     Enock  Ammonia  Compression  System    -  -         424 

307.  Installation  on  Ammonia  Compression  System  in  Dairy.     Kilbourn 

System  -  -  -  -  .,..,:          -        426 


xx  LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 

FIG.  PAGE 

308.  Milk-Cooling  Plant,  Express  Dairy  Co.,  Ltd.,  London.    Hall  Carbonic 

Acid  System  .  -        427 

309.  Installation  for  Milk  Cooling  on  the  Humboldt  Sulphurous  Acid 

System                                                                                                    -  428 

310.  Sandbach  Combined  Cream  Cooler  and  Heater.     Plan                     .    -  430 

311.  Sandbach  Combined  Cream  Cooler  and  Heater.     Elevation    -            •'•  430 

312.  Capillary  Cream  Cooler.     Elevation     -                                                   -  431 

313.  Creamery  Refrigerator  on  the  Air  Circulation  System.     Plan  and 

Detail  Views  -        432 

314.  Creamery  Refrigerator  on  the  Air  Circulation  System.     Section  and 

Detail  Views  -        432 

315.  Creamery  Refrigerator  on  the  Cylinder  System.      Plan  and   Sec- 

tion -  •  434 

316.  Creamery  Refrigerator  on  the  Cylinder  System.     Detail  Views          -  434 

317.  Burnand  Ice  Refrigerating  Machine  for  Dairies  -  43(3 

318.  Burnand  Small  Ice  Milk  Cooling  Apparatus     -  -  437 

319.  320.  Enock    Patent    Chocolate    Cooler    or    Economiser.      Sectional 

Elevation  and  Cross  Section  ?  441 

321.  "  Baudelot  Cooler  "  with  Direct  Expansion  for  Cooling  Beer  Wort    -  446 

322.  " Baudelot  Cooler"  with  Brine  Circulation  for  Cooling  Beer  Wort    -  447 

323.  Arrangement  for  Cooling  Fermenting  arid  Yeast  Rooms  in  Brewery 

on  the  Brine  Circulation  System     -  -        448 

324.  Arrangement  for  Cooling  Fermenting  Room  on  Direct  Expansion 

Principle  on  the  De  La  Vergne  System      •  -        449 

325.  Frick   Co.    Method    of    Cooling  a  Fermenting   Room   in  Brewery. 

Transverse  Section  -  -         450 

326.  327.  Arrangement  for  Suspending  Flat  Pipe  Coils  from  Ceiling  on  the 

Iron  Floor  Beams.     Side  Elevation  and  Transverse  Section         -         451 

328.  Pipe  Arrangement  for  Vault  in  Brewery.     Transverse  Section  -        452 

329,  330.  Frick  Co.  Automatic  Attemperator  System  and  Cooling  Arrange- 

ment.    Side  Elevation  and  Plan     -  -         453 

331.  Arrangement  for  Cooling  Water  for    Attemperating  Purposes   in 

Breweries  with  Ammonia  Absorption  Machine      -  -         454 

332.  Triumph    Ice    Machine    Co.,    Small    Brewery    with    Refrigeratng 

Machinery     Working    on     the    Direct     Expansion     Principle. 
Sectional  Elevation  -  -        458 

333.  Arrangement  for  the  Extraction  of  Solid  Paraffin  from  Shale  Oil. 

Sectional  Elevation-  .    •        460 

334.  Refrigerating  Arrangement  in  an  Artificial  Butter  Factory.     Sec- 

tional Elevation       -  -        462 

335.  Pontifex-Wood  Brine  Refrigerator        -  -        463 

336.  337.  Installation   of   Refrigerating   Machinery    (Haslam   Type)   for 

Desiccating   100,000  cubic  feet   of  Air  per  Minute  for  use   in 

Blast  Furnaces.     Perspective  View  and  Plan  View  467,  468 

338.  Gobert  Congelation  Method  of  Sinking  Shafts.     Vertical  Section  478 

339.  Gobert  Congelation  Method  of  Sinking  Shafts.     Plan  -        479 
340-342.  Gobert  Congelation  Method  of  Sinking  Shafts.     Details  of  Con- 
struction      -  481 

343.  Pyramid  Ice-making  Box  or  Tank.     Vertical  Section  -  t •-'•  -        487 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS.  xxi 

FIG.  PAQK 

344-  Box  or  Tank  for  Making  Ice  on  the  Can  System  -        488 

345.  "Eclipse"  Can  Ice-making  Tank  or  Box.     Vertical  Longitudinal 

Section  -        489 

346.  Propeller  for  Circulating  or  Agitating  Brine  in  Ice-making  Tank  or 

Box.     Side  Elevation  -        490 

347.  Frick  Pattern  Brine  Strainer.     Vertical  Central  Section  491 

348.  Arrangement  of  Freezing  Tank  on  Can  System  showing  Cause  of 

Brine  Foaming         -  -  492 

349.  Box  or  Tank  for  Making  Ice  on  the  Plate  or  Wall  System      -  493 

350.  Pontifex-Wood  Cell  Ice-making  Tank  or  Box  -  -  498 

351.  Hill's  Method  of  Making  Clear  or  Crystal  Ice.     Plan  of  Box  or 

Tank  -        500 

352.  Method  of  Making  Clear  or  Crystal  Ice.     Transverse  Section  on 

line  x-x,  Fig.  351      -  -        500 

353.  Modified  Arrangement  of  Hill's  Method  of  Making  Clear  or  Crystal 

Ice.     Horizontal  Section     -  -        501 

354.  Modified  Arrangement  of  Hill's  Method  of  Making  Clear  or  Crystal 

Ice.     Transverse  Section  on  line  xl-xl,  Fig.  353    -  -        501 

355.  356.  Haslam   Patent  Air   Agitation   Ice-making  Plant.      Sectional 

Elevation  and  Plan  -  503 

357.  Oscillating  Ice -making  Tank  or  Box.     Side  Elevation  -        504 

358.  Arrangement  for  Agitation  of  Water  in  Ice  Cans  by  Means  of  Par- 

tially   Submerged    Double -ported    Plunger    Pump.      Sectional 
Elevation  -        504 

359.  Arrangement  for  Agitation  of  Water  in  Fixed  Ice  Cans  by  Means  of  a 

Plunger  or  Piston  Pump.     Vertical  Longitudinal  Section  -        505 

360.  Arrangement  for  Agitation  of  Water  in  Removable   Ice   Cans  or 

Moulds  by  Means  of  Plunger  Pumps.     Transverse  Section          -         506 

361.  Arrangement  for  Agitation  of  Water  to  be  Frozen  in  Ice-making 

Tank  or  Box  by  Long  Horizontal  Agitator.      Transverse  Sec- 
tion -  -  -        506 

362.  Arrangement  for  Agitation  of  Water  to  be  Frozen  in  Ice-making 

Tank  or  Box  by  Means  of  Vertical  Plunger  Pump.     Transverse 
Section  507 

363.  Arrangement  for  Agitation  of  Water  to  be  Frozen  in  Ice-making 

Tank  or  Box  by  Means  of  Horizontal  Plunger  Pump.    Transverse 
Section  -        507 

364.  Triumph  Ice  Machine  Co.  Oil  Separator  and  Condensed  Water-cooler. 

Plan  -  -        509 

365.  Triumph  Ice  Machine  Co.  Oil  Separator  and  Condensed  Water-cooler. 

Vertical  Section  -         509 

366.  Frick  Co.  Apparatus  for  Making  Distilled  Water  from  Exhaust  Steam. 

Diagrammatical  View  -         510 

367.  Diagram  Illustrating   Operation  of   Triple-effect   Evaporating   Ap- 

paratus -         511 

368.  Complete      Single- effect      Distilling      Apparatus     on     the     Yaryan 

System  -        513 

369.  Complete     Sextuple -effect    Distilling    Apparatus     on     the    Yaryan 

System  -  -  -  .          -  515 


xxii  LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 

FIG.  1-AOK 

370.  Ice-Tank  or  Box-room  of  Ice  Factory  on  the  Can  System.     Sectional 

Elevation      -  -         519 

371.  Ice-Tank  or  Box-room  of  Ice  Factory  on  Plate  or  Wall  System, 

showing  Mechanism  for  Raising  Slabs  or  Blocks  of  Ice     -  -         520 

372-374.  Frick  Co.  Plan  for  Ice  Factory  of  6  to  10  Tons  Capacity.  Plan, 

Sectional  Side  Elevation,  and  Transverse  Section  .-.  521 

375  377.  Frick  Co.  Plan  for  Ice  Factory  of  30  to  35  Tons  Capacity.  Sec- 
tional Side  and  End  Elevations,  and  Plan  -  -  522 

378-380.  Frick  Co.  Plan  for  Ice  Factory  of  100  Tons  Capacity.  Plan  and 

Sectional  Side  and  End  Elevations  •  »  523 

381,  382.  Arrangement  of  Model  Ice  Factory  by  the  Triumph  Ice  Machine 

Co.  Plan  and  Sectional  Elevation  •"  524 

383,  384.  Vulcan  Iron  Works  Arrangement  for  a  5-ton  Ice  Factory  011  the 

Can  System.  Plan  and  Sectional  Elevation  -  525 

385.  Ice  Factory  on  the  "  Eclipse"  Can  System,  Constructed  by  the  Frick 

Company.     Sectional  Elevation      -  -        52& 

386.  Frick  Ice-Can  Hoist  for  Use  with  Small  Ice-making  Plants    -  527 

387.  Travelling  Crane  and  Geared  Hand-power  Ice-Can  Hoist        -  528 

388.  Electric  Crane  for  Handling  Ice  Cans  in  Large  Factories         -  -         528 

389.  Automatic  Ice  Dump  529 

390.  Vulcan  Iron  Works  Track  System  529 

391.  Brine  Mixing  Tank.     Vertical  Longitudinal  Central  Section  -  533 

392.  Haslam  Brine  Concentrator  -         534 

393.  15-ton  per  Hour  Power  Ice-crushing  Machine  -  -         538 

394.  Voorhees  Oil  Separator  or  Collector.     Vertical  Central  Section  546 

395.  Yaryan  Form  of  Oil  Separator,  Collector,  or  Interceptor.     Vertical 

Central  Section  -      -  54& 

396.  Triumph  Ice  Machine  Co.  Ammonia  Receiver  and  Oil  Trap.    Vertical 

Central  Section  and  Detail  Views  -  -        550 

397.  Stuffing  Box  and  Packing  for  Ammonia  Machines.     Longitudinal 

Section  -        553 

398.  Mercury  Well  for  Horizontal  Pipe.     Vertical  Section  -        563 

399.  400.  Mercury   Well  for  Vertical   Pipe.     Vertical   and    Horizontal 

Sections        -  563 

401.  Diagram  from  Compressor  in  Good  Order  567 

402.  Diagram    from    Compressor    Indicating    an    Excessive   Amount   of 

Clearance      -  -        567 

403.  Diagram  from  Compressor  Indicating  Binding  of  Pressure  Valve        -        567 

404.  Diagram  from  Compressor   Indicating   Too   Great   a  Resistance  in 

Pressure  and  Suction  Pipes  -  567 

405.  Diagram  from  Compressor  Indicating  Binding  of  Suction  Valve         -  568 

406.  Diagram  from  Compressor  Indicating  Leaking  of  Compressor  Valve  -  568 

407.  Diagram  from  Compressor  Indicating  Defective  Packing  of  Piston  568 

408.  Diagram  Illustrating  Arrangement  of  Electric  Lighting  on  the  Series 

Circuit  System  »        577 

409.  Diagram    Illustrating    Arrangement    of    Electric    Lighting   on   the 

Parallel  Circuit  System       -  577 

410.  Diagram   Illustrating  the  Cascade  or  Successive  Cycle   System   of 

Producing  Very  Low  Temperatures  -         589 


LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS.  xxiii 

FIG.  PAGB 

411.  Diagram  Illustrating  Tripler's  Apparatus  for  the  Production  of  Very 

Low  Temperatures  by  the  Regenerative  Method  -  -        594 

412,  413.  Hampson's  Apparatus  for  the  Production  of  Very  Low  Tempera- 

tures by  the  Regenerative  Method.     Vertical  and  Horizontal 
Sections        -  -        596 

414.  Linde's  Apparatus  for  the  Production  of  Very  Low  Temperatures  by 

the  Regenerative  Process.     Sectional  Elevation   -  -        597 


ERRATA. 


Pages  130  and  148.— The  descriptions  of  the 
illustrations  in  both  cases  should  read  "Hori- 
zontal Type  "  instead  of  "  Vertical  Type." 


of  the  water  congealed — more  palatable  and  sanitary  than  the  natural 
product ;  to  its  extensive  use  for  the  freezing  and  chilling  of  freshly 
killed  meat  in  abattoirs ;  and  to  its  application  to  the  cooling  of  stores 
or  chambers  for  the  preservation  of  meat,  fowl,  fish,  butter,  cheese, 
fruit,  vegetables,  and  other  provisions  of  a  perishable  nature :  mechanical 
refrigeration  is  now  commonly  employed  in  a  number  of  different  manu- 
facturing processes,  brief  descriptions  of  the  most  important  of  which 
applications  will  be  found  in  a  chapter  devoted  to  this  subject. 

The  trade  in  fresh  provisions  is  one  that  during  the  last  few  years 
has  made  enormous  strides,  and  at  the  present  time  vast  quantities  of 
frozen  carcasses,  and  of  fish,  fruit,  vegetables,  butter,  cheese,  and  milk 
are  being  imported  into  this  country. 


REFRIGERATION,  COLD 
STORAGE,  AND   ICE-MAKING 


CHAPTER  I 
INTRODUCTION 

Origin  of  Artificial  Refrigeration — History  and  Progress  of  the  Trade  in  Fresh 

Provisions. 

ALTHOUGH  refrigeration  and  the  production  of  ice  by  artificial  means 
is  said  to  have  been  known  to,  and  practised  by,  the  Ancients,  it  is  only 
in  comparatively  recent  times  that  improved  systems  and  apparatus 
have  enabled  operations  to  be  carried  out  profitably  on  a  commercial 
scale,  and  have  rendered  possible  the  numerous  manufacturing  and 
industrial  applications  now  made. 

In  addition  to  the  employment  of  mechanical  refrigeration  for  the 
manufacture  of  ice,  more  durable,  and — by  reason  of  the  known  purity 
of  the  water  congealed — more  palatable  and  sanitary  than  the  natural 
product ;  to  its  extensive  use  for  the  freezing  and  chilling  of  freshly 
killed  meat  in  abattoirs ;  and  to  its  application  to  the  cooling  of  stores 
or  chambers  for  the  preservation  of  meat,  fowl,  fish,  butter,  cheese, 
fruit,  vegetables,  and  other  provisions  of  a  perishable  nature :  mechanical 
refrigeration  is  now  commonly  employed  in  a  number  of  different  manu- 
facturing processes,  brief  descriptions  of  the  most  important  of  which 
applications  will  be  found  in  a  chapter  devoted  to  this  subject. 

The  trade  in  fresh  provisions  is  one  that  during  the  last  few  years 
has  made  enormous  strides,  and  at  the  present  time  vast  quantities  of 
frozen  carcasses,  and  of  fish,  fruit,  vegetables,  butter,  cheese,  and  milk 
are  being  imported  into  this  country. 


-     • 

4*1 

2    REFRIGERATION  AND  COLD  STORAGE. 

Space  does  not,  unfortunately,  admit  of  entering  into  any  lengthy 
account  of  the  history  of  this  trade,  which  is  one  of  great  interest,  or  of 
giving  lengthy  statistics  relative  to  the  constantly  increasing  amounts 
of  these  imports ;  the  full  figures  can,  however,  readily  be  got  from  a 
variety  of  sources  by  anyone  interested  therein,  and,  moreover,  they 
hardly  come  within  the  province  of  a  book  purporting  to  be  devoted 
to  a  description  of  the  various  machines  and  appliances  adapted  for 
refrigeration  and  ice-making.  The  following,  however,  are  a  few  of 
the  leading  facts  and  figures  :  — 

Meat  frozen  by  a  Harrison  ether  machine  was  shipped  from  Mel- 
bourne on  the  23rd  July  1873,  and  arrived  here  on  the  18th  October, 
but  turned  out  a  failure.  In  1875  and  1876  frozen  meat  was  brought 
over  from  America.  The  first  cargo  of  frozen  meat  was  successfully 
brought  to  this  country  from  Australia  in  the  year  1880,  in  the 
"  Strathleven,"  which  is  said  to  have  been  fitted  with  a  Bell-Coleman 
cold-air  machine,  and  this  was  quickly  followed  by  another  consignment 
in  the  "Protos,"  refrigerated  by  means  of  a  cold-air  machine  of  the 
Lightfoot  pattern.  On  5th  October  of  the  same  year  the  steamship 
"  Orient "  arrived  at  London  with  a  cargo  of  frozen  meat,  she  being 
also  fitted  with  refrigerating  apparatus  on  the  cold-air  principle,  in  this 
instance  one  of  Haslam's  patent  dry-air  refrigerators  being  employed, 
which  worked  without  interruption  during  the  entire  voyage  of  six 
weeks'  duration.  On  the  26th  September,  in  the  succeeding  year,  the 
clipper  ship  "  Mataura,"  also  fitted  with  a  Haslam  patent  cold-air 
machine,  arrived  with  a  cargo  of  frozen  meat  from  New  Zealand. 

Such  were  the  commencements  of  the  trade  in  refrigerated  meat, 
and  it  has  so  rapidly  advanced  that,  in  mutton  and  lamb  alone,  from 
400  carcasses  in  1880,  it  has  risen  to  12,981,044  carcasses  in  1910. 
According  to  Messrs  Weddel  &  Co.'s  annual  report,  the  total  receipts 
of  frozen  mutton  for  1910  was  7,552,977  carcasses,  as  compared  with 
5,915,455  in  1909.  These  figures  represent  an  increase  of  1,637,522 
carcasses,  or  2  7 '7  per  cent.  These  developments  in  mutton  syn- 
chronised with  a  small  extension  in  the  imports  of  lamb,  which 
aggregated  5,428,067  carcasses,  as  compared  with  5,151,697  carcasses 
in  1909.  Taking  mutton  and  lamb  together,  the  aggregate  of  the 
importations  was  12,981,044  carcasses,  as  compared  with  11,067,152  in 
1909,  and  is  the  highest  hitherto  recorded. 

The  following  tables  compiled  from  statistics  published  by  Messrs 
W.  Weddel  &  Co.  show,  in  the  first,  the  growth  of  the  trade  in  frozen 
mutton  and  lamb,  from  the  commencement  of  the  trade  in  1880  to 
1890;  and  in  the  second  (page  4),  from  1891  to  1910. 


INTRODUCTION. 


YEARLY  IMPORTS  OP  FROZEN   MUTTON   AND   LAMB   FROM   COMMENCE- 
MENT OF  THE  TRADE  TO  31sT  DECEMBER  1890. 


Year. 

Australia. 

New  Zealand. 

Falkland 
Islands. 

River  Plate. 

Totals. 

1880 

400 

400 

1881 

17,275 

... 

17,275 

1882 

57,256 

8,839 

... 

66,095 

1883 

63,733 

120,893 

... 

17,163 

201,789 

1884 

111,745 

412,349 

... 

108,823 

632,917 

1885 

95,051 

492,269 

190,571 

777,891 

1886 

66,960 

655,888 

30,000 

434,699 

1,187,547 

1887 

88,811 

766,417 

45,552 

641,866 

1,542,646 

1888 

112,214 

939,231 

924,003 

1,975,448 

1889 

86,547 

1,068,286 

1,009,936 

2,164,769 

1890 

207,984 

1,533,393 

10,'i'68 

1,195,531 

2,947,076 

The  steady  increase  in  the  amounts  of  frozen  and  chilled  beef 
imported  into  this  country  for  the  period  of  twenty  years,  viz.,  from 
1891  to  1910,  is  no  less  phenomenal  than  that  of  mutton  and  lamb. 
In  1891  the  total  imports,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  table  on  page  5,  also 
compiled  from  Messrs  W.  Weddel's  statistics,  amounted  to  1,157,854 
cwt.,  whilst  in  1910  the  figures  reached  4,246,182  cwt. 

Three  shipments  of  chilled  beef  were  made  during  1910  from 
Australia,  the  condition  of  one  of  which  was  imperfect  owing  to  the 
use  of  unsatisfactory  meat  wraps.  It  has,  however,  been  definitely 
proved  that,  aided  by  the  Linley  process,  chilled  beef  can  be  brought 
from  Australia  or  New  Zealand  to  this  market,  and  delivered,  after  a 
seventy  days'  voyage,  in  good  condition. 

The  trade  in  frozen  rabbits  has  also  attained  to  considerable 
dimensions,  and  as  far  back  as  1900,  36,823  crates,  containing  917,142 
rabbits,  were  sent  to  this  country  from  South  Australia. 

In  1886  the  steamship  "Nonpareil"  (Scrutton,  Sons,  &  Co.),  which 
had  been  fitted  for  the  purpose  with  a  Haslam  dry-air  refrigerator, 
brought  to  this  country  the  first  cargo  of  West  Indian  fruit ;  and  early 
in  1888  a  cargo  of  apples  was  shipped  from  Melbourne  in  the  "  Oceana," 
in  chambers  also  cooled  by  a  Haslam  machine,  both  cargoes  arriving 
in  good  condition.  Subsequently  many  of  the  ships  belonging  to  the 
Peninsular  and  Oriental  Steamship  Company,  and  others,  were  fitted 
up  for  this  trade,  and  Messrs  Elder,  Dempster,  &  Co.  inaugurated  the 
Imperial  West  India  Direct  Mail  Service,  the  steamers  of  which  line 
are  specially  adapted  for  the  transport  of  large  quantities  of  bananas 
from  Jamaica,  a  task  which  has  been  successfully  performed.  The 


i;  o 
o  S 

H  3i 


00  Ol  QC  O  CO  """*  O  QC  *-O  IT^*  00  *O  *O  CO  OS 


fH'-HC 
i-t      (M  CO  ^H  O  O5 


^HOOOt^ 
O5  tr^  >™H  CO 


iO 
CO 


i<NC<lcoir— i— icsoscoooiOr- 1^1 
i-T  r-T  ^  r-T  of  i-T  ^4"  of  of  of  co~  co" 


|?  Tjtc^ 


(-  *~  * 

(N  CO  OS  «O  O  lO 


1C  CO  1 

os  os ' 
oo  oo  ' 


r^oo  os  o 

OS  OS  OS  OS 


fNOS^Ht--COCOCO^H-HOC 

co  — i  o  r^  f><  os  x  i— i  01  co  »c 
r-ntM-— i-*ir: 


A 

N 


oSt^SSjoS^t^^cocooocooiiocooSi-i 


OS  CO  ' 

i  r>-O  i 

1  CO  l>  < 


«b  co  co 


DOOCO^OSiOCDGOO 
tOSOCO-HOCOOS-<^ 

cT  »o~  10" co"  cT  cc" oT  cT  ~*  oT  cT  o"  co" o" co" oo"  TJ^ co"  c4"  -^ 

COCOOO(MCOOOOOS-HCklCO^HTtiCOCOTtllC^tlOOlO 

,-T  r-*  ,-T  i-T  r-T  i-T  of  of  t<r  <>f  of  of  of  oT  <N"  <M"  of  (>T  c<T  of 


n 


-    .iooTo^t^co 


OO  00  CC  00  OO  OO  OO  ' 


^^  .-Tp-rp-ri-Ti-ri-rr-rr-roi  of  of  of  <N>(N'cO~CO~CO~CO'1  CO~  T*T 

T3 

_^  _^  _^  _^  _,  _,  _^  __  _^  _B  - ,,  v   v    w    ^  -,-„-„  S 

oTi-T-<*'icroio"o~r-rTf"o'co">oo"oo'scoi-HOoocot^O5 

r°  -^t^C5COCiTt<Tt<OOlO!NCOCOlOCO-'*'-Ht^<MOOt— 

OP— (OOOO5CSICOCOCOt~~OSTt*t^»COt-O5 

'S        .3 

Jl     g) 

gjj  :i:::":'::'^viSI2HrS^ioroMc§»  S  *> 

< 
PQ 

1       .gg§_       go  888808e888eog,        ^       •* 

_^          <!  S  rt'^.SP          oTi— T-^Tio'crio^i.o'^Ti^o  oT -^ CD" oo" oT co" >— ToTp— Tco        ""5  e3 

O1  _a3Ert.(U  •*t~-OiCOO5T^"*oo»OC<IOl^'-HCOCOiO>O>OCMQO  r^°  EL 

ICOCOCOt^-OSCOCO^CO'^'TfOOOO-l 

2       ^ 

0  .3     3 

SOiO5OiOiO5OiO5OiOiOOOOOOOOOO^^  M 

00  00  00  00  00  00  00  00  00  O5  O5  O5  O5  O5  OS  Oi  OS  O5  O5  Oi  ^3  ^ 

^      fe 

_     _  _  Tt^  Op  rH  Op  CO  CO  OO  »™™t  CO  CO  O^l  CO  Oi 

a5 

J-9'^^^55'Si>«ai  - 

rH  '>^  y<J   !J<J  1"*  (,,"N|  ^J  "^  1^*  CQ  ^H   ^   QO  W1   "^   ^O   ^   ^H    -_ 

"Is  s  ft 

Jill 

.2  ooO'-H'HOooost^TfOi-*Oit^i~'CO(Mir-QoO(M          -10  ^ 

--i— (COOOOOCOt^F-HCOt—  t^OOOCOt^i— i  I-H  O  00  •* 
l^i— i  O  -^  00^  fr^1 

,  , .«  Tt^  co  O  CQ  lr—  co  Tfi  IT—  co  ' 
<  rH  ^cococo  co  co  oa  — •   "  "    oa  o 

""    -ggg-^ 

I 

«          ^^oo^^t^^jffr-rco''cd'o<«rr--r^arj^rg>iort-r^     ^r-tTtt1^ 

i»22^!  « 

•  I-H  CO  OO  *F 
*O  ~      "tn  >~H  W 

C/5 

h  ^          O  O  00  ^  £~*  00  CO  Ol  CO  IO  "^  CO  OQ  O5  r— )  00  O^  ^O  OO  t~~ 

^  >S  CO^»Ot^OOCOCOCOOOOOOOOOCOr-HO"*Tt<COCOt--  f'S'S'^ 

O*  bio  "  W         i— I  <M  •*  CO  O5  Th  -*  Op  CO  00  »C  OS  CO  Tt*  S  ' 

4J 

_     *    Hh-++«» 

£-|~  0?iO^(Nt-' 

ll 


6    REFRIGERATION  AND  COLD  STORAGE. 

method  adopted  is  to  circulate  through  the  insulated  holds  of  the 
vessel  air  which  has  been  purified  and  cooled  in  the  course  of  its 
passage  over  a  specially  constructed  cooler,  through  which  cold  brine  is 
circulated  by  means  of  pumps,  and  every  precaution  is  taken  to  main- 
tain an  equable  temperature  of  40°  to  45°  Fahr.  during  the  voyage- 
Besides  this  there  is  now  quite  a  large  trade  in  Australian  and 
Canadian  apples,  and  one  in  soft  fruits,  such  as  pears,  peaches,  and 
grapes,  has  also  been  established.  The  extent  of  the  trade  in 
Canadian  fruit  will  be  realised  from  the  fact  that  during  the  season 
of  1908  there  were  four  steamers  sailing  from  the  ports  of  Montreal 
and  Quebec  with  cold  storage  chambers  reserved  for  fruit  only.  The 
total  number  of  vessels  fitted  with  cold  storage,  sailing  from  the  above 
ports  in  the  same  year  was  forty-six  steamers  with  a  cold  storage 
capacity  of  1,015,556  cub.  ft.,  and  nineteen  with  a  total  air  cooled 
capacity  of  904,780  cub.  ft.  Adding  together  all  the  sailings  during  the 
year,  the  total  available  space  was  4,907,195  cub.  ft.  of  cold  storage,  and 
4,217,648  cub.  ft.  of  cooled  air. 

In  1893  a  considerable  import  trade  in  milk  had  already  arisen,  and 
in  1894  one  firm  alone  regularly  sold  500  gals,  of  foreign  milk  daily  : 
thousands  of  gallons  of  foreign  cream  are  likewise  imported  into  this 
country  to  be  used  for  buttermaking.  The  bulk  of  this  milk  is  shipped 
to  London  from  Gothenburg  by  steamer,  having  been  frozen  chiefly  by 
refrigerating  machines  on  the  ammonia  compression  principle,  and 
costing,  it  is  stated,  25  per  cent,  less  than  English  milk. 

Large  quantities  of  butter  are  brought  over  from  Denmark  and 
the  Baltic.  Messrs  Thos.  Wilson,  Sons,  &  Co.  alone  had  eight  or 
ten  years  ago  seven  steamships  fitted  up  with  refrigerating  machinery 
for  the  butter  trade,  and  one  firm  of  refrigerating  engineers  (Messrs 
J.  &  E.  Hall,  Ltd.)  had  at  that  time  fitted  up  thirty  steamers  with 
refrigerating  installations  for  the  same  trade,  and  a  large  number 
of  steamers  have  since  been  adapted  for  such  transport.  The  amount 
of  butter  imported  into  the  United  Kingdom  from  Victoria,  in  1900, 
was  26,185,679  Ibs.,  that  from  New  South  Wales  8,727,600  Ibs.,  and 
large  quantities  of  butter  and  cheese  are  likewise  brought  over  from 
Canada. 

All  these  provisions  can  now  be  brought  to  this  country  in 
excellent  condition,  the  chief  dangers  of  deterioration  being  from 
hurried  and  consequently  careless  stowing,  from  bumps  and  bruises 
caused  by  rough  and  unskilled  handling,  and  from  exposure  to  higher 
temperatures  during  transit  from  the  vessel  to  the  cold  stores  on  land, 
and  subsequent  distribution  by  road  or  rail  to  the  retailers. 


INTRODUCTION.  7 

There  are  at  the  present  time  upwards  of  200  cold  stores  and 
ice  factories  in  the  United  Kingdom.  The  number  of  firms  engaged 
as  makers  of  refrigerating  machinery  is  about  40,  and  there  are 
upwards  of  130  breweries,  30  butter  merchants,  45  chemical  and 
other  manufactories,  30  chocolate,  cocoa,  and  confectionery  manu- 
facturers, and  some  65  bacon  factories  using  refrigeration ;  as  well  as 
manufacturers  of  ammonia,  carbonic  anhydride,  and  other  refrigerating 
mediums,  importers  of  ice,  and  other  firms  interested  in  the  business ; 
many  butchers,  fishmongers,  dairy  and  hotel  proprietors,  and  others, 
who  have  small  cold  stores  cooled  by  refrigerating  machinery  and  by 
ice.  On  the  Continent  and  in  America  and  spread  over  China,  Japan, 
Java,  India,  Ceylon,  the  Malay  Peninsula,  the  Philippine  Islands,  Siam, 
East,  West,  and  South  Africa,  Australia,  New  Zealand,  Egypt,  and 
Algeria  are  many  thousand  firms  directly  interested  in  refrigeration. 

In  twenty  states  in  the  United  States  the  refrigeration  used  per 
day  amounted,  according  to  statistics  compiled  in  1909,  to  284,780 
tons.  The  total  capacity  of  the  refrigerating  machines  in  the  United 
States  is  given  as  being  612,919  tons  per  day  of  twenty-four  hours.  That 
is  an  average  of  31-17  tons  per  machine.  The  capital  represented  in 
the  above  plants  is  considerably  above  100,000,000  dollars. 

The  entire  number  of  vessels  fitted  up  with  refrigerating  installa- 
tions and  adapted  for  the  transport  of .  meat  and  other  comestibles 
was  in  1910  upwards  of  800.  According  to  Messrs  W.  Weddel 
189  steamers  were  actually  engaged  in  the  frozen  meat  trade  between 
Australia,  New  Zealand,  and  South  America,  and  this  country,  at  the 
31st  December  1910,  viz.,  52  steamers  having  a  combined  capacity 
of  2,264,000  carcasses  between  Australia,  49  steamers  with  a  combined 
capacity  of  4,498,200  carcasses  between  New  Zealand,  68  steamers 
with  a  combined  capacity  of  4,166,700  between  South  America,  and 
20  steamers  with  a  combined  capacity  of  1,709,700  between  Australia, 
&c.,  or  South  America,  and  the  United  Kingdom.  There  is  also  a 
supplementary  list  of  25  steamers  fitted  with  refrigerating  machinery, 
and  having  a  combined  carrying  capacity  of  1,586,900  carcasses,  but 
not  at  present  engaged  in  the  frozen  meat  trade. 


CHAPTER   II 

THE   THEOEY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   MECHANICAL 
REFRIGERATION 

Relation  to  first  two  Laws  of  Thermo-dynamics — Definition  of  Heat — Specific 
Heat — Latent  Heat — Mechanical  Equivalent  of  Heat — Calculations  made 
with  respect  to  Heat — Temperature — Laws  of  Gases — Construction  of 
Chart  applicable  to  any  value  of  n — Work  demanded  of  a  Refrigerating 
Machine — Greatest  Theoretical  Efficiency  of  a  Refrigerating  Machine. 

THE  theory  and  practice  of  mechanical  refrigeration  are  based  upon 
the  two  first  laws  of  thermo-dynamics — that  is  to  say,  first  that 
mechanical  energy  is  convertible  into  heat,  and  vice  versa,  and,  second, 
that  an  external  agent  is  necessary  to  enable  heat  to  pass  from  a  cold 
to  a  heated  body. 

The  above  fact  very  naturally  leads  us  to  inquire  what  heat  really 
is,  and  here  we  are  confronted  with  a  question  by  no  means  easy 
to  answer  correctly.  According  to  the  well-known  and  generally 
accepted  definition  of  text-books,  the  answer  to  the  question  is  that 
heat  is  a  mode  of  motion.  A  more  satisfactory  statement  as  to  the 
nature  of  heat,  however,  is  that  it  is  a  form  of  molecular  energy. 
This  theory  is  the  result  of  a  series  of  observations  made  by 
Benjamin  Thompson,  better  known,  perhaps,  as  Count  Rumford, 
in  the  year  1798,  and  also  by  Sir  Humphry  Davy  in  the  year 
1799,  the  definition  having  been  finally  arrived  at,  and  accepted 
by,  the  former  eminent  scientist  in  1812.  It  is  an  unfortunate 
circumstance,  but  nevertheless  a  true  one,  that  even  the  most  gifted 
amongst  scientific  men,  in  endeavouring  to  penetrate  the  secrets  of 
nature,  are,  after  all  is  said  and  done,  but  groping  blindly  in  the  dark, 
and  the  fallacy  of  but  too  many  of  our  scientific  definitions  is  a 
truth  patent  to  all  who  give  the  subject  any  serious  consideration. 
This  is  a  fact  fully  recognised  by  most  eminent  teachers ;  but 
notwithstanding  this,  the  erroneous  definitions  are  allowed  to  stand 
unchallenged  for  want,  doubtless,  of  more  accurate  ones. 

In  the  case  of  heat,  the  before-mentioned  experiments  had  appa- 


THEORY   AND    PRACTICE.  9 

rently  shown  that  heat  was  not  a  substance,  as  had  been  thought  by 
previous  authorities,  and  therefore  it  was  accepted  without  dispute, 
in  order  to  secure  a  plausible  definition,  as  being  a  mode  of  motion. 
In  a  very  interesting  paper  by  Dr  Ernst  Mach,  Professor  of 
Physics  in  the  University  of  Prague,  which  appeared  in  the  Monist 
of  October  1894,  the  absurdity  of  many  of  the  universally  accepted 
theories  is  clearly  demonstrated,  and  with  reference  to  thermo- 
dynamics, he  remarks  that,  as  it  has  been  shown  that  heat  is  not 
a  substance,  the  usually  accepted  theory  is  that  it  is  a  mode  of 
motion.  This,  however,  Dr  Mach  proves  not  to  be  true.  In  an 
able  article  upon  the  fallacy  of  scientific  definitions  published  in  the 
Engineer  of  12th  October  1894,  the  writer, '  after  referring  to  the 
fact  that  the  exact  nature  of  heat  is  as  yet  absolutely  unknown, 
truly  observes  that  heat  really  behaves  sometimes  like  a  substance 
and  sometimes  not. 

Modern  physicists  assume  heat  to  be  not  a  material  but  a  state. 
All  bodies  are  built  up  of  very  large  numbers  of  extremely  minute 
particles,  known  as  molecules,  which  have  a  mutual  attraction  the 
one  for  the  other,  which  attraction  is  more  or  less  great  in  solid 
matter,  lesser  in  liquid  matter,  and  actually  resolves  itself  into  a 
repulsion  in  gaseous  matter.  These  molecules  are  supposed  to  be 
in  a  state  of  perpetual  movement  or  vibration,  except  in  the  case  of 
bodies  which  are  absolutely  cold,  and  the  temperature  of  a  body  is 
governed  by  the  rate  of  this  vibration,  the  more  rapid  the  vibration 
the  higher  the  temperature.  Every  molecule  possesses  a  certain 
definite  weight,  and  owing  to  its  motion  must  have  a  certain  amount 
of  kinetic  energy,  so  that  according  to  this  heat  is  really  a  kind  of 
energy,  and  not  a  substance.  Both  heat  and  mechanical  energy  are 
mutually  convertible,  and  besides,  for  each  unit  of  heat  expended 
or  produced,  a  definite  amount  of  mechanical  work  must  be  produced 
or  expended. 

Lord  Armstrong  said  :  "  According  to  the  new  theory,  heat  is  an 
internal  motion  of  molecules,  capable  of  being  communicated  from 
the  molecules  of  one  body  to  those  of  another;  the  result  of  this 
imparted  motion  being  either  an  increase  of  temperature  or  the 
performance  of  work.  Clausius  states  that  heat  cannot  be  com- 
municated from  a  cold  body  to  a  hotter  one  without  compensation. 
According  to  Tyndall  heat  is  not  matter,  but  an  accident  or 
condition  of  matter,  namely,  a  motion  of  its  ultimate  particles. 
Maxwell  says  that  heat,  considered  with  respect  to  its  power  of 
warming  things,  and  changing  their  state,  is  a  quantity  strictly 


io   REFRIGERATION  AND  COLD  STORAGE. 

capable  of  measurement,  and  not  subject  to  any  variation  in  quality 
or  kind.  Balfour  Stewart  says  that  when  air  is  compressed,  the 
rise  of  temperature  is  scarcely  at  all  due  to  the  mere  diminution  of 
the  distance  between  the  particles,  but  almost  entirely  to  the 
mechanical  effect  which  must  be  spent  on  the  air  before  the  con- 
densation can  be  produced." 

It  may  here  be  remarked  that  the  word  heat  is  very  commonly 
employed  in  a  very  loose  manner,  and  the  fact  that  two  quite  distinct 
meanings  may  attach  themselves  to  it  is  either  forgotten  or  ignored, 
viz.,  "temperature  "  and  "  quantity  of  heat,"  which,  whilst  closely  con- 
nected with  one  another,  are  nevertheless  entirely  different.  For 
example,  we  may  have  two  vessels  of  largely  varying  dimensions  con- 
taining water  at  exactly  the  same  temperature,  whilst  the  quantity  of 
heat  in  the  larger  vessel  maybe  double,  treble,  or  more,  of  that  in  the 
other  or  smaller  one.  Sensible  heat  is  that  indicated  by  the  thermometer. 

Specific  heat  is  defined  as  being  that  amount  of  heat  necessary  to 
raise  the  temperature  of  a  body  of  a  unit  weight  1°.  The  unit  of 
measure  is  that  quantity  of  heat  that  is  necessary  in  order  to  raise  the 
unit  weight  of  water  through  1°,  at  its  temperature  of  maximum 
density  39 '4°  Fahr.  If  equal  weights  of  different  bodies  are  raised  the 
same  number  of  degrees  of  temperature,  each  one  takes  up  a  different 
amount  of  heat,  moreover  the  specific  heat  of  the  same  substance  differs 
in  accordance  with  its  state,  i.e.,  whether  it  be  solid,  liquid,  or  gaseous, 
and  under  varying  conditions  of  temperature  and  pressure,  increasing 
invariably  with  an  increase  of  temperature  or  pressure.  The  specific 
heat  of  water  is  exceeded  by  but  few  bodies,  and  the  variation  thereof 
at  different  temperatures  is  so  small  as  to  be  unworthy  of  notice.  The 
specific  heat  of  water  is  therefore  taken  as  the  standard  of  comparison, 
and  is  represented  by  unity.  It  is,  however,  a  quantity  increasing  with 
the  temperature ;  for  example,  at  the  temperature  of  maximum  density 
39°  Fahr.  to  40°  Fahr.,  it  is  exactly  unity,  at  104°  Fahr.  it  is  1-0012, 
and  at  212°  Fahr.  it  is  1*005. 

Latent  heat,  the  existence  of  which  was  first  discovered  by  Dr  Black 
in  1762,  is  the  heat  that  is  absorbed  by  bodies  when  passing  from  one 
state  to  another.  Latent  heat  has  been  thus  clearly  and  concisely 
defined  by  Balfour  Stewart,  in  his  "Treatise  on  Heat":  "Latent 
heat  is  the  heat  which  is  absorbed  by  bodies  in  passing  from  one  state 
to  another,  but  it  does  not  manifest  itself  by  producing  an  increase  of 
temperature,  and  is  on  this  account  called  latent  heat.  ...  A  pound 
of  water  at  212°,  mixed  with  a  pound  of  water  at  32°,  gives  2  Ibs.  of 
water  at  122°,  the  mean  of  the  two  components;  if,  however,  a  pound 


THEORY   AND   PRACTICE.  11 

of  ice  at  32°  be  mixed  with  a  pound  of  water  at  212°,  we  have  2  Ibs.  of 
water  at  51°  only.  .  .  .  The  difference  being  equal  to  that  required  to 
raise  2  Ibs.  of  water  through  a  range  of  71°  .  .  .  representing  the  heat 
required  to  liquefy  1  Ib.  of  ice." 

Joule's  mechanical  equivalent  of  heat  equals  772  ft.-lbs.  That 
is  to  say  that  heat  demands  for  its  production,  and  produces  by  its 
disappearance,  772  ft.-lbs.  for  each  unit  of  heat.  The  experiments 
by  which  Joule  determined  the  above  equivalent  were  conducted  by 
means  of  a  falling  weight,  which  actuated  an  agitator  or  paddle- 
wheel  placed  in  water,  the  friction  caused  by  a  weight  of  1  Ib. 
falling  through  a  distance  of  772  ft.,  or  of  a  weight  of  772  Ibs.  falling 
through  a  distance  of  1  ft.,  being  found  sufficient  to  heat  1  Ib.  of 
water  1°  Fahr. 

The  method  of  conducting  the  experiment  consisted  in  first  winding 
up  the  weight  until  it  was  at  the  top  of  a  scale,  the  temperature  of 
the  fluid  (water,  oil,  mercury,  &c.)  being  then  noted,  and  the  weight 
allowed  to  fall  through  a  certain  distance  and  the  temperature  again 
noted.  If  then  W  be  the  weight  in  Ibs.,  and  H  the  height  through 
which  the  weight  has  fallen  in  feet,  W  x  H  will  be  the  number  of 
foot-pounds  of  work  that  have  been  performed  by  the  falling  weight. 
And  if  w  x  s  be  the  weight  of  the  fluid  multiplied  by  its  specific  heat, 
^  be  the  initial  temperature  of  the  fluid,  and  £2  be  its  final  temperature, 
w  x  s  (t2-  tfj)  will  be  the  number  of  heat  units  imparted  to  the  fluid 
by  the  fall  of  the  weight.  Taking  J  (usually  known  as  Joule's  equiva- 
lent) to  denote  the  number  of  foot-pounds  required  to  produce  one 
heat  unit,  or  the  mechanical  equivalent  of  heat,  we  have  therefore : — 

WH 

~~  w  x  s  (t2  -  ^)* 

This  is  what  is  generally  called  the  first  law  of  thermo-dynamics, 
viz.,  heat  and  mechanical  energy  are  mutually  convertible,  and  heat 
requires  for  its  production  or  produces  by  its  disappearance,  mechanical 
energy  in  the  proportion  of  772  ft.-lbs.  for  1  unit  of  heat. 

This  value  has  been  used  universally  for  many  years,  being  even 
now  that  most  commonly  employed.  Recent  investigators,  however, 
have  conclusively  shown  that  the  above  is  too  small,  and  various  values 
varying  up  to  778  ft.-lbs.  are  used. 

Calculations  made  with  respect  to  heat  entail  the  use  of  the  terms 
absolute  pressure  and  temperature. 

The  first  of  these,  or  absolute  pressure,  is  pounds  per  square  inch 
above  a  vacuum.  Hence,  as  the  zero  on  a  steam  pressure  gauge 


12        REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

represents  atmospheric  pressure  it  will  be  necessary  to  add  14*7  Ibs. 
to  any  particular  gauge  pressure  to  convert  it  into  absolute  pressure. 

Temperature  is  a  term  which  implies  that  degree  of  sensible  heat 
which  a  body  possesses  when  compared  with  another  body.  The  zero 
upon  the  Fahrenheit  thermometrical  scale  is  an  arbitrary  zero  or 
starting  point,  adopted  because  the  real  zero  was  unknown ;  recent 
experiments  place  it  at  -459'13°  Fahr.  On  both  the  Centigrade  and 
Reaumur  scales  the  two  fixed  points  are  the  temperatures  of  melting  ice 
and  boiling  water  under  a  pressure  due  to  that  of  the  standard  atmo- 
sphere. A  degree  is  obtained  by  dividing  the  interval  between  these 
points  into  180  in  the  case  of  the  Fahrenheit,  100  in  the  case  of  the 
Centigrade,  and  80  in  the  case  of  the  Reaumur,  equal  divisions  on  the 
three  scales,  the  bore  of  the  tube  being  assumed  to  be  uniform  and 
the  expansion  of  the  glass  neglected.  Thus  the  absolute  temperature 
of  a  body  is  that  of  absolute  zero  added  to  the  ordinary  thermometrical 
temperature  thereof.  For  instance,  if  the  latter  be  32°  Fahr.  then  the 
absolute  temperature  would  be  491*13°  Fahr.,  or  459*13  were  it  zero 
Fahrenheit  on  the  thermometer. 

The  laws  of  gases  may  be  concisely  stated  as  follows  : — 

PV  =  RT: 
Where  P  =  pressure 
V  =  volume 

R  =  constant  (depending  upon  the  gas) 
T  =  absolute  temperature 

=  (T  +  459-13*)  on  Fahrenheit  scale. 
The  equation  may  be  put  as  follows  : — 

PV 

-m-  =  constant. 

If  temperature  remains  constant  then 

PY  =  a  constant. 

And  in  this  form  is  the  algebraical  representation  of  Boyle's  or 
Marriotte's  law,  usually  expressed  in  words  thus  :  If  the  temperature 
remain  constant  then  the  volume  of  any  given  quantity  of  gas  will  be 
in  the  inverse  ratio  to  the  pressure  which  it  sustains. 

The  volume  remaining  constant  then 

V 

-~  =  a  constant. 

Which  is   the  symbolic  expression  of   Charles'  and  Gay  Lussac's 

*  Figures  given  by  Professor  Clerk  Maxwell  in  his  "Theory  of  Heat."'  460 
is  the  amount  generally  taken. 


THEORY    AND    PRACTICE. 


laws  (laws  of  expansion).     Charles'  law  may  be  orated  thus :  Under 
constant  pressure  all  gases  expand  alike. 

PVW  =  constant. 

In   cases  where  the  change   of   volume   takes  place   at   constant 
temperature,  then  it  is  said  to  be         Y 
isothermal     expansion    and    n  =  1 . 
The  curve  connecting  pressure  and 
volume  is  an  hyperbola,  and  conse- 
quently   it    is    occasionally    called 
hyperbolic  expansion. 

If  the  working  medium  or  agent 
expand  without  receiving  or  giving 
up  any  heat  from  or  to  external 
bodies,  it  is  said  to  expand  adia- 
batically,  the  curve  of  expansion  is 
adiabatic  and  n  =  ratio  of  specific 
heat  at  constant  pressure  to  the 
specific  heat  at  constant  volume, 
which  for  air  =  1  -408,  or 

py  1-403  _  constant. 

This  particular  ratio  is  usually  denoted  by  y,  or 
P  yy  =  constant. 

To  construct  the  curve  PV*  =  constant. 

When  n  =  1  then  for  a  given  series  of  values  of  Y  it  is  easy  to 
calculate  the  corresponding  values  of  P,  but  for  any  other  value  of 
n  it  is  necessary  to  use  logarithms,  thus  : — 

log.  P  +  wlog.  V  =  log.  C;      .    .         .         .         (1) 

Put  log.  P  =  2/,  log.  V  =  a;,  and  log.  C  =  k,  then  equation  (1)  may 
be  written  : — 

y  +  nx  =  k, 

which  is  the  equation  to  a  straight  line. 

In  Fig.  1  take  the  point  R  in  the  straight  line  AB,  then  CR  =  OD 
=  a!j,  and  RD  =  OC  =  y1 ;  then  from  the  figure  we  have  — 

O  A  _  AC  _  O  A  -  CO  _  CARD  _  O  A  _  RP  . 

OB~CR         CRT"      ~CR        CR     CR' 


Fig.  1. — Diagram  showing  Method 
of  Construction  of  Curve  PV"  = 
Constant. 


OB 

or,  yl  -f  nxl  =  k  \ 


14       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 


and  similarly  for  any  other  point  (xy)  in  the  line  it  may  be  shown  that — 

y  +  nx  =  k. 

AC 


Also  let  the  angle  ABO  =  D,  then  n  =  tan.  D  = 

In  Fig.  2  let  A'R'B'  be  the 
curve  PV«  =  C,  then  if  OR  =  log. 
C'R'  and  DR  =  log.  D'R',  then  all 
points  such  as  R  will  lie  on  a 
straight  line  AB,  and  AO  =  log. 


OB' 


C,  whilst 


B' 


Fig.  2. — Diagram  showing  Method  of 
Constructing  Curve  PV"  =  Constant. 


Upon  these  principles  Professor 
D.  A.  Low  has  devised  the  following 
general  method  applicable  to  any 
value  of  n,  which  avoids  the  con- 
tinual use  of  a  table  of  logarithms. 
For  this  purpose  a  chart  is  constructed  (see  Fig.  3),  which  may 
be  considered  divided  up  into  four  parts  by  the  lines  X:X  and  YTY. 
Volumes  are  measured  along  OX,  pressures  along  OY  as  usual,  so 
that  the  top  right-hand  corner  is  the  curve  PVM  =  constant.  Log.  P 
is  measured  along  OXX,  and  logx  V  along  OYr  A  curve  is  drawn  in 
the  top  left-hand  corner  such  that  any  point  Q  in  it  satisfies  the 
conditions  QS  =  P  and  QT  =  log.  P.  Similarly  in  the  right-hand  lower 
corner  is  a  second  curve  in  which  any  point  Kx  must  satisfy  the 
conditions  KL  =  Vj  and  KM  =  log.  V.  These  curves  will  be  used  for 
constructional  purposes  and  should  be  carefully  drawn. 

Let  A  (Fig.  3)  be  a  point  in  the  curve  PY"  =  C,  and  also  that  n  has 
the  value  1-4,  the  pressure  at  A  being  140  Ibs.,  and  the/SJHeViO  units. 
Then  project  a  vertical  line  downwards  to  meet  the  Y  log.  Y  curve  at  a, 
and  a  line  horizontally  to  meet  the  P  log.  P  curve  at  a.  From  a  let 
fall  a  perpendicular  to  meet  a  horizontal  line  through  a,  at  a".  Join 
the  point  1  '4  on  scale  of  log.  P  to  1  '0  on  scale  of  log,  Y  and  through  a" 
draw  a  line  parallel  to  this  line.  Next  select  some  point,  say  6",  and 
project  vertically  and  horizontally,  obtaining  the  points  b'  and  b",  again 
projecting  horizontally  and  vertically,  and  their  intersection  B  is  a 
point  on  the  curve  required ;  repeat  this  process  for  as  many  points  as 
may  be  required.  All  this  process  requires  is  the  use  of  a  tee-square 
and  set-square  ;  and  in  practice  if  the  two  curves  are  constructed  once 
for  all  and  the  construction  performed  upon  a  piece  of  tracing  paper, 
the  original  can  be  then  preserved  uninjured.  The  converse  problem 


THEORY   AND    PRACTICE.  15 

can  be  solved,  viz.,  if  a  curve  TJY  be  given  to  find  the  nearest  value 
of  n  in  the  equation  PY"  =  C.  In  this  case  take  a  number  of  points, 
1,  2,  3,  &c.,  and  draw  the  straight  line  u"v"  through  them,  and  through 
the  point  1*0  (in  log.  Y)  draw  a  parallel  line  to  u"v",  to  intersect 
log.  P  scale  (OXj),  then  the  reading  in  this  example  0'8  nearly.  So 
.that  the  equation  to  the  curve  UY  is  PY08=  1313. 

The  work  demanded  of  a  machine  of  any  kind  whatsoever  intended 
for  effecting  mechanical  refrigeration  is  to  reduce  the  temperature  of 
any  given  matter  to  the  desired  point  as  compared  with  the  surround- 


Fig.  3. — Construction  of  Chart  applicable  to  any  value  of  n. 

ing  matter,  and  to  maintain  it  subsequently  at  or  near  this  point,  for 
naturally,  were  two  bodies  having  different  temperatures  placed  either 
in  actual  contact  or  in  sufficiently  close  proximity  to  one  another, 
their  temperatures  must  infallibly  become  equalised  sooner  or  later, 
if  no  means  be  employed  to  permanently  keep  up  the  difference.  It 
may  here  be  noted  that  the  theoretical  cycle  of  a  perfect  refrigerating 
machine  is  precisely  the  opposite  to  that  of  a  perfect  heat  engine.  In 
the  first,  heat  goes  in  at  a  low  temperature  and  passes  out  at  a  more 
elevated  temperature,  to  render  which  action  possible  certain  work  has 


16   REFRIGERATION  AND  COLD  STORAGE. 

to  be  effected  upon  ifc.  In  the  second,  heat  derived  from  some  external 
source  at  an  elevated  temperature  is  given  out  at  a  lower  temperature, 
a  greater  or  lesser  amount  of  mechanical  work  being  produced  by  it 
during  its  fall. 

When  a  gas  is  compressed  the  temperature  rises.  When  a  gas  is 
allowed  to  expand,  the  work  it  performs  is  done  at  the  expense  of  its 
store  of  heat.  If,  therefore,  ,some  gas,  say  air,  be  compressed  its 
temperature  will  increase,  and  some  of  its  heat  will  be  able  to  flow 
into  any  surrounding  bodies  at  a  lower  temperature,  and  in  cold-air 
machinery  air  is  compressed,  and  then  cooled  by  passing  through 
water  at  a  lower  temperature,  which  reduces  the  temperature  to 
about  its  original  amount  before  compression.  Now  if  this  air  be 
allowed  to  expand  again  until  its  original  pressure  is  regained,  the 
work  so  done  will  be  performed  at  the  expense  of  its  reduced  stock 
of  heat,  so  that  the  air  will  have  lost  a  large  portion  of  its  heat  in 
the  process,  which  will  result  in  a  great  reduction  of  temperature, 
thereby  giving  rise  to  that  negative  condition  known  as  cold. 

It  may  be  here  mentioned  that  the  phrase  commonly  used,  "•  heat 
is  generated  by  compression,"  is  somewhat  misleading,  because  the 
amount  of  heat  in  the  universe  is  a  fixed  quantity,  and  the  intrinsic 
energy  possessed  by  any  gas  is  under  given  conditions  a  quantity 
that  can  be  accurately  calculated.  Thus  if  a  pound  of  air  at  a 
temperature  of  70°  Fahr.  and  at  normal  atmospheric  pressure  be 
taken  as  an  example,  the  total  quantity  of  energy  it  possesses  is  at 
once  known.  If  this  air  be  placed  in  a  compressor  and  its  volume 
be  reduced  to  say  one  half  of  its  original  volume,  and  if  this  be  done 
so  rapidly  that  there  is  no  time  for  heat  to  escape  at  the  end  of  the 
compression,  that  is  to  say  adiabatically  or  instantaneous  compression 
without  transmission  of  heat,  then  its  energy  will  have  been  increased 
by  the  amount  of  work  done  upon  it.  Its  statical  pressure  will  be 
increased,  and  its  temperature  will  also  have  risen,  by  reason  of  its 
changed  state  or  condition  internally,  and  the  theta-phi  diagram  for 
the  two  conditions  would  show  this  more  clearly  than  any  other 
known  method.  Now  if  the  temperature  be  reduced  to  its  former 
amount,  that  is  to  say  to  70°  Fahr.,  its  volume  will  contract,  so  that 
a  small  additional  quantity  of  air  will  have  to  be  forced  in  in  order 
that  the  pressure  may  remain  unchanged  as  the  temperature  is 
reduced.  It  will  be  seen  that  there  will  be  now,  consequently  upon 
the  above,  rather  more  than  a  pound  of  air  to  deal  with  at  the  higher 
pressure,  and  this  is  what  actually  occurs  in  practice,  but  is  a  point 
which  is  easily  overlooked.  Now  if  this  air  be  allowed  to  expand  in 


THEORY    AND    PRACTICE.  17 

a  cylinder,  it  will  give  up  more  of  its  heat  in  order  to  overcome  the 
resistance,  and  in  this  way  it  will  lose  or  part  with  more  heat.  The 
amount  of  work  done  is  shown  by  the  indicator  card,  and  can  be 
estimated.  The  mechanical  work  done  by  the  air  in  this  expansion 
is  exactly  the  same  as  that  done  upon  it  during  its  compression,  but 
there  is  in  addition  the  further  loss  of  energy,  due  to  the  internal 
work  done  in  the  air  during  the  expansion,  so  that  what  has  been 
done  to  the  air  during  the  entire  process  has  been  to  extract  some  of 
its  original  store  of  heat,  thus  reducing  its  temperature;  and  the 
cold  air  is  now  ready  to  restore  its  deficiency  at  the  expense  of  the 
surrounding  hotter  bodies. 

The  greatest  theoretical  efficiency  of  a  refrigerating  machine  is 
expressible  by  the  equation  : — 

X__     Y 

X1-Z-Y' 

X  denoting  the  heat  units  whiqh  are  abstracted. 

XI  denoting  the  total  of  heat  units  representing  work  effected. 
Y  denoting  the  absolute  lower  temperature. 

Z  denoting  the  absolute  higher  temperature. 

In  all  refrigerating  machines,  other  matters  being  equal,  a  limited 
range  of  temperature  gives  the  largest  amount  of  efficiency,  and  the 
more  extended  the  range  of  temperature  the  less  will  be  the  degree  of 
efficiency  developed ;  the  efficiency,  moreover,  advances  proportionately 
to  a  rise  in  the  lowest  limit  of  the  range  of  temperature. 

Shortly,  the  work  demanded  of  a  refrigerating  machine  is  to 
extract  heat  from  a  cold  body,  say  from  the  air  in  an  enclosed  space, 
such  as  a  refrigerating  chamber,  and  by  the  expenditure  of  mechanical 
energy  to  sufficiently  raise  the  temperature  of  this  heat  to  admit  of  its 
being  carried  away  by  a  suitable  external  agent,  the  latter  being  most 
usually  water,  which  is  not  only  the  cheapest  one  available,  but  also  has 
a  greater  capacity  for  heat,  weight  for  weight,  than  any  other  known 
substance,  and  is  taken  as  the  standard  of  comparison,  its  specific  heat 
being  taken  as  unity. 

It  has  been  already  stated  that  heat  cannot  be  communicated  from 
a  cold  body  to  one  at  a  higher  temperature  without  compensation 
taking  place,  and  as  the  heating  of  cold  bodies  is  not  refrigeration,  an 
explanation  of  the  nature,  extent,  and  necessity  of  this  compensation 
is  called  for. 

Let  us  suppose  that  it  is  desired  to  cool  some  agent  or  medium, 
say  air  for  an  example,  at  a  temperature  of  60°  Fahr.,  a  liquid  at  a 
temperature  of  zero  Fahrenheit  being  available  which  has,  say,  the  same 
2 


i8   REFRIGERATION  AND  COLD  STORAGE. 

specific  heat  as  water.  On  mixing  100  cub.  ft.  of  this  air  with  10  Ibs. 
of  the  liquid,  it  will  be  found,  as  soon  as  the  temperatures  have 
become  equalised,  that  the  air  has  been  cooled  50°,  and  the  liquid 
heated  10°,  practically  no  expenditure  of  power  being  required  to  effect 
the  mixing. 

On  the  other  hand,  supposing  that  it  is  desired  to  cool  air  at  a 
temperature  of  60°  Fahr.,  and  that  water  at  80°  Fahr.  is  available  for 
the  purpose  of  absorbing  the  heat,  then  in  this  case  as  the  substance 
to  be  cooled  is  the  colder  body,  some  means  must  be  found  of  reversing 
the  relative  temperatures  of  the  two  substances.  According  to  Boyle's 
or  Mariotte's  law,  the  temperature  remaining  the  same,  the  volume  of 
any  given  quantity  of  gas  will  be  in  the  inverse  ratio  to  the  pressure 
which  it  sustains.  By  compressing  the  100  cub.  ft.  of  air  to  seven- 
tenths  of  its  volume,  the  terminal  temperature  will  be  found  to  be  140° 
Fahr.,  and  if  this  air  be  mixed  wThilst  under  pressure  with  10  Ibs.  of 
water  at  a  temperature  of  80°  Fahr.,  it  will  be  found,  as  soon  as  the 
temperatures  become  equalised,  that  both  the  air  and  the  water  are  at  a 
temperature  of  90°.  By  allowing  this  air  to  expand  to  normal  pressure, 
its  final  temperature  will  be  found  to  be  10°  Fahr.,  or  reduced  to  a 
similar  temperature  as  in  the  first  case.  In  the  above  example,  the 
compression,  cooling,  and  expansion  are  assumed  to  be  all  effected  in 
the  same  cylinder,  and  without  transference  of  heat  to  or  from  the 
exterior. 

It  will  be  seen  that,  in  both  of  the  above  cases,  100  cub.  ft.  of  air 
has  been  reduced  in  temperature  by  50°  Fahr.  The  heat  removed 
or  abstracted  was  in  the  first  instance  communicated  to  a  liquid  at  a 
low  temperature,  no  compensation  taking  place,  whilst  in  the  second 
case  the  heat  removed  or  abstracted  was  taken  up  by  water  at  an 
initial  temperature  considerably  above  that  of  the  air,  which  action 
necessitated  the  temperature  of  the  latter  being  raised  by  compres- 
sion, thereby  consuming  a  certain  amount  of  power  in  doing  so, 
which  consumption  of  power  in  the  above  case,  allowing  for  friction, 
may  be  taken  as  27,500  ft.  -Ibs. 

We  have  already  seen  that  the  mechanical  equivalent  of  heat  is 
778  ft.-lbs.  per  British  thermal  unit  (B.T.U.  or  heat  unit,  viz.,  the 
quantity  of  heat  required  to  raise  1  Ib.  of  pure  water  1°  Fahr.,  or, 
more  exactly,  from  39  '1°  to  40-1°),  therefore  :— 


.. 

778 

This,   however,   as  above  mentioned,   is   on   the   assumption   that 
compression,    cooling,    and   expansion    all    take    place  dn^?  the    same 

' 

.- 


THEORY   AND    PRACTICE.  19 

cylinder  and  without  loss  or  accession  of  heat  to  the  exterior,  an 
impossible  arrangement  in  practice,  and  if  the  air  be  compressed  in 
one  cylinder  and  passed  into  other  cylinders  against  pressure  for 
cooling  and  expansion,  as  it  would  be  in  an  actual  working  arrange- 
ment, another  122,000  ft.-lbs.  would  be  consumed  for  the  discharge 
of  the  air  against  pressure,  whilst  there  would  be  a  recovery  of  80,000 
ft.-lbs.  due  to  the  expansion  of  the  compressed  air  behind  a  piston, 
and  we  have,  therefore,  27,500  ft.-lbs.  +  122,000  ft.-lbs.  =  149,500  ft.-lbs. 
-  80,000  ft.-lbs.  =  69,500  ft.-lbs.  as  the  expenditure  of  power  required 
to  cool  100  cub.  ft.  of  air  50°  with  cooling  or  condensing  water  at 
a  temperature  of  80°  Fahr. 

The  principles  involved  in  the  process  are  very  simple,  as  will  be 
readily  seen  from  the  above.  The  main  point  is  that  the  temperature 
of  the  substance  or  agent  to  be  cooled  must  be  raised  above  that  at 
which  the  water  available  for  condensing  purposes  happens  to  be ;  the 
exact  amount  of  this  additional  temperature  must  be  regulated  by  the 
temperature  at  which  it  is  required  that  the  medium  or  agent  should 
be  on  leaving  the  expansion  cylinder.  Another  absolute  necessity  is 
the  provision  of  a  suitable  cooling  medium,  such  as  water,  which  will 
take  up  the  heat  given  off  from  the  medium  or  agent  to  be  cooled, 
which  cooling  or  condensing  water  can  be  run  to  waste,  or  cooled 
for  further  use  for  the  same  purpose. 

Finally  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  all  substances  contain,  more 
or  less,  heat ;  and  that  as  heat  cannot  be  created,  nor  yet  can  it  be 
destroyed,  a  body  can  only  be  reduced  in  temperature  by  the  trans- 
ference of  more  or  less  of  its  heat  to  another  body. 

The  abstraction  of  heat,  therefore,  from  one  body  and  its  transfer 
to  another,  called  the  refrigerating  or  cooling  agent,  is  naturally  the 
main  function  of  refrigerating  and  ice-making  apparatus,  and  in  order 
to  ensure  continuity  of  action,  the  refrigerating  agent — the  tempera- 
ture of  which  must  necessarily  be  lower  than  that  of  the  substance 
upon  which  it  is  desired  to  act — must  be  either  periodically  renewed, 
or  suitable  means  must  be  provided  for  the  removal  therefrom  of  the 
heat  extracted  or  abstracted  from  the  latter.  That  is  to  say,  a 
continuously  working  machine  comprises  a  heat-abstracting  apparatus, 
and  suitable  means  for  automatically  renewing  at  the  requisite  intervals 
the  cooling  agent  or  medium,  or  for  the  removal  from  the  latter  of 
the  heat  extracted  from  the  body  it  is  desired  to  cool,  so  as  to  enable  it 
to  be  used  over  and  over  again  in  a  continuous  cycle. 

In  short  a  refrigerating  machirie,  in  a  few  words,  may  be  described 
as  a  heat  pump. 


20   REFRIGERATION  AND  COLD  STORAGE. 

The  various  inventions  for  refrigerating  and  ice-making  that  are 
now  in  use  can  be  conveniently  classified  for  the  present  purpose  under 
the  following  five  principal  heads,  viz.  :— 

First,  those  wherein  the  more  or  less  rapid  dissolution  or  lique- 
faction of  a  solid  is  utilised  to  abstract  heat.  This  is,  strictly  speaking, 
more  a  chemical  process. 

Second,  those  wherein  the  abstraction  of  heat  is  effected  by  the 
evaporation  of  a  portion  of  the  liquid  to  be  cooled,  the  process  being 
assisted  by  an  air-pump.  This  is  known  as  the  vacuum  system. 

Third,  those  wherein  the  abstraction  of  heat  is  effected  by  the 
evaporation  of  a  separate  refrigerating  agent  of  a  more  or  less  volatile 
nature,  which  agent  is  subsequently  restored  to  its  original  physical 
condition  by  mechanical  compression  and  cooling.  This  is  called  the 
compression  system. 

Fourth,  those  wherein  the  abstraction  of  heat  is  effected  by  the 
evaporation  of  a  separate  refrigerating  agent  of  more  or  less  volatile 
nature  under  the  direct  action  of  heat,  which  agent  again  enters  into 
solution  with  a  liquid.  This  is  termed  the  absorption  system. 

Fifth,  those  wherein  air  or  other  gas  is  first  compressed,  then 
cooled,  and  afterwards  permitted  to  expand  whilst  doing  work,  or 
practically  by  first  applying  heat,  so  as  to  ultimately  produce  cold. 
These  are  usually  designated  as  cold-air  machines. 


CHAPTER  III 
THE  LIQUEFACTION  PROCESS 

Use  of,  by  the  Ancients — Various  Machines  Operating  on  the — General  Laws 
Governing  Production  of  Cold  by— Principal  Freezing  Mixtures. 

LIQUEFACTION,  or  the  utilisation  of  the  more  or  less  rapid  dissolution 
of  a  solid  to  abstract  heat,  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  methods  employed 
for  artificial  cooling.  The  reduction  of  temperature  of  water  and  other- 
liquids  by  the  melting  of  saltpetre  is  said  to  have  been  known  in  India 
at  a  very  remote  period,  and  it  is  on  record  that  one  Blasius  Villa- 
franca,  a  physician  of  Rome,  utilised  it  for  this  purpose  as  early  as 
1550.  The  Romans  are  said  to  have  cooled  wine  by  immersing  the 
bottle  containing  the  latter  in  a  second  vessel  filled  with  cold  water 
into  which  saltpetre  was  gradually  thrown,  whilst  at  the  same  time 
the  bottle  was  rotated  rapidly.  Freezing  water  by  the  use  of  a 
mixture  of  snow  or  powdered  ice  and  saltpetre  was  mentioned  by 
Latinus  Tancredus,  of  Naples,  in  1607,  and  wine  by  means  of  snow 
and  common  salt  by  Santorio  in  1626.  This  was  also,  in  all  probability, 
the  method  employed  by  the  Esthonian  tribe  for  producing  artificial 
cold,  and  freezing  the  dead,  and  liquids,  as  mentioned  by  Orosius  about 
A.D.  400. 

To  this  class  belong  the  numerous  ordinary  and  well-known 
machines  and  apparatus  employed  for  icing  creams,  lemonades,  &c., 
which  usually  consist  of  a  tub  constructed  of  wood  into  which  a  vessel 
containing  the  substance  to  be  cooled  or  frozen  is  placed,  and  is 
surrounded  by  a  frigorific  agent,  such  as  a  mixture  of  pounded  ice  or 
snow  and  chloride  of  sodium ;  or  a  combination  of  certain  chemicals 
may  be  substituted  for  the  former. 

This  method  is  also  used  on  a  more  extensive  scale  for  ice-making 
and  cooling,  but  although  ice  can  be  produced  on  a  commercial  scale 
with  improved  apparatus,  it  is  still  more  expensive  than  strictly 
mechanical  methods.  The  best  among  the  many  forms  of  apparatus 
for  making  ice  on  this  principle  are  probably  those  of  Toselli  and 
Siemens. 


22   REFRIGERATION  AND  COLD  STORAGE. 

In  Toselli's  machine  the  frigorific  agent  consists  of  a  mixture  of 
ammonium  nitrate  and  water,  which  produces  a  reduction  of  tempera- 
ture of  about  40°  Fahr.  The  apparatus  requisite  is  one  of  extreme 
simplicity,  consisting  merely  of  a  vessel  in  which  the  solution  of  the 
salt  is  effected,  and  a  can  wherein  are  placed  a  number  of  moulds  of 
different  sizes,  circular  in  cross  section,  and  formed  with  a  slight  taper. 
These  moulds,  previously  filled  with  water,  are  inserted  in  the 
freezing  mixture,  and  a  thin  film  of  ice  is  formed  round  their  edges  in 
a  few  minutes ;  these  slightly  tapered  tubes  of  ice  are  then  withdrawn 
from  the  moulds,  and  placed  one  inside  the  other,  thus  forming  a  small 
stick  of  ice.  The  relative  dimensions  of  the  moulds  are,  of  course,  such 
as  to  form  the  ice  tubes  suitably  proportioned  to  admit  of  the  above 
operation. 

In  Siemens'  apparatus  calcium  chloride  is  employed  as  the  frigorific 
agent.  The  dissolution  of  this  salt  in  water  produces  a  reduction  of 
temperature  of  only  about  30°  Fahr.,  and  to  admit  of  this  reduction 
being  sufficient  to  produce  ice  with  water  at  an  initial  temperature  of 
65°  Fahr.,  a  heat  interchanger  is  provided,  wherein  the  spent  liquor, 
which  is  at  a  temperature  of  about  30°  Fahr.,  is  employed  to  cool  the 
water  before  it  is  mixed  with  the  salt.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  there 
will  be  a  gain  in  reduction  of  temperature  equivalent  to  the  amount 
of  this  cooling  action.  The  salt  can  be  recovered  by  evaporation,  and 
employed  over  and  over  again.  This  apparatus  is  stated  to  have 
worked  well,  producing  ice  on  a  large  scale  in  a  satisfactory  manner, 
but  owing  to  its  being  on  the  whole  found  to  be  inferior,  and  more 
costly  than  purely  mechanical  methods  of  producing  ice,  it  has  never 
come  into  general  use. 

In  an  American  machine,  wherein  ammonium  nitrate  is  likewise 
employed  as  the  frigorific  agent,  cylindrical  receptacles  fitting  one 
within  the  other,  so  as  to  leave  annular  spaces  or  clearances,  are 
provided.  The  water  to  be  frozen  is  placed  in  the  centre,  the  frigo- 
rific agent  in  the  annular  spaces  or  clearances,  so  that  the  first  or 
outermost  acts  to  cool  the  second,  the  second  the  third,  and  the  third 
the  fourth,  and  so  on,  the  cold  being  intensified  at  the  centre  in 
accordance  with  the  number  of  the  annular  spaces  containing  the 
frigorific  agent.  The  series  of  cylindrical  vessels  or  receptacles  are 
arranged  in  a  wooden  outer  casing  so  mounted  as  to  be  capable  of 
being  slowly  revolved,  and  thereby  promoting  the  more  rapid  dissolution 
of  the  salt.  This  apparatus  is  analogous  to  that  employed  many  years 
ago  on  a  small  scale  for  laboratory  experiments  by  Walker,  and  by 
means  of  which  he  succeeded  in  sinking  the  spirit  to  -91°  Fahr. 


THE   LIQUEFACTION    PROCESS.  23 

When  any  of  the  above  methods  are  employed  for  refrigerating 
purposes,  brine,  previously  cooled  in  the  apparatus,  is  circulated  in  the 
usual  manner  through  a  system  of  cooling  pipes. 

The  general  law  governing  the  production  of  cold  by  frigorific 
mixtures  is,  that  during  the  liquefaction  of  a  solid,  a  certain  amount 
of  heat  not  indicated  by,  or  sensible  to,  the  thermometer  is  absorbed, 
which  heat  is  abstracted  from  any  surrounding  bodies.  The  absorp- 
tion of  heat,  consequently  the  production  of  cold,  in  the  environing 
bodies  is  the  more  marked  in  proportion  as  the  solid  is  more  suddenly 
or  rapidly  liquefied. 

The  following  observations  on  frigorific  mixtures  are  extracted  from 
a  paper*  on  "Refrigerating  and  Ice-making  Machinery  and  Appli- 
ances," by  Mr  T.  B.  Lightfoot,  C.E.,  M.I.C.E.,  who  is  a  well-known 
authority  upon  the  subject :  "  When  a  substance  changes  its  physical 
state,  and  passes  from  the  solid  to  the  liquid  form,  the  force  of  cohesion 
is  overcome  by  the  energy  in  the  form  of  heat.  The  effect  may  be  pro- 
duced without  change  in  sensible  temperature,  if  the  heat  be  absorbed 
at  the  same  rate  as  it  is  supplied  from  without.  Thus,  as  is  well 
known,  the  temperature  of  melting  ice  remains  constant  at  32°  Fahr., 
and  any  increase  or  decrease  in  the  heat  supplied  merely  hastens  or 
retards  the  rate  of  melting  without  affecting  the  temperature.  Mixtures 
of  certain  salts  with  water  or  acids,  and  of  some  salts  with  ice,  which 
form  liquids  whose  freezing  points  are  below  the  original  temperatures 
of  the  mixtures,  do  not,  however,  behave  in  this  way;  for  under 
ordinary  circumstances  the  tendency  to  pass  into  the  liquid  form  is 
so  strong,  that  the  heat  is  absorbed  at  a  greater  rate  than  it  can  be 
supplied  from  without.  The  store  of  heat  of  the  melting  substances 
themselves  is  therefore  drawn  upon,  and  the  temperature  consequently 
falls  until  a  balance  is  set  up  between  the  rate  of  melting  and  the  rate 
at  which  heat  is  supplied  from  outside.  This  is  what  takes  place  with 
ordinary  freezing  mixtures.  The  amount  of  the  depression  in  tempera- 
ture appears  to  depend  to  some  extent  on  the  state  or  hydration  of  the 
salt,  and  the  percentage  of  it  in  the  mixture.  Almost  the  only  salts 
used  are  those  of  certain  alkalies,  few  others  possessing  the  requisite 
solubility  at  low  temperatures." 

It  may  be  here  observed  that  this  method  of  refrigeration  is  now 
only  interesting  from  an  historical  point  of  view,  and  is  not  suitable 
for  modern  conditions,  so  far  as  commercial  undertakings  are  con- 
cerned. Practically,  therefore,  the  process  is  now  only  employed  for 
domestic  purposes  and  in  laboratories. 

*  Proceedings,  Institution  of  Mechanical  Engineers,  1886,  p.  201. 


24        REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD    STORAGE. 
TABLE  OP  PRINCIPAL  FREEZING  MIXTURES. 


Composition  of  Freezing  Mixtures  (Materials  previously  cooled). 


Reduction  of 
Temperature  in 
Degrees  Fahr. 


From        To 


Snow  or  pounded  ice,  2  parts  ;  muriate  of  soda,  1  part  - 
Snow,  5  ;  muriate  of  sodium,  2  ;  muriate  of  ammonia,  1  - 
Snow,  24 ;  muriate  of  sodium,  10 ;  muriate  of  ammonia, 

5  ;  nitrate  of  potash,  5 

Snow,  12  ;  muriate  of  sodium,  5  ;  nitrate  of  ammonia,  5  - 
Snow,  4  ;  muriate  of  lime,  5 

Snow,  1  ;  chloride  of  sodium  or  common  salt,  1     - 
Snow,  2  ;  muriate  of  lime  crystallised,  3    - 
Snow,  3  ;  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  2  - 
Snow,  3  ;  hydrochloric  acid,  5 
Snow,  7  ;  dilute  nitric  acid,  4 
Snow,  8  ;  chloride  of  calcium,  5 
Snow,  2  ;  chloride  of  calcium  crystallised,  3 
Snow,  3  ;  potassium,  4 
Snow,  2  ;  chloride  of  sodium,  1 

Snow,  5  ;  chloride  of  sodium,  2  ;  chloride  of  ammonia,  1 
Snow,  14 ;  chloride  of  sodium,  10 ;  chloride  of  ammonia, 

5  ;  nitrate  of  potassium,  5 

Snow,  12  ;  chloride  of  sodium,  5  ;  nitrate  of  ammonia,  5 
Snow,  2  ;  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  1  ;  dilute  nitric  acid,  1    - 
Snow,  12  ;  common  salt,  5  ;  nitrate  of  ammonia,  5 
Snow  1  ;  muriate  of  lime,  3 
Snow,  8  ;  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  10 

Chloride  of  ammonia,  5 ;  nitrate  of  potassium,  5 ;  water,  16 
Nitrate  of  ammonia,  1  ;  water,  1    - 
Chloride  of  ammonia,  5 ;  nitrate  of  potassium,  5 ;  sulphate 

of  sodium,  8  ;  water,  16 

Sulphate  of  sodium,  5  ;  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  4    - 
Sulphate  of  sodium,  8  ;  hydrochloric  acid,  9 
Nitrate  of  sodium,  3  ;  dilute  nitric  acid,  2 
Nitrate  of  ammonia,  1  ;  carbonate  of  sodium,  1  ;  water,  1 
Sulphate  of  sodium,  6 ;  chloride  of  ammonia,  4  ;  nitrate 

of  potassium,  2  ;  dilute  nitric  acid,  4  - 
Phosphate  of  sodium,  9  ;  dilute  nitric  acid,  4 
Sulphate  of  sodium,  6  ;    nitrate  of  ammonia,  5  ;    dilute 

nitric  acid,  4 
Phosphate  of  sodium,  5 ;  nitrate  of  ammonia,  3 ;  dilute 

nitric  acid,  4 
Phosphate  of  sodium,  3  ;  nitrate  of  ammonia,  2  :  dilute 

nitric  acid,  4 

Snow,  3  ;  muriate  of  lime,  4 
Snow,  1  ;  muriate  of  lime  crystallised,  2    - 
Snow,  2 ;  muriate  of  lime,  3 

Snow,  8  ;  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  3  ;  dilute  nitric  acid,  3    - 
Snow,  3  ;  dilute  nitric  acid,  2 
Snow,  1  ;  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  1   - 
Snow,  2  ;  muriate  of  lime  crystallised,  3    - 
Snow,  8  ;  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  10 


+  32 
+  32 
+  32 
+  32 
+  32 
+  32 
+  32 
+  32 
+  32 


-10 

-18 
-40 
-68 
+  50 
+  50 

+  50 
+  50 

+  50 
+  50 

+  50 

+  50 
+  50 

+  50 
0 

-34 
+  20 

0 

-15 
-10 

0 

-20 
-40 
-68 


-5 
— 12 

-18 

-25 

-40 

0 

-50 
-23 
-27 
-30 
-40 
-50 
-51 
-5 
-12 

-18 

-25 

-56 

-25 

-73 

-91 

+  4 

+  4 

+  4 

+  3 

0 

-3 

-7 

-10 
-12 

-14 
-34 

-50 
-48 
-66 
-68 
-56 
-46 
-60 
-73 
-91 


CHAPTER   IV 
THE  VACUUM   PROCESS 

Principles  of— First  Machine  Working  on  —  More  Recent  Types  of  Machines 

Working  on. 

THE  abstraction  of  heat  by  the  evaporation  of  a  portion  of  the  liquid 
to  be  cooled,  the  process  being  assisted  by  an  air-pump,  or  the  vacuum 
process,  includes  all  such  machines  as  operate  to  extract  heat  by 
the  evaporation  or  vaporisation  of  a  portion  of  the  water  or  other 
liquid  to  be  cooled  or  frozen. 

The  ..cooling  of  liquids  on  this  principle  depends  upon  the  conver- 
sion of  the  sensible  heat  into  latent  heat  during  evaporation,  and,  in 
its  most  primitive  form,  its  use  is  almost  co-existent  with  that  of  the 
world,  having  been  commonly  employed  for  refrigerating  purposes  in 
all  ages.  It  is  obvious,  however,  that  as  a  portion  of  the  liquid  to  be 
cooled  is  permitted  to  go  to  waste,  it  can  be  only  profitably  applied 
direct  to  liquids  of  little  or  no  value,  such  as  water. 

A  common  example  of  this  method  in  its  crudest  form  is  found  in 
the  ancient  plan,  so  universally  adopted  in  hot  climates,  of  cooling 
water  by  the  evaporation  of  a  portion  of  the  contents  of  a  porous 
jar  or  vessel  from  the  outer  surface  thereof,  by  hanging  the  vessel 
in  a  position  where  it  will  be  subjected  to  either  a  natural  or  an 
artificial  draught. 

It  is  stated  that  the  practice  of  procuring  ice  by  exposing  water 
to  the  night  air  in  shallow  porous  vessels  has  been  practised  in  India 
during  the  cool  season  from  the  remotest  ages.  The  vessels  are 
placed  on  a  bed  of  straw,  cornstalks,  or  megass  (crushed  cane  stalks) 
in  shallow  excavations  made  preferably  in  an  exposed  situation  on  an 
extensive  plain,  being  filled  with  water  to  be  congealed  or  frozen,  and 
in  the  morning,  provided  the  night  be  clear,  are  found  covered  with 
thin  crusts  of  ice. 

This  process  is  also  said  to  have  been  practised,  both  in  France 
and  in  this  country,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  last  century,  with  perfect 
success,  so  far  at  least  as  the  production  of  ice  was  concerned,  but  it 
failed  commercially  by  reason  of  the  large  expenses  entailed. 

25 


26   REFRIGERATION  AND  COLD  STORAGE. 

The  first  machine  on  the  vacuum  principle  for  the  production  of 
artificial  ice  by  the  conversion  of  sensible  into  latent  heat  by  evapora- 
tion, of  which  there  is  any  record,  was  that  invented  by  Dr  Cullen 
in  1755,  who  in  that  year  made  the  discovery  that  the  evaporation  of 
water  could  be  facilitated  by  the  removal  of  the  atmospheric  pressure 
by  means  of  an  air-pump,  to  such  a  degree  as  to  enable  him  to  freeze 
water  even  in  summer. 

This  apparatus  was  the  parent  of  all  those  subsequently  designed 
for  cooling  and  congealing  liquids  by  their  own  evaporation  in  vacuo, 
that  is  to  say,  wherein  the  vapour  is  drawn  off  from  the  partial  vacuum 


Fig.  4. — Carry's  Sulphuric  Acid  Vacuum  Freezing  Machine.     Vertical  Section. 

wherein  it  is  formed,  and  is  condensed  in  another  partial  vacuum  with 
or  without  the  help  of  absorbents,  and  is  expelled  by  pressure. 

In  1777,  Nairne  found  that,  by  the  introduction  of  sulphuric  acid 
into  a  receiver  for  the  exhaust,  the  aqueous  vapour  could  be  absorbed 
from  the  rarefied  air  and  the  latter  dried ;  and  by  taking  advantage 
of  this  discovery  he  was  enabled,  in  1810,  to  construct  an  apparatus 
wherein  he  got  rid  of  the  vapour  that  rose  from  the  water,  and  thus 
prevented  it  from  forming  a  permanent  atmosphere,  and  hindering  the 
continuity  of  the  operation. 

Further  attempts  were  made  by  Leslie  (1810),  Vallance  (1824), 
Kingsford  (1825),  and  others,  but  without  any  much  greater  success 


THE   VACUUM    PROCESS.  27 

attending  their  efforts,  Edmond  Carre's  sulphuric  acid  freezing  machine 
being  the  first  to  be  commercially  successful. 

This  apparatus,  acting  to  refrigerate  by  evaporation  and  rarefaction, 
and  which  was  adapted  to  produce  the  carafes  frappes  commonly  used 
in  Parisian  cafes  and  restaurants,  consists,  as  shown  in  Fig.  4,  of  a 
cylindrical  vessel,  A,  intended  to  contain  the  charge  of  concentrated 
sulphuric  acid ;  an  air  pump,  B,  so  arranged  that  it  can  be  connected 
to  the  mouth  of  the  carafe,  and  of  an  agitator,  c,  which  is  so  coupled 
to  the  air-pump  lever  that  it  will  be  operated  during  the  working  of 
the  pump  in  such  a  manner  as  to  keep  the  sulphuric  acid  in  the 
cylindrical  vessel  A  continually  in  motion. 

The  machine  of  course  only  operates  intermittingly,  but  the  large 
body  of  sulphuric  acid  used  in  the  vessel  A  prevents  a  rapid  loss  of 
absorptive  power  taking  place  through  dilution,  and  the  agitation 
obviates  the  formation  of  a  more  diluted  stratum  on  the  surface,  which 
would  be  highly  detrimental  to  the  proper  working  of  the  apparatus. 

The  chief  drawback  to  this  machine,  besides  its  intermissive  action, 
is  the  difficulty  experienced  in  maintaining  the  pump  in  good  working 
order,  and  the  various  joints  all  perfectly  gas-tight. 

Franz  Windhausen  patented  in  1878  a  compound  vacuum-pump 
designed  to  produce  ice  directly  from  water  without  using  sulphuric 
acid ;  and  likewise  a  modified  arrangement  wherein  sulphuric  acid 
could  be  employed.  In  this  latter  apparatus  the  sulphuric  acid  is 
cooled  by  water  whilst  absorbing  the  vapour,  and  is  subsequently 
concentrated,  when  it  becomes  over-diluted,  thus  obviating  the  necessity 
for  the  insertion  of  a  fresh  supply  of  acid. 

An  improved  form  of  this  machine  constructed  in  1881,  nominally 
capable  of  producing  from  12  to  15  tons  of  ice  per  twenty-four  hours,  and 
which  was  first  put  up  at  the  Aylesbury  Dairy,  Bayswater,  London, 
and  afterwards  removed  to  Brompton,  was  fully  described  at  the  time 
in  a  paper  *  written  by  Dr  Hopkinson. 

The  ice-forming  vessels  or  moulds,  which  are  six  in  number,  are 
constructed  of  cast  iron,  circular  in  transverse  section,  and  slightly 
tapered.  These  cans,  moulds,  or  cases  moreover  are  steam- jacketed, 
so  as  to  admit  of  the  ice  being  melted  or  thawed  off  and  readily  dis- 
engaged therefrom,  and  are  provided  at  their  lower  ends  with  hinged 
doors,  which,  when  closed,  form  fluid-tight  joints. 

The  sulphuric  acid  is  contained  in  a  long  cylindrical  vessel  wherein 
rotating  agitators  maintain  the  acid  in  continual  motion  during  the 
operation  of  the  apparatus,  and  the  cylindrical  vessel  is  water- jacketed 
*  Journal  of  the  Society  oj  Arts,  1882,  vol.  xxxi.,  p.  20. 


28   REFRIGERATION  AND  COLD  STORAGE. 

so  as  to  carry  off  the  greater  portion  of  the  heat  that  becomes  liberated 
during  the  absorption  of  the  vapour. 

The  sulphuric  acid  cylinder  or  vessel  communicates  with  the  upper 
parts  of  the  ice-forming  vessels  or  moulds,  and  with  the  vacuum-pump, 
which  latter  has  two  cylinders,  viz.,  a  large  double-acting  one  and  a 
small  single-acting  one. 

The  water  is  admitted  to  the  moulds  through  nozzles  at  a  regulated 
rate,  the  fine  streams  offering  an  extended  surface  for  evaporation, 
and  becoming  instantly  congealed  into  ice  globules  or  particles  which, 
falling  into  the  bottoms  of  the  moulds,  are  frozen,  together  with  the 
water  that  collects  there. 

In  the  operation  of  the  apparatus  the  air,  and  any  vapour  that  may 
pass  over  from  the  sulphuric  acid  cylinder  or  vessel,  are  drawn  into 
the  large  pump-cylinder,  by  which  they  are  slightly  compressed  and 
passed  on  into  the  condenser,  wherein  a  portion  of  the  vapour  is 
condensed  by  cold  water,  the  rest,  together  with  the  air,  entering  the 
second  or  smaller  pump-cylinder,  where  they  are  compressed  up  to 
the  tension  of  the  atmosphere  and  discharged.  This  pump,  it  is  stated, 
admits  of  a  vacuum  of  half  a  millimetre  of  mercury  being  constantly 
maintained ;  2|  mm.,  however,  being  as  low  a  vacuum  as  it  is  found 
necessary  to  have  during  actual  work. 

By  the  employment  of  a  compound  pump  with  an  intermediate  con- 
denser, and  performing  the  compression  in  two  distinct  stages,  the 
losses  that  would  otherwise  occur  from  the  clearance  spaces  in  the 
large  pump  are  greatly  reduced. 

The  concentrator  for  the  diluted  sulphuric  acid  consists  in  a  lead- 
lined  vessel  or  receptacle  fitted  with  a  steam-heated  coil  of  lead  piping 
and  connected  with  an  ordinary  air-pump.  The  acid  is  transferred 
from  one  vessel  to  the  other  by  atmospheric  pressure,  and  the  diluted 
or  weak  acid,  which  is  at  a  comparatively  low  temperature,  is  heated 
on  its  way  to  the  concentrator  in  an  interchange!-,  by  the  strong 
concentrated  acid  returning  from  the  latter. 

The  ice  produced  by  this  machine,  like  that  of  all  those  on  the 
vacuum  principle  acting  direct,  is  in  an  opaque  and  porous  condition  ; 
and  the  avoidance  of  this  defect,  and  the  production  of  clear  trans- 
parent crystal  ice  by  freezing  it  in  moulds  plunged  in  brine  previously 
cooled  by  evaporation  in  a  vacuum,  would  render  the  process  too 
expensive  to  be  commercially  successful. 

The  total  amount  of  water  that  is  used  in  working  is  from  10  to  12 
tons  per  ton  of  ice,  and  the  fuel  180  Ibs.  of  coal  to  each  ton  of  ice 
produced ;  the  latter  is  employed  in  raising  the  requisite  supply  of 


THE   VACUUM    PROCESS. 


29 


steam  for  driving  the  pumps,  and  heating  the  coil  in  the  sulphuric 
acid  evaporator. 

Fig.  5  is  a  vertical  central  section  partly  in  elevation  showing 
Lange's  improved  pump  for  exhausting  the  air  from  the  absorber  of 
a  vacuum  machine.  As  will  be  seen  from  the  drawing,  three  pistons, 
A,  B,  and  c,  are  employed,  placed  in  line  one  above  the  other,  and 
working  in  three  superimposed  cylinders.  The  valves  are  so  arranged 
that  each  of  the  uppermost  cylinders  draws  from  the  one  below,  and 
they  are  sealed  with  oil,  which  latter  constantly  circulates  through  the 
pump.  The  mixed  oil  and  air,  on  leaving  the  top  or  uppermost 


Fig.  5.  — Lange's  Exhaust  Pump  for  Vacuum  Freezing  Machine.    Vertical  Section. 

cylinder,  is  discharged  into  a  separator  D,  the  air  being  permitted  to 
escape  into  the  atmosphere,  and  the  oil  passing  into  a  receptacle  from 
which  it  can  be  returned  to  the  pump  when  required. 

The  vacuum  apparatus  for  the  refrigeration  of  a  liquid  by  its  par- 
tial evaporation,  for  which  James  Harrison  took  out  a  patent  in  1878, 
is  designed  to  produce  opaque  ice  at  a  very  low  cost  (about  one  shilling 
per  ton),  by  reducing  the  fuel  consumption,  which,  as  already  men- 
tioned, is  the  chief  item  of  expense.  This  is  proposed  to  be  effected 
by  getting  rid  of  the  bulk  of  the  friction  engendered  in  the  usual 
vacuum  and  air  pumps,  and  also  by  a  saving  of  the  fuel  expended  in 
concentrating  the  weak  or  diluted  sulphuric  acid  in  the  previously 


30   REFRIGERATION  AND  COLD  STORAGE. 

described  apparatus.  The  main  feature  of  Harrison's  invention  is  the 
process  of  refrigerating  by  the  evaporation  of  the  liquid  to  be  cooled 
or  congealed,  by  carrying  its  vapour  under  a  head  of  neutral  non- 
evaporable  liquid,  condensing  the  compressed  vapour  at  the  ordinary 
temperature,  and  removing  the  resulting  liquid  and  air  by  a  pump. 

One  form  of  his  apparatus  consists  in  a  rotating  pump  or  cylinder 
which  seems  to  provide  a  ready  means  of  exhausting  large  volumes 
of  low  tension  vapour,  without  the  expense  of  the  labour  entailed  in 
maintaining  ordinary  piston  packings  in  an  effective  condition,  and 
the  great  loss  through  friction  therefrom.  This  device  consists,  as 
will  be  seen  from  the  sectional  diagrammatical  view,  Fig.  6,  of  an 
iron  cylinder,  rotatably  mounted  horizontally  upon  hollow  or  tubular 


Fig.  6.— Diagram  illustrating  Harrison's  Rotating  Exhaust  Pump  or  Cylinder. 

shafts  or  axles,  and  divided  internally  into  different  compartments 
by  longitudinal  partitions  of  an  L  shape  in  transverse  section.  This 
cylinder  is  connected  through  one  of  the  hollow  shafts  or  axles  with 
the  refrigerating  or  ice-making  vessels  or  moulds,  which  may  be  of 
any  convenient  form,  and  it  is  partly  filled  with  oil  or  other  liquid, 
which  latter  must  invariably  be  either  non-evaporable  or  one  which 
is  only  vaporisable  at  a  temperature  greatly  in  excess  of  that  at 
which  the  refrigerating  liquid  can  be  vaporised,  and  it  must,  more- 
over, be  perfectly  neutral  chemically  to  the  vapour  with  which  it 
will  be  brought  into  contact  when  the  machine  is  at  work. 

The  operation  of  the  apparatus  is  as  follows,  viz.  : — The  cylinder 
rotates  upon  one  of  the  fixed  hollow  axles,  through  which  the  vapour 
or  gas  to  be  compressed  is  delivered  from  the  refrigerator  or  ice-making 


THE   VACUUM    PROCESS.  31 

vessels,  and  the  longitudinal  partitions  or  compartments  moving  round 
with  their  apertures  downwards  carry  with  them  charges  of  the 
vapour,  and  compress  them  to  a  degree  varying  in  accordance  with 
the  depth  to  which  they  dip  below  the  surface  of  the  liquid.  After 
attaining  the  lowest  position  the  compressed  vapour  is  liberated,  and 
rises  into  a  fixed  hood  or  inverted  channel,  situated  centrally  and 
communicating  with  the  other  hollow  shaft  or  axle,  which  is  placed 
at  the  other  side  of  the  cylinder,  through  which  it  passes  to  a  surface 
condenser.  In  this  surface  condenser  the  compressed  vapour  is  partially 
condensed,  both  by  direct  cooling  action  arid  also  by  the  evaporation 
of  water  flowing  over  the  surface,  and  the  condensation  water,  together 
with  any  air  present,  is  then  compressed  to  the  atmospheric  tension 
and  discharged. 

Several  modifications  are  also  described,  viz.  : — First,  a  series 
of  buckets  attached  to  endless  chains  dipping  into  a  reservoir  of  the 
compressing  liquid,  and  delivering  the  compressed  gas  or  vapour  into 
a  reservoir.  Secondly,  a  gasometer-shaped  vessel,  rising  and  falling 
in  an  annular  space  filled  with  a  non-evaporable  neutral  liquid.  The 
vessel,  on  being  lifted,  becoming  filled  with  the  air  or  vapour,  and  on 
being  depressed  delivering  it  under  a  head  of  liquid.  Thirdly,  a 
tapering  archimedean  screw  working  in  a  reservoir  of  non-evaporable 
neutral  liquid  by  which  the  vapour  is  taken  in  at  the  larger  upper 
orifices,  and  is  discharged,  compressed,  and  liquefied  at  the  lower  or 
smaller  end.  Fourthly,  pumps  with  actuated  valves  and  with 
arrangements  for  complete  expulsion  of  air  and  vapour.  And  finally, 
fifthly,  fans  working  in  the  air  or  vapour,  and  forcing  it  from  one 
compartment  into  another,  or  exhausting  it  and  forcing  it  into  the 
atmosphere. 

A  patent  was  obtained  by  Blyth  and  Southby  some  years  back  for 
a  vacuum  refrigerating  machine  of  great  simplicity  of  design.  The 
main  feature  of  their  apparatus  consists  in  the  provision  of  two 
pumps,  viz.,  a  large  main  pump  and  a  small  auxiliary  one,  the  former 
being  heated  by  means  of  a  steam  jacket  or  otherwise. 

The  large,  single-acting,  steam- jacketed  vapour  pump  is  driven 
by  a  crank,  which  is  situated  beneath,  and  is  enclosed  in  a  suitable 
cylindrical  casing  or  chamber,  having  at  one  side  a  door  or  cover, 
admitting  of  access  thereto,  and  so  arranged  that  when  closed  it 
forms  a  gas-tight  joint.  The  crank  is  driven  by  belt  gearing  from 
any  suitable  source  of  motive  power,  and  the  pulley  for  the  latter 
is  fixed  upon  the  end  of  a  shaft  or  spindle  passing  through  a  stuffing 
box  provided  upon  the  opposite  side,  or  wall,  of  the  crank  chamber, 


32   REFRIGERATION  AND  COLD  STORAGE. 

to  that  fitted  with  the  door  or  cover.  A  heavy  balanced  fly-wheel 
is  also  mounted  upon  the  crankshaft,  and  is  enclosed  within  this 
chamber,  which,  as  above  mentioned,  is  made  perfectly  fluid  tight. 

The  ice  box  is  fitted  with  an  automatic  feeding  arrangement  for 
filling  the  ice  can  or  case  with  water,  which  mechanism  is  operated 
by  an  eccentric  upon  the  crankshaft,  and  the  box  is  connected  with 
the  pump  through  a  pipe  governed  by  a  stop-cock  or  valve,  a  similar 
cock  or  valve  being  also  fitted  in  the  pipe  leading  to  the  cooling 
vessel,  and  another  suitable  valve  in  the  vapour  exit  to  the  condenser. 

A  double-acting  air  or  ejector  pump  worked  off  the  eccentric  is 
moreover  provided  for  removing  the  air  from  the  interior  of  the 
machine,  and  a  vacuum  gauge  for  ascertaining  the  degree  of  vacuum 
produced. 

The  operation  of  the  machine  is  as  follows,  viz. : — Any  air  that  may 
be  contained  within  the  large  pump  cylinder  is  first  pumped  or  drawn 
off  by  the  small  air  or  ejector  pump,  thereby  producing  a  vacuum 
which  is  filled  by  vapour  from  the  water  to  be  frozen  or  cooled.  The 
large  single-acting  pump,  which  draws  the  vapour  from  the  water 
through  a  suction  valve  situated  in  the  piston,  compresses  this  vapour 
and  delivers  it  through  the  outlet  or  discharge  valve  to  the  condenser, 
where  it  is  condensed  by  water  in  the  usual  manner,  is  removed  by 
the  small  air  or  ejector  pump,  together  with  any  air  that  may  have 
passed  into  the  machine  through  leakage,  and  is  discharged  into  the 
atmosphere.  The  vapour  is  prevented  from  condensing  in  the  cylinder 
by  the  steam  jacket,  which  maintains  the  temperature  of  the  cylinder 
above  that  at  which  the  vapour  will  condense  into  water.  Were  this 
not  the  case,  and  were  the  vapour  permitted  to  condense  in  the 
cylinder,  the  quantity  to  be  discharged  would  be  so  small  as  not  to 
be  capable  of  being  forced  through  the  delivery  or  outlet  valve. 

When  starting  the  machine,  communication  between  both  ends 
of  the  vapour  pump  cylinder  can  be  kept  open  for  any  requisite  length 
of  time  during  the  first  portion  of  the  delivery  stroke,  so  as  to  permit 
the  air  to  return  to  the  underside  of  the  piston,  and  thereby  lessen  and 
regulate  the  expenditure  of  power  required  in  getting  up  the  vacuum. 
This  is  effected  by  means  of  a  bye-pass  and  valve,  which  can  be  opened 
at  starting,  and  kept  open  for  about  nine-tenths  of  the  piston  stroke, 
being  closed  gradually  as  soon  as  the  vacuum  becomes  more  perfect, 
and  altogether  as  soon  as  all  the  air  has  been  got  rid  of.  The  average 
pressure  upon  the  piston  is  light,  not  exceeding  about  one-sixth  of  a 
pound. 

In  all  the  above  arrangements,  a  portion  of  the  refrigerating  agent 


THE   VACUUM    PROCESS.  33 

itself,  together  with  the  heat  it  has  absorbed,  is  rejected,  consequently 
water,  as  the  only  one  sufficiently  inexpensive,  is  invariably  employed. 
Water  has  a  boiling  point  of  212°  Fahr.  at  atmospheric  pressure,  a 
latent  heat  of  vapour  of  966-6  and  a  tension  of  vapour  of  0-623,  and 
having  so  high  a  boiling  point  it  requires  a  vacuum  of  -089  Ib.  per 
square  inch  to  boil  at  a  temperature  of  32°  Fahr.,  and  consequently  a 
vacuum  at  the  very  least  as  high  as  this  must  be  maintained  to  produce 
ice  by  the  vacuum  process. 

An  improved  form  of  Carre's  sulphuric  acid  freezing  machine, 
adapted  to  be  operated  by  hand  power,  is  manufactured  in  this  country 
by  the  Pulsometer  Engineering  Co.,  Ltd.  London. 

This  machine  is  made  in  four  sizes.  The  two  smallest  sizes  only 
admit  of  very  small  quantities  of  ice  being  made,  but  with  the  two 
larger  sizes,  upwards  of  7  Ibs.,  and  from  20  to  30  Ibs.  of  ice  can  be 
made  respectively  in  a  day,  and  with  the  largest-sized  machine  about 
80  Ibs.  per  day. 

It  is  claimed  that  the  acid,  after  use  in  these  machines,  is  especially 
suitable  for  use  in  soda-water  making  machines,  as  having  been  diluted 
slowly  it  has  lost  the  heat  generated  by  the  mixture  of  acid  and  water, 
and  is  consequently  ready  for  immediate  service. 


CHAPTER   V 
THE   COMPRESSION   PROCESS   OR   SYSTEM 

Early  History  of— Principles  of— Cycle  of  Operations  obligatory  in — Improve- 
ments in — ;Ether  Machines  — Sulphurous  Acid  Machines  — Carbonic  Acid 
Machines. 

So  far  the  refrigeration  has  been  effected  by  evaporation,  the  air  gain- 
ing access  under  natural  conditions,  or  by  an  artificial  draught,  or  the 
evaporation  has  been  accelerated  by  reducing  the  atmospheric  pressure, 
the  latter  operation  being  next  still  further  facilitated  and  rendered 
practically  continuous  by  providing  for  the  absorption  of  the  vapour 
given  off  or  evolved  by  means  of  an  absorbent,  such  as  sulphuric  acid. 

More  volatile  liquids,  however,  are  employed  as  agents,  such  as,  for 
instance,  alcohol,  sulphurous  and  carbonic  acids,  bisulphide  of  carbon, 
gasoline,  ether,  methylic  and  sulphuric  ether,  carbon  bisulphide,  methyl 
chloride,  ethylene,  anhydrous  ammonia,  Picteau  fluid,  &c. 

In  the  year  1755,  Dr  Cullen  found  that,  by  removing  the  atmos- 
pheric pressure,  ether  and  other  liquids  which  boil  at  low  temperatures 
would  evaporate  at  temperatures  below  freezing  point,  with  sufficient 
rapidity  to  congeal  water  brought  into  contact  with  the  exterior  surfaces 
of  the  vessels  or  receptacles  wherein  they  were  contained. 

In  a  refrigerating  and  ice-making  apparatus  invented  by  Jacob 
Perkins  about  the  year  1834,  compression  was  first  introduced,  the 
volatile  liquid  used,  according  to  Sir  Frederick  Bramwell,  being  one 
derived  from  the  destructive  distillation  of  caoutchouc.  This  inven- 
tion of  Perkins'  is  the  origin  from  which  has  sprung  all  those  machines 
operating  upon  the  compression  principle ;  that  is  to  say,  by  the  ab- 
straction of  heat  by  the  evaporation  of  a  separate  refrigerating  agent 
of  a  more  or  less  volatile  nature,  which  agent  is  subsequently  restored 
to  its  original  physical  condition  by  mechanical  compression  and 
cooling. 

Perkins'  apparatus  is  shown  in  Fig.  7  in  side  elevation,  partly  in 
vertical  section,  and  consists  simply,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  illustra- 
tion, in  a  jacketed  pan,  A,  clothed  externally  with  non-conducting 

34 


THE    COMPRESSION    PROCESS    OR   SYSTEM.      35 

material,  and  a  pump,  B,  connected  to  the  upper  part  of  the  jacket,  and 
to  the  first  or  uppermost  convolution  of  a  coil  or  worm  fitted  in  a  tank 
or  vessel,  c,  wherein  cooling  water  can  be  freely  circulated,  and  the 
last  or  lowermost  convolution  of  which  coil  or  worm  is  connected  to 
the  lower  part  of  the  jacket.  The  water  to  be  frozen  is  placed  in 
the  jacketed  pan,  the  space  or  clearance  between  the  latter  and  the 
jacket  being  partially  filled  with  the  distillate  from  caoutchouc,  or  the 
ether,  or  other  volatile  liquid  intended  to  form  the  refrigerating  agent. 
The  vapour  given  off  or  evolved  from  the  volatile  liquid  contained  in 
this  space  or  clearance  is  drawn  off  from  the  top  by  the  pump  B,  and 
is  delivered  compressed  to  the  water-cooled  worm  or  coil,  which  is 
shown  by  dotted  lines  in  the  tank  c,  wherein  it  is  again  liquefied  and 
returned  from  the  bottom  of  the  latter  to  the  lower  part  of  the  space 
or  clearance.  The  complete  cycle  of  operations  is  thus  continuous, 


Fig.  7. — Perkins'  Early  Type  of  Compression  Machine. 

and  the  only  loss  of  the  volatile  liquid  used  as  a  refrigerating  agent 
that  is  possible  is  that  which  may  take  place  through  leakage. 

The  system  of  absorbing  heat  and  thus  producing  cold,  partly  by 
the  expansion  and  vaporisation  or  gasifying,  and  subsequent  liquefac- 
tion, and  partly  by  compression  and  cooling,  is  in  accordance  with  the 
well-known  law  of  physics,  viz.,  that  all  gases  during  the  process  of 
passing  from  a  liquid  to  a  gaseous  state  are  bound  to  absorb  a  certain 
amount  of  heat,  and  whilst  returning  from  a  gaseous  to  a  liquid  state 
to  give  up  or  throw  off  the  same  amount  of  heat. 

Whatever  the  refrigerating  or  heat-absorbing  agent  that  may  be 
used,  the  following  cycle  of  operations  is  obligatory  in  all  machines 
working  upon  this  principle,  viz.  : — 

First,  compression,  that  is  the  refrigerating  or  heat-absorbing  agent 
in  gaseous  form,  is  subjected  to  a  pressure  sufficient  to  reduce  it  to 
a  liquid  form,  this  pressure  varying  with  the  nature  of  the  agent 


36   REFRIGERATION  AND  COLD  STORAGE. 

and  the  temperature  of  the  condensing  water.  During  this  compres- 
sion, a  degree  of  heat  is  developed  in  accordance  with  the  amount  of 
pressure  to  which  the  gas  is  subjected,  or  to  the  volume  to  which  it 
has  to  be  reduced  relatively  to  that  of  the  gas,  in  order  to  produce 
liquefaction.  This  heat  is  carried  off  by  means  of  condensing  or 
cooling  water. 

Second,  condensation,  during  which  process  the  heat  developed 
during  the  above-described  compression  of  the  gas  is  carried  away 
by  forcing  the  latter  through  water-cooled  pipes,  the  heat  being 
transferred  to  the  cooling  water.  At  this  point  the  gas  is  ready  to 
assume  the  liquid  form,  in  doing  which  an  additional  amount  of  heat 
is  given  off  to  the  water. 

Third,  expansion,  during  which  the  liquefied  gas  is  admitted  to 
series  or  coils  of  pipes,  and  being  suddenly  relieved  of  pressure, 
instantly  flashes  or  expands  into  a  gaseous  form;  in  doing  which, 
according  to  the  above-mentioned  law  of  physics,  it  is  forced  to  absorb 
or  take  up  a  quantity  of  heat  which  it  renders  latent,  and  which  it 
draws  from  the  surrounding  objects,  viz.,  firstly,  of  course,  the  pipes  or 
coil  wherein  it  is  confined,  and  secondly,  such  substances  as  may  be 
brought  in  contact  with  the  latter,  and  which  it  is  desired  to  cool,  as 
air,  water,  brine,  &c. 

The  amount  of  heat  thus  abstracted  or  absorbed  is  equal  to  that 
previously  given  up  to  the  cooling  water  in  the  condenser,  the  gas 
being  then  ready  for  compression,  &c.,  and  the  cycle  of  operations  can 
thus  be  repeated  ad  injtnitum. 

These  three  operations  being  essential,  all  machines  of  this  class, 
however  much  they  may  differ  in  more  or  less  important  points  of 
detail,  must  perforce  consist  of  the  three  main  parts  shown  in  the 
diagram,  Fig.  8,  viz.  : — 

First,  a  compressor,  A,  wherein  the  gas  is  compressed  in  some 
suitable  and  convenient  manner. 

Second,  a  condensing  side,  B,  wherein  the  gas  circulates  through 
water-cooled  pipes  or  coils  or  their  equivalent,  gives  off  its  heat,  and 
liquefaction  takes  place. 

Third,  an  expansion  side,  c,  consisting  of  pipes  or  coils,  or  other 
space,  wherein  the  gas  can  re-expand  and  perform  its  work  of  cooling 
or  refrigerating,  by  abstracting  heat  in  the  above-described  manner 
from  the  surrounding  objects.  D  is  a  regulating  valve,  E  is  the  low 
pressure  gauge,  and  F  is  the  high  pressure  gauge. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  heat  only  that  has  been  acquired  by  the 
refrigerating  agent  is  rejected,  the  latter  being  used  over  and  over 


THE   COMPRESSION   PROCESS   OR   SYSTEM.      37 
again,  the  only  loss,  therefore,  is  that  sustained  through  accidental 


Such  liquids  only,  however,  are  capable  of  being  used  as  refrigerating 
agents  as  possess  vapours  capable  of  being  liquefied  under  pressure  at 
ordinary  temperatures.  Hence,  owing  to  the  latter  operation  being 
an  absolute  essential,  it  is  generally  known  as  the  compression  process. 

The  next  attempt  at  improvement  in  these  machines  was  made  by 
Professor  Twining,  who  obtained  a  patent  for  his  invention  in  this 
country  in  1850,  and  in  the  United  States  in  1853.  His  apparatus 
comprises  an  exhaust  or  expansion  vessel,  a  pump,  and  a  condenser. 
The  water  to  be  frozen  is  placed  in  chambers  or  cells  situated  between 
thin  metal  pipes,  plates,  or  partitions,  through  which  circulates  the 


Fig.  8.— Diagram  Illustrating  the  Operation  of  a  Refrigerating  Machine  on 
the  Compression  Principle. 

vapour  evolved  from  a  suitable  volatile  liquid,  such  as  ether,  sulphide 
of  carbon,  &c.,  which  vapour  is  drawn  off  by  an  air-pump,  compressed, 
condensed  in  a  coil  or  worm,  cooled  by  water,  and  is  then  returned  to 
the  reservoir,  in  which  it  is  once  more  vaporised  in  a  manner  substan- 
tially similar  to  that  of  Perkins'.  In  fact,  as  already  intimated,  all 
machines  of  this  class  are  bound  to  operate  upon  the  same  principle 
as  that  of  the  latter  inventor,  and  can  only  differ  therefrom  in  details 
of  construction  of  more  or  less  importance 

It  is  stated  that  a  machine  of  Twining's,  of  a  capacity  designed  to 
produce  2,000  Ibs.  of  ice  in  twenty-four  hours,  was  in  operation  in  1855 
in  Cleveland,  Ohio ;  and  that,  although  working  under  somewhat 
serious  disadvantages,  it  did  actually  produce  1,600  Ibs.  of  ice  per 


38   REFRIGERATION  AND  COLD  STORAGE. 

twenty-four  hours  in  a  tolerably  satisfactory  manner,  and  was  in  use 
off  and  on  for  about  three  years. 

Another  machine,  which  comprises  certain  further  improvements 
on  Perkins'  apparatus,  was  invented  and  patented  by  James  Harrison 
in  the  year  1856. 

The  novel  feature  claimed  especially,  in  Harrison's  compression 
machine,  is  the  evaporation  of  volatile  liquids  in  vacuo,  and  the  reduc- 
tion to  a  liquid  form  in  a  separate  vessel  by  pressure.  The  essential 
parts  of  his  apparatus  consist  of  three  vessels  connected  by  tubes,  a 
vacuum  being  established  throughout  the  apparatus,  and  the  air  being 
expelled  by  the  vapour  of  ether,  ammonia,  or  other  volatile  liquid. 
The  first  vessel  is  charged  with  the  volatile  liquid ;  the  second  vessel 
contains  a  pumping  and  compressing  apparatus,  by  means  of  which 


Fig.  9. — Harrison's  Ether  Compression  Machine. 

the  vapour  is  withdrawn  from  the  first  vessel  and  forced  into  a  third ; 
and  the  third  or  last  vessel  is  immersed  in  water  or  kept  moist,  so  that 
the  heat  generated  by  the  compression  and  liquefaction  of  the  vapour 
may  be  carried  off.  The  resulting  liquid  passes  into  the  first  vessel 
to  be  again  evaporated  under  diminished  pressure,  and  again  with- 
drawn, compressed,  liquefied,  and  returned,  the  process  being  capable 
of  indefinite  prolongation,  until  the  apparatus  be  either  injured  or 
becomes  worn  out. 

The  general  arrangement  of  an  improved  Harrison  machine  con- 
structed by  Siebe  Gorman  &  Co.,  is  shown  in  side  elevation  in  Fig.  9, 
wherein  A  is  the  steam-engine  cylinder ;  B  is  the  pump  or  compression 
cylinder,  which  is  kept  cool  by  a  suitable  water  jacket;  c  is  the 
refrigerator,  which  consists  of  a  copper  cylinder,  fitted  with  sets  of 


THE   COMPRESSION    PROCESS   OR   SYSTEM.      39 

copper  tubes  arranged  horizontally  ;  D  is  the  ether  condenser,  which 
is  composed  of  sets  of  copper  tubes  also  arranged  horizontally  in  a 
wooden  tank  or  casing,  and  cooled  by  a  circulation  of  water. 

Suitable  connections  are  provided  between  the  refrigerator  c,  pump 
B,  and  condenser  D. 

The  refrigerating  agent  employed  in  this  apparatus  is  sulphuric 
ether,  which  is  the  result  of  the  action  of  sulphuric  acid  upon  vinous 
alcohol,  and  which  has  a  specific  gravity  of  0'720,  a  latent  heat  of  vapor- 
isation of  165,  a  specific  gravity  of  vapour  of  2 '2 4  as  compared  with  air, 
and  the  boiling  point  of  which  is  96°  Fahr.  at  atmospheric  tension. 

The  liquid  sulphuric  ether  is  delivered  from  the  condenser  D  to  the 
refrigerator  c,  through  a  pipe  fitted  with  a  stop-cock,  by  means  of 
which  the  amount  admitted  can  be  nicely  adjusted  to  the  capacity  of 
the  pump  B.  The  weight  of  ether  capable  of  being  drawn  off  by  the 
pump  B  is  dependent  upon  the  pressure  at  which  evaporation  takes 
place,  as  it  is  perfectly  obvious  that  the  denser  the  vapour,  the  greater 
the  weight  drawn  off  at  each  stroke  of  the  pump. 

In  order  to  ensure  this  apparatus  working  up  to  its  fullest  capacity 
the  boiling  point  of  the  sulphuric  ether  must  be  so  regulated  as  to 
impart  the  exact  reduction  of  temperature  desired,  consequently  the 
pressure  at  which  evaporation  is  caused  to  take  place  depends  upon 
the  degree  of  temperature  to  which  it  is  required  to  lower  the  brine. 

The  amount  of  water  required  to  be  passed  through  the  ether 
condenser  D,  for  cooling  purposes,  naturally  varies  in  different  climates, 
and  in  accordance  with  the  season  of  the  year ;  in  this  country  it  is 
stated  to  be  about  150  gals,  per  hour  for  each  ton  of  ice  produced 
per  twenty-four  hours.  The  liquefaction  of  the  vapour  is  said  to  take 
place  with  cooling  water  at  the  temperature  usually  obtainable  here  at 
a  pressure  of  some  3  Ibs.  per  square  inch  above  that  of  the  atmosphere ; 
in  a  hot  climate,  however,  a  very  much  higher  pressure  is  required, 
rising  sometimes  to  as  much  as  12  Ibs.  above  that  of  the  atmosphere. 

The  apparatus,  when  employed  for  making  ice,  is  provided  with  an 
ice-making  tank,  usually  fitted  with  copper  moulds ;  or,  when  used  for 
refrigerating  purposes,  it  may  be  connected  with  a  system  of  cooling 
pipes.  The  brine  circulation  is  maintained  by  means  of  a  suitable 
pump,  and  the  brine,  which  is,  as  a  rule,  reduced  to  a  temperature 
of  about  10°  Fahr.  during  its  passage  through  the  sets  of  tubes  in  the 
refrigerator  c,  is  returned,  after  circulation,  to  the  refrigerator  to 
be  re-cooled.  The  sets  of  tubes  in  the  refrigerator  are  so  arranged 
that  the  brine  to  be  cooled  circulates  through  them  successively,  being 
thus  gradually  reduced  in  temperature. 


40   REFRIGERATION  AND  COLD  STORAGE. 

When  employed  for  cooling  water  or  other  liquids,  the  liquid 
is  usually  passed  at  once  through  the  refrigerator  c  in  place  of  the 
brine. 

In  Charles  Tellier's  apparatus,  which  was  designed  some  years  later, 
the  refrigerating  agent  employed  is  methyiic  ether,  which  liquid  has  a 
latent  heat  of  vaporisation  of  473,  and  which  enters  into  ebullition  at 
tension  of  the  atmosphere  at  a  temperature  of  from  20°  to  25°  below  zero 
Fahr.,  whereas  sulphuric  ether,  employed  in  the  improved  Harrison 
machine,  as  before  mentioned,  boils  at  96°  Fahr.,  a  difference  of  about 
121°. 

Methyiic  ether  is  the  result  of  the  action  of  sulphuric  acid  upon 
ligneous  alcohol,  that  is  to  say,  alcohol  distilled  from  wood.  To  obtain 
methyiic  ether,  sulphuric  acid  is  mixed  with  ligneous  alcohol  in  equal 
proportion,  and  heated  until  the  ether  is  evolved,  carrying  with  it  a 
number  of  bye-products,  such  as  sulphurous  acid,  carbonic  acid,  and 
empyreumatic  vapours,  which  must  be  eliminated  by  passing  the  impure 
vapour  through  or  over  liquids,  &c.,  by  which  they  will  become  ab- 
sorbed and  retained.  For  instance,  by  passing  the  adulterated  vapour 
over  potash,  the  carbonic  and  sulphurous  acids  will  be  retained  by 
the  alkali,  the  aqueous  vapour  being  at  the  same  time  carried  away 
mechanically. 

In  the  distillation  of  methyiic  ether  on  a  large  scale,  a  great  diffi- 
culty would  be  experienced,  under  ordinary  conditions,  in  getting  a 
liquid,  having  so  low  a  boiling  point  as  —  25C  Fahr.,  to  flow  through 
the  requisite  pipes.  To  overcome  this  difficulty,  Tellier  designed  the 
special  apparatus  illustrated  in  sectional  elevation  in  Fig.  10,  wherein 
the  vapour,  after  purification,  is  brought  back  to  a  liquid  state  by 
pressure,  and  is  thus  rendered  manageable. 

In  the  drawing,  A,  B,  c  are  large  cast  or  wrought  iron  drums  or 
receivers ;  D  is  the  purifier ;  E  is  a  special  pump  which  sucks  off  the 
purified  vapour  and  delivers  it  through  the  worm  F  in  a  liquid  state 
into  a  set  of  receivers  G,  which  latter  are  capable  of  withstanding  a 
very  high  pressure,  and  from  whence  it  can  be  drawn  off,  and  will 
flow  through  the  rest  of  the  apparatus  as  easily  as  water. 

Tellier's  apparatus  for"  the  production  of  cold  is  shown  in  elevation 
in  Fig.  11,  wherein  A  is  the  refrigerator;  B  is  a  receiver  or  vessel  in 
which  the  methyiic  ether  is  evaporated ;  c  is  the  pump  for  drawing  off 
the  vapour  from  the  latter ;  and  D  is  the  condenser,  which  is  fitted  with 
a  suitable  worm  or  coil.  The  vaporised  methyiic  ether  is  either  em- 
ployed to  lower  the  temperature  of  a  solution  of  brine,  by  passing  it 
through  a  series  of  tubes  situated  in  the  refrigerator  and  plunged  in 


THE   COMPRESSION    PROCESS   OR   SYSTEM.      41 

the  latter ;  or  it  is  carried  on  and  permitted  to  expand  in  a  suitable 
system  of  pipes,  and  so  act  direct  to  reduce  the  temperature  of  air- 


tight  chambers.  When  in  operation  it  is  found  that  the  pipes  leading 
from  the  receiver  B  are  so  cold  that  they  become  coated  with  hoar 
frost ;  whilst,  on  the  contrary,  when  giving  up  the  absorbed  heat  during 


42        REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD    STORAGE. 

compression  and  liquefaction,  the  gas  raises  the  tubes  to  a  very  high 
temperature,  sometimes  even  approaching  to  a  red  heat. 

The  liquefaction  of  the  methylic  ether  in  the  worm  or  coil  of  the 
condenser  D  gives  rise  to  a  certain  amount  of  pressure,  and  to  allow 
for  this,  and  at  the  same  time  to  permit  a  supply  of  the  liquid  to  pass 
from  the  condenser  to  the  evaporator  B  as  required,  an  expansion 
valve  or  distributor,  the  construction  of  which  will  be  readily  under- 
stood from  the  enlarged  sectional  view,  Fig.  12,  is  employed.  E  is 
the  aperture  through  which  the  liquid  methylic  ether  is  delivered  to  a 
small  chamber  or  recess  F.  G  is  the  outlet  aperture,  the  upper  portion 

of  which  is  bifurcated  as  shown  at 
G1,  and  which  communicates  with 
the  refrigerator.  H  is  a  valve 
having  two  recesses  H1,  which 
correspond  with  the  holes  or  aper- 
tures G1,  and  which  valve  is 
mounted  on  a  spindle  I,  which  is 
capable  of  being  rotated  through  the 
bevel  or  mitre  gearing  K,  and  shaft  L, 
and  works  upon  a  suitable  seating 
in  the  bottom  of  the  recess  or 
chamber  F.  During  the  revolution  of 
the  valve  H  in  the  chamber  F,  which 
latter  is  always  maintained  full  of 
liquefied  methylic  ether,  the  recesses 
H1  become  filled  with  the  latter,  and 
every  time  that  the  recesses  register 
with  the  corresponding  holes  or  ways 
G1,  the  liquid  contained  therein  falls 
by  gravity  into  the  latter  and  passes 
away  to  the  refrigerator  through  the  outlet  G. 

About  the  same  time  as  the  preceding,  an  ether  machine  was 
patented  by  Delia  Beffa  and  West,  which  comprised  a  multitubular 
refrigerator  in  which  the  ether  was  volatilised,  a  double-acting  air  or 
vacuum  pump  exhausting  this  vessel  and  pumping  the  ether  vapour 
into  a  condenser;  and  likewise  a  special  form  of  the  latter  for  con- 
densing the  ether  vapour. 

The  following  particulars  regarding  an  ether  machine  are  given  *  by 
Mr  Lightfoot  as  being  the  result  of  actual  experiments  made  in  this 


Fig.  12.  —  Expansion  Valve  or 
Distributor  of  Tellier's  Methylic 
Ether  Machine.  Vertical  Section. 


*  Proceedings,  Institution  of  Mechanical  Engineers,  1886,  p.  214. 


THE   COMPRESSION    PROCESS   OR   SYSTEM.      43 

country,  and  serving  to  show  what  may  be  expected  under  ordinary 
conditions : — 

Production  of  ice  per  twenty-four  hours  15  tons, 

per  hour  1,400  Ibs. 

Heat  abstracted  in  ice-making,  per  hour  245,000  units.* 

Indicated  horse-power  in  steam  cylinder,  excluding  that 
required  for  circulating  the  cooling  water  and  for 
working  cranes,  &c.  -  83  I.H.P. 

Indicated  horse-power  in  ether  pump     -  -     46^  I.H.P. 

Thermal  equivalent  of  work  in  ether  pump,  per  hour    119,261  units.* 

Ratio  of  work  in  pump  to  work  in  ice-making   -  1  to  2 '05. 

Temperature  of  water  entering  condenser  -        52°  Fahr. 

Mr  Frederick  Colyer,  C.E.,  M.I.C.E.,  states f  that  he  obtained  the 
following  results  with  a  first-class  apparatus  when  testing  the  working 
of  some  of  the  leading  ether  machines,  viz.  :  "  In  an  ether  machine 
made  by  Messrs  Siebe  Gorman  &  Co.,  capable  of  cooling  3,200  gals, 
of  water  from  60°  down  to  50°,  or  abstracting  320,000  heat  units*  per 
hour,  the  average  experiments  gave  4,250  gals,  per  hour  cooled  10° 
Fahr.  The  temperature  of  the  water  at  the  inlet  was  54°,  and  that 
of  the  water  used  for  condensing  purposes  was  the  same.  The  maxi- 
mum cooling  effected  was  449,437  heat  units*  abstracted  per  hour, 
being  from  35  to  40  per  cent,  above  the  nominal  power  of  the  machine. 
The  condensing  water  used  per  hour  was  1,262  gals.,  or  about  three- 
tenths  of  a  gallon  for  every  gallon  of  water  cooled.  The  coal  consumed 
was  3 J  cwt.  per  hour ;  it  was  of  indifferent  quality,  or  the  consump- 
tion would  have  been  smaller.  The  steam  cylinder  was  21  in.  diameter 
and  27  in.  stroke ;  the  air-pump  24  in.  diameter  and  27  in.  stroke. 
The  speed  of  the  engine  was  fifty-eight  revolutions  per  minute,  with  48 
Ibs.  of  steam  cut  off  at  one-third  of  the  stroke.  The  indicated  power  of 
the  engine  was  53  H.P.,  and  of  the  air-pump,  29-2  H.P.  The  boiler 
was  7  ft.  diameter  and  24  ft.  long,  and  gave  an  ample  supply  of  steam." 

This,  he  stated,  was  the  most  efficient  ether  machine  that  had  come 
under  his  notice  at  that  date,  and  contained  several  improvements  not 
usually  found  in  others  of  the  same  class. 

According  to  the  same  authority  the  ether  system  is  more  expensive 
than  the  ammonia  system  (which  latter  will  be  considered  in  the  next 
chapter),  especially  in  London  where  coal  is  expensive,  and  water  has 
frequently  to  be  obtained  from  the  water  companies.  The  latter  item 
is  undoubtedly  in  this  case  one  of  considerable  moment,  as  water  is 

*  A  thermal  unit  is  that  amount  of  heat  required  to  raise  the  temperature  of 
1  Ib.  of  water  1°  by  the  Fahrenheit  scale  when  at  39 '4°.     Mec.  eq.  778  ft. -Ibs. 
t  Proceedings,  Institution  of  Mechanical  Engineers,  1886,  p.  248. 


44   REFRIGERATION  AND  COLD  STORAGE. 

required  in  larger  quantities  for  condensing  purposes  in  the  ether  system, 
and  consequently  the  high  temperature  which  it  sometimes  attains  in  the 
street  mains  during  the  summer  months  becomes  a  matter  of  serious 
importance  as  regards  the  economical  working  of  the  machines. 

Other  objections  to  the  use  of  ether  as  a  refrigerating  agent  are, 
that,  owing  to  its  low  vapour  tension,  a  very  large  volume  has  to  be 
circulated  to  perform  a  given  refrigerating  effect,  thus  abnormally 
increasing  the  dimensions  of  the  apparatus ;  rapid  deterioration  under 
repeated  vaporisation  and  re-condensation;  and  finally  that  it  is 
extremely  inflammable  and  explosive.  On  the  other  hand,  however, 
it  is  possessed  of  the  quality  of  working  with  a  low  pressure  in  the 
condenser,  which  renders  its  use  advantageous  in  hot  climates. 

Modern  types  of  ether  machines  will  be  found  dealt  with  in 
another  chapter. 

Van  der  Weyde's  (American)  apparatus  comprises  exhaust  and 
force  pumps,  a  cooling  coil  and  two  refrigerators,  the  latter  also  acting 
as  reservoirs  for  the  condensed  liquid.  The  most  usual  refrigerating 
agents  employed  are  naphtha,  gasoline,  rhigoline,  or  chimogene.* 
The  water  to  be  frozen  is  placed  in  moulds  or  vessels  plunged  in 
other  vessels  containing  glycerine,  and  which  latter  are  surrounded 
on  the  outside  by  cyrogene.  The  naphtha,  gasoline,  rhigoline,  or 
chimogene  is  evaporated  by  means  of  an  air-pump  and  forced  through 
the  refrigerator,  the  evaporation  of  the  cyrogene  abstracting  sufficient 
heat  to  form  ice. 

In  Raoul  Pictet's  machine  sulphur  dioxide  or  sulphurous  acid 
(SO2)  is  employed  as  a  refrigerating  agent.  Sulphur  dioxide  is 
prepared  by  burning  sulphur  in  dry  air  or  oxygen  gas,  or  by  removing 
the  elements  of  water,  and  an  additional  atom  of  oxygen  from  sulphuric 
acid  by  heating  it  together  with  copper  clippings  or  mercury.  The 
purification  of  the  resultant  gas  is  effected  by  washing,  and  it  is 
collected  either  by  displacement,  or  over  mercury.  It  is  completely 
colourless,  has  the  overpowering  odour  of  burning  sulphur,  neither 
supports  combustion  nor  respiration,  is  2 '247  times  heavier  than  air, 
is  easily  condensed,  is  liquefiable  by  cooling  down  to  14°  Fahr.  under 
ordinary  atmospheric  pressure,  and  congeals  into  a  transparent  solid 
at  temperatures  below  -  168°  Fahr.  This  gas  deviates  considerably 
from  Boyle's  law  of  pressures,  and  occupies  less  space  for  equal 
increments  of  pressure  than  does  air  under  like  conditions,  this 
variation  becoming  more  marked  as  the  temperature  is  reduced. 
Sulphurous  acid  is  extremely  soluble  in  water,  one  volume  of  the 
*  Knight's  "Practical  Dictionary  of  Mechanics." 


THE   COMPRESSION    PROCESS   OR   SYSTEM.      45 

latter  at  a  temperature  of  50°  Fahr.  being  capable  of  dissolving  51-38, 
and  at  68°,  36 '22  volumes  of  the  former.  It  has  a  molecular  weight 
of  65  and  a  density  of  32.  The  latent  heat  of  vaporisation  of  this 
liquid  is  182,  and  it  boils  at  a  temperature  of  14°  Fahr.  at  the  tension 
of  the  atmosphere. 

In  Pictet's  apparatus  the  refrigerator  and  ice-tanks  are  combined, 
the  circulation  of  the  brine  being  effected  by  means  of  a  fan,  and  the 
space  occupied  is  thus  considerably  reduced,  the  efficiency  being  also 
somewhat  augmented. 

In  1885  Pictet  applied  for  a  British  patent  for  an  improved 
material  for  use  in  refrigerating  apparatus  wherein  anhydrous  sulphur- 
ous acid  is  employed,  consisting  of  the  admixture  with  the  latter  of 
carbonic  anhydride.  The  sealing,  however,  was  successfully  opposed 
and  consequently  no  patent  was  granted  for  this  invention. 

The  employment  of  sulphurous  acid  is  objectionable,  by  reason  of 
its  liability  to  become  converted,  by  combining  with  the  constituents 
of  the  atmosphere,  into  sulphuric  acid  and  to  corrode  the  machine. 
Modern  machines  using  this  agent  are  described  in  another  chapter. 

In  a  patented  machine  of  Windhausen's  the  refrigerating  agent 
employed  is  what  is  indifferently  known  as  carbon  dioxide  (C02), 
carbonic  anhydride,  or  carbonic  acid,  which  material  is  gaseous  at 
ordinary  temperatures,  and  under  ordinary  pressures,  but  which 
liquefies  at  a  pressure  of  540  Ibs.  Carbonic  acid  gas  does  not  burn, 
neither  supporting  combustion  nor  respiration. 

Windhausen's  apparatus  is  fitted  with  a  pair  of  compressors  placed 
in  line  with  steam  cylinders  of  the  compound  type,  arranged  side 
by  side  with  a  surface  condenser  between  them.  The  gas  condensers 
are  situated  in  the  base  of  the  machine,  and  a  separate  refrigerator 
is  provided  in  connection  with  each  of  them,  constructed  of  coils 
of  wrought-iron  pipes  mounted  in  a  steel  casing,  wherein  the  brine 
is  circulated.  The  duplicate  portions  of  the  machine  are  usually  so 
arranged  as  to  admit  of  either  of  them  being  worked  separately,  or 
both  together,  if  desired.  This  is  advantageous  inasmuch  as  it  renders 
the  apparatus  practically  equal  to  two  independent  or  separate  machines, 
and  affords  the  same  immunity  from  a  complete  breakdown.  The  later 
patterns  of  this  machine,  which  will  be  found  described  in  another 
chapter,  comprise  several  patented  improvements  by  J.  &  E.  Hall,  Ltd., 
who  are  also  the  proprietors  of  the  original  Windhausen  patent. 

Fig.  13  is  a  vertical  central  section,  some  of  the  parts  being  left 
in  elevation,  showing  the  Windhausen  compressor  for  treating  the  gas 
in  two  stages.  Figs.  14  and  15  are  enlarged  views,  showing  more 


46        REFRIGERATION    AND    COLD    STORAGE. 


clearly  the  details  of  construction  of  the  inlet  or  suction  valve,  and  of 
the  outlet  or  discharge  valve.    As  will  be  seen  from  the  illustration  the 

inner  cylinder  A  is  surrounded 
by  an  annular  space  com- 
municating with  the  former 
through  the  valve  D  ;  c  is 
the  inlet  which  communicates 
with  the  cylinder  A  through 
a  suitable  valve,  and  through 
which  the  gas  to  be  com- 
pressed is  drawn  or  sucked 
into  the  cylinder ;  B  is  the 
piston,  and  E  is  a  valve  through 
which  the  annular  space  or 
clearance  round  the  cylinder 
A  communicates  with  a  pipe 
leading  to  the  condenser. 

In   operation    the   gas   is 
primarily     drawn     into     the 
cylinder  A,  through  the  inlet 
valve  c,  where  it  is  compressed, 
and    discharged   through  the 
valve    D    to    the    above-men- 
tioned annular  space,  wherein 
it  is  finally  compressed  by  the 
oil  shown  in  the  latter  and 
the   cylinder   A,    which   com- 
municate at  their  lower  ends   through   suitable   holes   or   apertures, 
and  which  oil  forms  a  liquid  piston.     After  this  second  and  final  com- 
pression the  gas  is  discharged  through  the  valve  E  to  the  condenser. 

Another  machine  adapted  for  the  use  of  carbon  dioxide  as  a 
refrigerating  agent  is  found  in  that  of  Lowe.  It  comprises  a  gasometer 
or  gas-holder,  a  pump,  a  condenser  or  cooler,  a  drier  charged  with 
chloride  of  calcium,  a  water-cooled  condensing  coil,  and  a  refrigerator 
or  ice-making  tank.  In  operation  the  gas  is  admitted  to  the  pump, 
liquefied  under  the  action  thereof,  and  the  heat  thus  generated  is 
absorbed  or  taken  up  in  the  cooler,  after  which  it  is  allowed  to  expand 
into  the  refrigerator,  where  it  acts  in  the  usual  manner,  and  is  finally 
returned  to  the  gas-holder. 

A  number  of  other  refrigerating  machines  on  the  carbonic  acid  or 
carbonic  anhydride  system  will  be  found  described  in  another  chapter. 


Fig.  13.— Original  Type  of  Windhausen 
Compressor,  with  Liquid  Piston,  for  treating 
the  Gas  in  two  Stages.  Vertical  Section. 


THE   COMPRESSION    PROCESS   OR   SYSTEM.      47 

Carbonic  acid,  carbon  dioxide,  or  carbonic  anhydride  (CO2)  is 
completely  inodorous ;  incombustible ;  and  has  the  further  advantage 
that,  as  it  has  no  affinity  for  copper,  it  can  be  used  with  that  metal 
with  impunity.  This  is  an  important  quality  for  marine  installations, 
and  consequently  it  has  been  used  to  a  large  extent  for  that  purpose. 
On  the  other  hand,  however,  its  presence  in  quantity  is  fatal  to  animal 
existence — an  objection,  however,  shared  by  most  of  the  other  agents 
used — and  it  has  the  further  drawback  that  with  the  cooling  water 
at  a  high  temperature,  it  requires  a  considerable  pressure  to  liquefy  it, 


Fig.    14.  — Suction    Valve   of    Wind-  Fig.  15. — Outlet  or  Discharge  Valve 

hausen  Compressor,  for  treating  of  Windhausen  Compressor,  for 

the  Gas  in  two  Stages.  treating  the  Gas  in  two  Stages. 

viz.,  with  condensing  water  at  a  temperature  of   70°  Fahr.  it  would 
require  a  pressure  amounting  to  about  1,000  Ibs.  per  square  inch. 

Carbonic  acid  or  carbon  dioxide  must  not  be  mistaken  for  the 
still  more  deadly  gas  known  as  carbon  monoxide  or  carbonic  oxide 
gas  (CO),  the  inhalation  of  even  a  minute  quantity  of  which  will 
produce  death.  Sir  Henry  E.  Roscoe,  F.R.S.,  gives  the  vapour  tension 
of  carbon  dioxide  or  carbonic  acid,  at  35-5  atmospheres  at  a  temperature 
of  0°  Cent.  (32°  Fahr.),  and  at  7 3 '5  atmospheres  at  a  temperature  of 
30°  Cent.  (86°  Fahr.). 


CHAPTER  VI 
THE  COMPRESSION  PROCESS  (continued) 

Ammonia  Machines — Properties  of  Ammonia — Cycle  of  Operations — Wet  and  Dry 
Compression  Principle — Construction  of  Gas  Compressors — Various  Examples 
of  Modern  Machines. 

A  REFRIGERATING  agent  now  very  largely  employed,  and  considered 
by  many  the  most  efficient  one  known  at  present,  is  anhydrous 
ammonia  (NH3),  which  has  a  molecular  weight  of  17  and  a  density  of 
8 *5.  This  liquid  boils  at  40°  below  zero  Fahr.  at  atmospheric  pressure; 
it  has  a  latent  heat  of  vaporisation  of  900,  and  a  vapour  tension  of  108 
Ibs.  per  square  inch  at  a  temperature  of  60°  Fahr.  Gaseous  ammonia 
can  be  liquefied  at  a  pressure  of  128  Ibs.  to  the  square  inch  at  a 
temperature  of  70°  Fahr.,  and  at  a  pressure  of  150  Ibs.  at  a  temperature 
of  77°  Fahr.,  the  pressure  required  to  produce  liquefaction  rising  very 
rapidly  with  the  temperature.  To  liquefy  by  cold  it  requires  to  be 
reduced  to  a  very  low  temperature,  viz.,  -  85'5°  Fahr.  The  latent  heat 
of  ammonia  is  very  great,  consequently  its  value  as  a  refrigerating 
agent  is  proportionately  large.  Anhydrous  ammonia  is  manufactured 
which  contains  only  '025  per  cent,  of  moisture. 

The  only  alterations  required  in  an  ether  machine  to  render  it 
suitable  for  use  with  anhydrous  ammonia  as  a  refrigerating  agent,  are 
those  made  necessary  by  reason  of  the  higher  pressure  of  its  vapour, 
and  of  the  injurious  action  which  it  exercises  upon  copper,  which 
causes  the  use  of  brass  or  gun-metal  in  any  of  the  parts  with  which 
either  the  liquid  or  the  vapour  comes  in  contact  to  be  undesirable. 

This  latter  quality  is  a  serious  drawback  to  its  use  for  marine 
work,  as  is  also  its  inflammable  and  irritant  nature  in  case  of  an  escape. 

The  chief  advantages  derived  from  the  use  of  anhydrous  ammonia 
as  a  refrigerating  agent  are  that  it  possesses  greater  heat-absorbing 
power  than  any  of  the  others  named,  excepting  water ;  that  it  liquefies 
at  a  comparatively  low  pressure;  and  that  it  is  not  as  explosive  or 
as  inflammable  as  ether. 


THE   COMPRESSION    PROCESS    OR   SYSTEM.      49 

Ammonia  is,  however,  very  far  from  being  innocuous  and  safe,  and 
due  precautions  should  be  taken  to  avoid  accidents  where  it  is  in  use. 
It  is  a  colourless  irrespirable  gas,  having  an  extremely  pungent,  pecu- 
liar, and  easily  recognisable  odour,  and  it  is  also  slightly  combustible 
when  mixed  with  a  sufficient  proportion  of  air,  burning  feebly  with  a 
flame  of  a  greenish-yellow  hue,  and  when  mixed  with  about  twice  its 
volume  of  air,  being  capable  of  exploding  with  considerable  violence. 
From  this  it  will  be  clear  that  it  is  absolutely  essential  that  no  part 
of  an  ammonia  apparatus  should  have  a  naked  light  inserted  into  it, 
until  it  has  been  open  and  exposed  to  the  air  for  a  sufficient  time  to 
render  the  presence  of  such  light  harmless.  The  tendency  of  ammonia 
gas,  owing  to  its  being  only  half  the  weight  of  air,  is  to  rise  when  set 
free,  so  that  there  is  the  less  likelihood  of  any  person  who  might  chance 
to  be  near  when  an  ammonia  pipe  happens  to  burst,  or  a  bad  leak  to 
take  place,  becoming  overpowered  by  the  gas. 

Another  objectionable  feature  of  ammonia,  which  has  been  already 
alluded  to,  is  its  very  strong  action  on  copper  and  its  alloys,  by  reason 
of  which  no  such  material  can  be  employed  for  any  part  of  an  ammonia 
machine. 

Common  ammonia  of  commerce  is  a  solution  of  ammonia  gas  in 
water,  and  its  usual  strength  is  26°  Beaume.  Anhydrous  ammonia 
is  pure  dry  ammonia  gas  compressed  to  a  liquid,  and  it  is  manu- 
factured by  the  distillation  of  the  ordinary  26°  ammonia  of  commerce 
in  a  suitable  apparatus.  This  apparatus,  which  should  be  of  sufficient 
strength  to  stand  a  pressure  of  65  Ibs.  on  the  square  inch,  comprises 
a  still,  a  condenser,  three  separators,  and  a  drier  t)r  dehydrator. 
The  still  is  heated,  by  a  suitable  steam  coil,  to  a  temperature  of 
about  212°  Fahr.,  when  the  ammoniacal  gas,  together  with  a  certain 
amount  of  water,  passes  off  into  the  first  separator,  which  latter  is 
usually  situated  on  the  top  of,  and  forms  an  upward  extension  of, 
the  still.  In  this  first  separator  the  greater  portion  of  the  watery 
particles  carried  over  are  eliminated  by  a  series  of  perforated  plates, 
through  which  perforations  the  gas  has  to  pass,  and  are  returned 
to  the  still  through  a  dip  pipe.  From  this  first  separator  the  partially 
dried  gas  passes  through  a  water-cooled  worm  in  the  condenser,  and 
then  successively  through  the  two  other  separators  to  the  drier  or 
the  dehydrator,  where  it  is  passed  through  a  set  of  similarly  perforated 
plates  to  those  in  the  first  separator,  but  having  small  sized  lumps 
of  freshly  burnt  lime  placed  upon  them,  by  which  any  moisture  that 
may  still  remain  in  the  gas  is  removed,  and  the  completely  anhydrous 
product  can  then  be  passed  into  the  ammonia  pump  or  compressor. 
4 


50   REFRIGERATION  AND  COLD  STORAGE. 

It  is  found  advisable  to  work  the  still  at  a  pressure  of  about 
30  Ibs.  to  the  square  inch,  so  as  to  admit  of  its  being  raised  to  a 
slightly  higher  temperature  than  the  boiling  point  of  water  at  atmo- 
spheric pressure,  without  causing  the  water  to  boil,  the  result  of 
this  being  that  the  whole,  or  practically  the  whole,  of  the  ammonia 
will  be  set  free,  whilst  at  the  same  time  the  least  possible  amount 
of  the  water  will  be  vaporised  and  pass  over  with  the  ammonia  gas. 

To  ascertain  whether  or  not  all  the  ammonia  has  been  eliminated, 
two  methods  of  testing  the  charge  in  the  still  are  usually  practised. 
The  first  is  to  draw  off  a  small  quantity  of  the  charge,  and  if  this 
fails  to  turn  litmus  paper,  then  the  charge  is  exhausted,  and  all  the 
ammonia  has  been  driven  off.  The  second  is  to  allow  a  small  amount 
of  the  gas  leaving  the  still  to  escape  through  a  small  cock  or  valve 
specially  provided  for  the  purpose,  when  if  this  gas  be  tested  with 
turmeric  paper,  and  if  this  latter  remains  unchanged  in  colour  (yellow), 
the  charge  is  completely  spent ;  if,  however,  the  paper  on  the  contrary 
turns  of  a  brown  hue,  there  is  still  some  ammonia  left. 

After  the  distillation  is  finished  the  water  remaining  in  the  still 
should  be  run  out,  and  as  soon  as  the  temperature  of  the  latter  is 
sufficiently  lowered  it  can  be  again  charged.  The  water  accumulating 
in  the  second  and  third  separators,  being  saturated  with  ammonia 
gas,  may  be  returned  into  the  still  when  recharging  the  latter.  The 
amount  of  ammonia  water,  however,  that  becomes  deposited  in  the 
separators  will  be  very  small  if  the  pressure  in  the  still  is  maintained 
at  about  30  Ibs.,  as  above-mentioned. 

The  lime  in  the  drier  or  dehydrator  must  be  removed  whenever 
it  is  found  to  have  become  in  any  degree  slacked. 

Commercial  ammonia  of  26°  Beaume  contains  38'5  per  cent,  of 
anhydrous  ammonia  by  volume,  it  is  therefore  easy  to  calculate  from 
this  the  quantity  that  it  would  be  necessary  to  distil  in  order  to 
produce  any  given  amount  of  anhydrous  ammonia. 

Ammonia  gas  or  vapour  is,  owing  to  its  searching  nature,  very 
troublesome  to  deal  with,  even  at  a  low  pressure,  consequently  this 
difficulty  is  greatly  increased  by  the  comparatively  high  pressure  or 
tenuity  that  is  obtained  in  a  compression  machine,  and  which  rises 
in  the  condenser  to  as  much  as  180  Ibs.  per  square  inch.  Liability  to 
leakage  of  the  ammonia  gas  at  the  pump  glands  and  other  parts  of  the 
apparatus  forms,  therefore,  one  of  the  objections  to  the  use  of  ammonia 
as  a  refrigerating  agent,  and  the  means  employed  to  prevent  this 
leakage  one  of  the  chief  points  of  difference  between  ammonia  and  ether 
machines.  Another  difficulty  to  overcome  is  the  liability  to  an  imper- 


THE   COMPRESSION    PROCESS   OR   SYSTEM.      51 

feet  discharge  of  the  gas  from  the  compressor-pump,  and  the  expansion 
and  consequent  back  pressure  of  that  remaining  therein. 

The  most  important  part  of  an  ammonia  machine  working  on  the 
compression  principle,  and  indeed  of  all  apparatus  wherein  a  volatile 
liquid  is  compressed,  is  the  gas  compressor.  In  ammonia  machines 
both  single  and  double  acting  compressors  are  employed.  A  single- 
acting  compressor  has  the  advantage  when  working  with  a  gas  of  the 
tenuity  of  ammonia,  owing  to  its  only  carrying  the  lesser  pressure  of 
the  suction  side  over  the  stuffing  box,  of  preventing  the  stuffing  box 
from  being  subjected  to  the  high  pressure  of  the  condenser,  which 
is  unavoidably  done  at  the  termination  of  each  stroke  in  a  double- 
acting  compressor,  and  on  this  account  the  chance  of  leakage  is,  of 
course,  greatly  reduced.  On  the  other  hand,  however,  it  is  obvious 
that  a  double-acting  compressor  must  be  more  advantageous  from  an 
economical  point  of  view,  inasmuch  as  it  deals  with  nearly  twice  the 
amount  of  gas  at  each  revolution  of  the  crankshaft  that  a  single-acting 
compressor  of  the  same  diameter  and  stroke  is  capable  of  operating 
upon.  Moreover,  the  same  amount  of  friction  is  engendered  in  each 
case  (although  with  a  double-acting  compressor  double  the  duty  is 
being  performed),  at  least,  so  far  as  regards  the  friction  of  such  moving 
parts  as  the  crosshead,  piston,  and  connecting-rod — which  friction 
causes  no  inconsiderable  loss,  for  to  overcome  friction  power  has  to 
be  expended,  and  waste  of  power  means  loss  of  fuel,  i.e.,  money.  But 
in  a  double-acting  compressor  a  considerable  amount  of  extra  friction 
is  caused  by  the  necessity  of  working  with  a  tighter  gland.  Taking 
everything  into  consideration,  however,  it  is  estimated  that  the  amount 
of  saving  effected  in  a  machine  having  two  gas  compressors  may  be 
placed  at  one-eighth  of  the  whole  amount  of  power  required  for  com- 
pressing the  gas.  A  further  economy  is  that  a  double-acting  compressor 
is  capable  of  performing  the  work  of  a  pair  of  single-acting  ones  of  the 
same  size,  and  consequently  there  is  a  saving  in  the  first  cost  of  the 
apparatus  and  in  space  occupied. 

The  construction  of  a  gas  compressor  for  operating  with  ammonia 
does  not,  as  already  mentioned,  vary  in  any  very  material  point  from 
that  of  one  intended  to  work  with  ether,  and,  however  much  they  may 
differ  from  one  another  in  minor  points  of  detail,  they  all  work  upon 
the  following  broad  principles,  viz.  : — 

The  gas  compressor,  which  is  operated  by  a  steam  engine  or  other 
suitable  motor,  draws  the  gas  or  vapour  from  the  evaporating  coils  or 
tubes  of  the  refrigerator  after  it  has  performed  its  duty  of  cooling,  com- 
presses it  on  the  return  stroke  of  the  piston,  and  forces  it  into  a  system 


52        REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

or  series  of  pipes  or  coils  in  the  condenser,  in  which  coils,  under  the 
cooling  action  of  water,  it  resumes  its  liquid  form.  From  the  condenser 
it  is  again  passed  in  the  liquid  state,  through  a  minute  opening  of 
the  expansion  or  regulating  cock,  into  the  evaporating  coils  or  tubes 
of  the  refrigerator,  wherein  it  again  expands  into  gas  or  vapour,  owing 
to  the  diminished  pressure  there  prevailing,  by  reason  of  the  sucking 
action  of  the  gas  compressor.  The  pressure  in  the  pipes  or  coils  in  the 
refrigerator  is  usually  maintained  at  from  15  Ibs.  to  30  Ibs.,  whilst 
that  in  the  condenser,  as  above  mentioned,  may  rise  as  high  as  180  Ibs., 
the  former  depending  of  course  on  the  amount  of  opening  given  to  the 
expansion  cock.  The  liquid  ammonia  passing  suddenly  from  the  above 
high  pressure  of  the  condenser  to  the  comparatively  low  pressure  in 
the  refrigerator,  instantly  flashes  into  gaseous  form,  and  whilst  doing 
so,  in  conformity  with  the  well-known  natural  law,  is  forced  to  absorb 
a  quantity  of  heat  which  it  renders  latent ;  this  it  does  from  the 
surrounding  objects,  which  in  the  present  instance  are  either  the  pipes 
or  coil  in  the  refrigerator,  and  the  brine  circulating  round  the  latter, 
or  when  used  for  cooling  on  the  direct  system,  the  sets  of  refrigerating 
pipes  into  which  it  is  passed  and  the  surrounding  air. 

In  order  to  avoid  any  chance  of  accidents  occurring  through  the 
machine  being  started  with  all  the  valves  closed,  a  suitable  relief  or 
safety  valve  and  by-pass  should  invariably  be  provided. 

Expressed  generally,  then,  the  cycle  of  operations  in  machines  on 
the  ammonia  compression  system  is  the  same  as  that  of  those  described 
in  the  preceding  chapter,  viz.,  compression,  condensation,  and  expan- 
sion ;  and  these  machines,  no  matter  how  they  may  differ  in  more  or 
less  important  points  of  constructional  detail,  must  all  likewise  con- 
sist of  three  different  parts,  viz.,  a  compression  side,  a  condensing  side, 
and  an  expansion  side  (see  Fig.  8).  The  operations  are  rendered  con- 
tinuous by  suitably  connecting  all  these  sides  or  parts  together  so  that 
the  gas  passes  through  them  in  the  above  order. 

Ammonia  compression  machines  are  operated  on  two  systems,  viz., 
wet  compression  and  dry  compression,  and  as  regards  the  respective 
merits  of  these  systems  theoretically,  considerable  diversity  of  opinion 
seems  to  exist.  In  practical  work,  however,  it  will  be  found  that  what 
are  termed  dry  compression  machines — for  reasons  given  below — are 
worked  more  or  less  wet,  and,  therefore,  the  efficiency  as  regards  this 
point  is  about  the  same  in  the  case  of  both  types  of  machines. 

When  intended  to  work  on  the  wet  compression  system  the  expan- 
sion cock  or  valve  is  adjusted  in  such  a  manner  that  the  vapour  will 
come  back  to  the  compressor  in  a  supersaturated  condition,  with  the 


THE   COMPRESSION    PROCESS    OR   SYSTEM.      53 

result  that  this  surcharge  of  liquid  becomes  evaporated  during  the 
compression  stage,  absorbing  the  required  quantity  of  heat,  and  main- 
taining a  correspondingly  low  temperature  in  the  compressor  cylinder. 
An  obvious  objection  to  this  method  of  working  is  the  constant 
liability  of  too  large  a  quantity  of  liquid  finding  its  way  into  the 
compressor  cylinder,  the  result  of  which  would  be  the  filling  of  clear- 
ance spaces  with  liquid  ammonia,  which  latter  would  re-expand  upon 
the  return  stroke  of  the  piston,  and  take  up  space  which  is  required 
for  the  reception  of  the  inflowing  gas  or  vapour. 

With  a  machine  adapted  to  work  on  the  dry  compression  system, 
the  expansion  cock  or  valve  is  so  adjusted  that  the  whole  of  the  liquid 
ammonia  admitted  to  the  expansion  coil  will  become  expanded  into 
gas  or  vapour,  and  the  latter  consequently  reaches  the  compressor 
cylinder  in  a  dry  condition,  superheating  taking  place  during  compres- 
sion. It  will  be  observed  that  this  plan  admits  of  the  full  value  of  the 
liquid  ammonia  being  utilised  for  purposes  of  refrigeration,  a  draw- 
back being  experienced,  however,  by  reason  of  the  higher  pressure 
which  becomes  necessary  to  liquefy  the  ammonia,  and  the  larger 
amount  of  heat  generated  which  calls  for  special  cooling  arrangements 
for  its  removal.  For  this  reason  in  this  system  compressors  are,  as 
before  mentioned,  usually  worked  partly  wet. 

The  principal  qualities  to  be  sought  for  in  a  compressor  in  order 
to  ensure  the  maximum  amount  of  efficiency  are  : — As  complete  a  dis- 
charge from  the  compressor  cylinder  of  the  gas  during  compression  as 
is  practically  feasible,  and  the  removal  during  compression  of  the 
greatest  possible  amount  of  heat  from  the  gas.  Amongst  other  points 
of  importance  are  the  perfection  of  the  means  provided  for  preventing 
any  leakages  taking  place  at  the  stuffing  box,  pistons,  and  valves,  and 
of  those  for  ensuring  the  proper  lubrication  of  the  working  parts  of  the 
machine. 

Of  these  desiderata  the  first  is  the  most  important,  and  it  is  thus 
specially  desirable  to  see  that  the  compressor  possesses  all  the  requisite 
conditions  to  ensure  its  fulfilling  its  purpose  in  the  best  possible 
manner.  One  method  of  effecting  the  desired  object  is  by  the  injec- 
tion of  a  certain  amount  of  sealing  oil  into  the  cylinder  at  each  stroke 
of  the  piston,  which  oil  forms  what  is  called  a  liquid  base.  The  injec- 
tion of  this  oil  serves  not  only  the  purpose  of  sealing  the  piston,  but 
also  lubricates  the  latter  and  the  valves,  and  prevents  leakage  at  the 
stuffing  box,  and  that,  moreover,  owing  to  the  small  amount  of  such 
sealing  oil  that  is  employed,  without  appreciably  reducing  the  capacity 
of  the  machine. 


54   REFRIGERATION  AND  COLD  STORAGE. 


The  practically  complete  discharge  of  the  charge  of  ammonia  from 
the  compressor  cylinder,  at  each  stroke  of  the  piston,  can  also  be 
ensured  by  allowing  the  latter  to  work  right  up  to  the  heads  without 
clearance.  In  the  ordinary  form  of  compressor  this  would  of  course 
give  rise  to  a  great  liability  of  knocking  out  the  cylinder  head  in  the 
event  of  any  foreign  body  or  obstruction  obtaining  access  to  the 
cylinder,  but  such  action  is  rendered  possible  with  perfect  safety  by  so 
arranging  the  head  that  it  is  loose,  but  normally  retained  in  position 

by  means  of  suitable  springs.  In 
this  manner  the  head  forms  prac- 
tically a  large  relief  valve  adapted  to 
open  should  the  pressure  in  the  com- 
pressor cylinder  from  any  cause  exceed 
that  requisite  to  produce  liquefaction 
of  the  ammonia  gas. 

The  diagram,  Fig.  16,  which  is  in- 
tended to  represent  the  cylinder  of 
a  single-acting  compressor,  illustrates 
the  loss  due  to  clearance  space.  As 
is  well  known,  according  to  Boyle's 
or  Harriot's  law  the  volume  of  gas 
will  vary  in  an  inverse  proportion  to 
the  pressure.  Assuming,  then,  that 
the  pressure  of  the  gas  on  entering 
the  cylinder  A  be  20  Ibs.  per  square 
inch,  and  that  of  the  condenser  180 
Ibs.  per  square  inch,  it  will  be  seen 
that  if  the  piston  B  is  moved  into  the 
position  shown  in  dotted  lines  at  B1 
through  a  stroke  of  9  in.,  and  neglect- 
ing loss  of  heat  during  compression, 
the  pressure  of  the  gas  will  be  in- 
creased nine  times,  whilst  its  volume 

will  have  become,  at  the  same  time,  correspondingly  reduced  to  one- 
ninth  of  its  original  volume,  and  this  pressure  of  180  Ibs.  per  square 
inch  is  that  at  which  it  is  required  that  the  gas  should  leave  the 
cylinder  A. 

If  the  clearance  space  left  between  the  piston  B  at  the  termination 
of  its  stroke  and  the  cylinder  head  c  be  1  in.,  it  is  obvious  that  the 
gas  at  a  pressure  of  180  Ibs.  per  square  inch  left  in  this  clearance 
space  will  re-expand  until  the  pressure  becomes  reduced  or  decreased 


Fig.  16. — Diagram  illustrating 
Loss  due  to  Clearance  Space  in 
Compressor  Cylinder. 


THE   COMPRESSION    PROCESS    OR    SYSTEM.      55 

to  a  ninth  of  what  it  was  originally,  or  to  20  Ibs.  per  square  inch, 
whilst  the  volume  will,  at  the  same  time,  be  increased  to  nine  times 
what  it  was  before.  It  will  be  seen  that  in  such  a  case  as  the  above 
the  inch  of  gas  at  180  Ibs.  pressure  would  re-expand  into  9  in.  of 
gas  at  20  Ibs.  pressure,  and  that  consequently  the  entire  efficiency 
of  the  compressor  would  be  lost,  as  this  back  pressure  in  the  cylinder 
of  20  Ibs.  per  square  inch  is  that  of  the  entering  gas,  and  would  thus 
render  impossible  the  entrance  of  any  more  gas.  Were  the  stroke  of 
the  piston  B,  on  the  other  hand,  to  be  the  full  length  of  the  cylinder  A, 
so  that  no  clearance  be  left  at  its  termination  between  it  and  the 
cylinder  head,  it  will  be  seen  that  all  the  gas  would  be  expelled  from 
the  cylinder  when  it  reaches  that  point,  and  consequently  its  efficiency, 
so  far  as  this  is  concerned,  would  be  practically  perfect.  In  practice, 
however,  it  is  found  impossible  to  construct  ordinary  compressors  with- 
out a  certain  amount  of  clearance  at  the  termination  of  their  strokes;  it 
becomes  necessary,  therefore,  to  find  out  what  is  the  minimum  amount 
that  can  be  allowed  compatible  with  safety  of  working,  and  also  how 
best  to  arrange  the  clearance  so  that  the  loss  due  to  it  will  represent  as 
small  a  percentage  of  the  entire  work  of  the  compressor  as  practicable. 

Obviously,  whatever  the  space  in  the  cylinder  that  will  be  occupied 
by  the  gas  left  in  the  clearance  space  after  it  has  re-expanded  to 
a  pressure  of  20  Ibs.  per  square  inch  on  the  return  stroke  of  the 
piston,  the  space  thus  occupied  will  represent  the  loss  of  efficiency. 
Say,  for  example,  that  we  have  a  cylinder  of  10  in.  in  diameter, 
by  10  in.  stroke,  and  that  a  clearance  of  one-eighth  of  an  inch  be  left 
at  the  termination  of  the  stroke,  with  this  clearance  filled  with  gas 
at  a  pressure  of  180  Ibs.  per  square  inch,  the  space  filled  by  this  gas 
on  the  return  stroke  of  the  piston,  when  the  gas  remaining  over  has 
expanded  down  to  a  pressure  of  20  Ibs.  per  square  inch,  will  be  11  in., 
and  the  loss  of  efficiency  will  consequently  be  equal  to  about  1 1  per 
cent.  If,  however,  we  now  assume  that  the  diameter  of  the  cylinder 
be  still  retained  at  10  in.,  whilst  the  length  of  stroke  be  doubled,  or 
increased  to  20  in.,  the  loss  of  efficiency  will  obviously  be  reduced  to 
5J  per  cent.,  whilst  by  again  in  like  manner  increasing  it  to  40  in., 
and  subsequently  to  60  in.,  it  will  be  reduced  to  2J  per  cent.,  and 
If  per  cent,  respectively,  and  so  on,  the  greater  the  ratio  between  the 
diameter  and  the  stroke  the  less  will  be  the  loss  of  efficiency  due  to 
the  clearance  left  in  the  cylinder  at  the  end  of  the  stroke  of  the 
piston. 

In  actual  practice,  however,  there  is  a  limit  to  the  amount  of  the 
ratio  between  the  diameter  and  the  stroke  that  can  be  used  with  due 


56   REFRIGERATION  AND  COLD  STORAGE. 

regard  to  economy  of  working.  The  practice  in  this  respect  amongst 
builders  of  refrigerating  machinery  varies  considerably,  some  employ- 
ing a  ratio  of  two  to  one,  whilst  some  others  use  less,  and  others  again 
more.  Mr  Peter  Neff,  from  whose  articles  upon  "  Mechanical  Refri- 
geration "  (New  York  Engineer),  much  of  this  information  has  been 
derived,  recommends,  as  the  result  of  his  experience,  a  stroke  of  three 
times  the  diameter  as  being  that  giving  the  most  favourable  results. 

Another  important  point  is  to  see  that  no  unnecessary  amount  of 
clearance  space  be  left  at  the  inlet  and  discharge  valves.  In  the  case 
of  a  single-acting  compressor  of  the  vertical  type,  this  is  a  com- 
paratively easy  matter,  as  the  inlet  valve  can  be  arranged  flush  with 
the  top  of  the  piston,  and  the  outlet  or  discharge  valve  flush  with  the 
head  of  the  cylinder,  thereby  reducing  as  far  as  possible  loss  from  the 
re-expansion  of  any  gas  remaining  between  the  seats  of  the  valves 
and  the  interior  of  the  cylinder.  This  difficulty  is  not,  however,  by 
any  means  so  easily  overcome  in  a  double-acting  compressor  of  the 
horizontal  type,  although  many  more  or  less  ingenious  arrangements 
have  been  devised  for  the  purpose,  one  of  the  most  efficacious  of 
which  is  perhaps  that  wherein  cages  containing  the  valves  are  so 
mounted  in  the  cylinder  that  the  seats  of  the  valves  will  be  brought 
into  close  proximity  with  the  interior  of  the  latter. 

Even  in  the  case  of  the  best  possible  designs  of  compressors  of 
the  ordinary  type,  there  must  be  an  unavoidable  appreciable  loss  of 
efficiency  from  back  pressure,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  they  are  of  very 
much  simpler  construction,  and  can  be  built  considerably  cheaper  than 
those  provided  with  special  means  for  avoiding,  or  rather  minimising, 
this  loss,  whilst  at  the  same  time  they  are  found  to  be  perfectly  well 
able  to  perform  the  work  required  of  them.  It  must  also  be  borne  in 
mind  that  upon  the  engineer  in  charge  of  the  plant,  and  the  care  which 
he  expends  to  see  that  the  valves  are  working  satisfactorily,  &c.  &c., 
depends  to  a  considerable  extent  the  greater  or  lesser  efficiency  of  the 
compressor  under  his  charge. 

In  the  De  La  Yergne  type  of  ammonia  compressor,  which  is  made 
in  this  country  by  L.  Sterne  &  Co.,  Ltd.,  the  characteristic  feature 
consists  in  the  patented  system  for  preventing  the  occurrence  of  any 
leakage  of  gas  taking  place  past  the  stuffing  box,  piston,  and  valves, 
and  of  extracting  the  heat  from  the  gas  during  compression,  by  the 
simple  device  of  injecting  into  the  compressor,  at  each  stroke,  a  certain 
quantity  of  oil  or  other  suitable  lubricating  fluid.  By  means  of  this 
sealing,  lubricating,  and  cooling  oil,  not  only  are  the  stuffing  box, 
piston,  and  valves  effectually  sealed,  and  the  heat  developed  during 


THE    COMPRESSION    PROCESS   OR   SYSTEM.      57 

compression  taken  up,  but  all  clearances  are  entirely  filled  up.  *  This 
latter  is  a  matter  of  great  importance,  as  it  ensures  a  complete  dis- 
charge of  the  gas  from  the  pump  cylinder,  and  obviates  the  above- 
mentioned  loss  of  power  and  efficiency. 

This  method  of  sealing  the  stuffing  box  and  piston  enables  the 
leakage  and  consequent  introduction  of  air  into  the  pump,  or  drawing 
out  or  wasting  of  a  volume  of  the  refrigerating  gas  at  each  alternate 
stroke  of  the  piston,  to  be  effectually  prevented  without  necessitating 
the  packing  of  the  piston  and  gland  so  tightly  as  to  bind  and  set 
up  an  excessive  amount  of  friction,  the  power  required  to  overcome 
which  has  been  sometimes  found  to  exceed  that  necessary  to  perform 
the  entire  work  of  compression.  Moreover,  when  working  constantly 
against  a  pressure  of  from  125  to  180  Ibs.,  it  is  obvious  that  the 
slightest  wear  would  cause  a  considerable  leakage  of  gas  to  take  place 
past  the  piston  into  the  adjoining  chamber,  and  like  difficulties  would 
also  be  encountered  with  the  valves,  allowing  the  gas  to  regain  access 
to  the  pump  cylinder  by  leaking  past  the  discharge  valves,  or  to  be 
readmitted  to  the  suction  side  past  the  corresponding  valves.  The 
losses  occasioned  in  this  manner  through  abnormal  friction,  and  the 
reduction  in  efficiency  and  loss  of  valuable  material  through  leakages, 
constitute  in  some  machines  a  very  large  item,  and  are  the  chief  cause 
of  failure  to  give  satisfactory  results. 

It  is  claimed  by  the  inventor  that  the  oil  injected  into  the 
compressor  cylinder  for  the  above-mentioned  sealing  purposes  not 
only  effectually  overcomes  the  above  difficulties,  but  also  acts  in  a 
more  efficient  manner  to  absorb  or  take  up  the  heat  generated  during 
compression  by  the  mechanical  energy  exerted  by  the  compressor  piston 
or  plunger  upon  the  gas  than  does  a  water  jacket  to  the  cylinder  and 
hollow  water-cooled  piston  and  rod,  the  useful  effect  of  which  latter  is 
to  a  great  extent  prevented  by  the  thickness  of  metal  required  in  a 
pump  destined  to  work  at  a  high  pressure.  In  order  to  ensure  the 
highest  efficiency  in  a  compressor,  it  is  essential  that  the  heat  generated 
by  the  act  of  compressing  be  eliminated  as  far  as  practicable,  as  other- 
wise this  heat,  by  expanding  the  gas  itself  during  compression,  in- 
creases its  volume,  and  consequently  necessitates  an  opening  of  the 
discharge  valve  prior  to  the  time  that  would  be  required  were  the 
gas  cooled  during  compression.  It  is  obvious  that  all  the  energy 
expended  in  effecting  such  premature  discharge  of  the  increased 
volume  of  gas  is  so  much  loss. 

The  oil  used  is  of  a  special  quality,  which  is  unaffected  by  the 
chemical  action  of  the  ammonia,  it  being  absolutely  essential  that  it 


58        REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 


be  of  a  nature  that  will  not  saponify,  and  that  it  be  also  capable  of 

withstanding  both  extremes  of  heat  and  cold. 

Fig.    17    is   a    vertical    central    section,    showing   a   double-acting 

compressor  on  the  De  La  Yergne 
system,  fitted  with  Louis  Block's 
patent  arrangement  of  valves,  the 
main  object  of  which  is  to  secure 
the  discharge  of  the  oil  at  the 
lower  end  of  the  cylinder  taking 
place  immediately  after  all  the  gas 
is  gone  and  not  before,  as  in  the 
latter  case  re-expansion  will  take 
place,  resulting  in  Joss  of  efficiency 
of  the  pump.  To  effect  this,  two 
valves  are  provided  in  the  lower 
end  of  the  compressor  cylinder, 
one  above  the  other. 

Either  or  both  of  these  valves 
may  open  on  the  down  stroke  of 
the  piston,  until  the  latter  covers 
the  upper  one,  when  only  the 
lower  one  is  left  open  to  the  con- 
denser. During  the  remainder  of 
the  stroke  of  the  piston,  after  the 
lower  valve  is  also  closed,  the 
other  or  upper  one  opens  com- 
munication with  an  annular  cham- 
ber formed  in  the  piston.  In  the 
bottom  of  this  annular  chamber 
are  provided,  moreover,  valves 
which  open  as  soon  as  all  the  other 
outlets  from  the  underside  of  the 
piston  are  closed,  to  ensure  which 
they  are  loaded  with  springs,  so 

Fig.    17.  —  Double-Acting    Vertical     arranged  as   to  require  somewhat 
Type,  De  La  Vergne  Ammonia  Com-  ,  , 

pressor.       Vertical     Section     through     more  pressure  to  open  them  than 
Compressor  Cylinder.  the  discharge  valves  on  the  side  of 

the  cylinder.  The  gas,  and  after- 
wards the  oil,  then  all  pass  out  through  the  piston,  no  trace  of  the 
former  being  present  at  the  completion  of  the  down  stroke.  In  this 
manner  the  oil  system  of  sealing  can  be  advantageously  retained,  and 


THE   COMPRESSION    PROCESS    OR   SYSTEM.      59 

the  pump  will  work  as  well  at  the  lower  side  as  the  upper.  Fig.  18  is 
a  view  illustrating  the  complete  machine,  which  is  driven  as  shown  by 
a  horizontal  tandem  condensing  engine. 

A  complete  installation  of  a  refrigerating  plant  on  the  De  La 
Vergne  ammonia  compression  system  is  shown  in  side  elevation  in 
Fig.  19,  from  which  view  the  circulation  of  the  ammonia  and  sealing 
oil  can  be  easily  traced,  viz.  : — 

Firstly.  Following  the  path  taken  by  the  ammonia,  in  order  to 
produce  the  frigorific  effect.  A  is  the  compressor  cylinder,  which  is 


Fig.  18. — Double- Acting  Vertical  Type  De  La  Vergne  Ammonia  Compressor  and 
Horizontal  Tandem  Condensing  Engine.     Side  Elevation  of  Complete  Machine. 

of  the  double-acting  type,  and  similar  in  construction  to  that  shown 
drawn  to  a  larger  scale  in  Fig.  17 ;  and  R  is  the  steam-engine  cylinder, 
which  is  arranged  horizontally,  as  shown  in  Fig.  18.  B  is  a  pipe 
through  which  the  gas  is  drawn  or  sucked  from  the  evaporating  coils 
into  the  compressing  cylinder  A.  The  gas  is  then  discharged  by 
the  action  of  the  compressor  A  through  the  pipe  c  into  the  pressure 
tank  D,  where  the  sealing  oil  or  liquid,  the  course  of  which  will  be 
next  followed,  falls  to  the  bottom ;  the  upper  half  or  portion  of  the 
pressure  tank  being  fitted  with  suitable  cast-iron  baffle  or  check 
plates  serving  to  more  completely  retain  the  oil  and  ensures  its 


60   'REFRIGERATION  AND  COLD  STORAGE. 


THE   COMPRESSION    PROCESS    OR   SYSTEM.      61 

deposition.  From  the  pressure  tank  D,  the  gas,  which  still  retains  the 
heat  due  to  compression,  passes  through  the  pipe  E  into  the  bottom 
or  lower  pipe  of  the  condenser  F,  wherein,  by  the  cooling  action  of  cold 
water  running  over  the  pipes,  the  heated  gas  is  first  cooled  and  then 
liquefied.  The  ammonia,  in  this  liquid  condition,  is  then  led  by  the 
small  liquid  pipes  G,  through  the  liquid  header  H,  into  the  storage 
tank  i,  from  whence  it  flows  through  the  pipe  J  into  the  lower  part  of 
the  separating  tank  K,  which  latter  must  be  constantly  maintained  at 
the  very  least  three-quarters  full.  L  is  a  pipe  of  small  bore,  through 
which  the  liquid  ammonia  is  forced,  by  reason  of  the  pressure  to  which 
it  is  now  subjected,  to  the  expansion  cock  or  valve,  through  which  it 
is  injected  into  the  evaporating  or  expansion  coil  N  which  is  situated 
in  the  room  or  chamber  to  be  refrigerated  or  cooled. 

The  ammonia  gas  resulting  from  the  expansion  and  evaporation  of 
the  liquid  ammonia  in  the  evaporating  or  expansion  coil  N,  having 
absorbed  or  taken  up  the  heat  from  the  surrounding  atmosphere, 
passes  away  through  the  pipes  o  and  B,  back  again  into  the  compressor 
cylinder,  and  the  cycle  of  operations  of  compressing,  &c.,  are  again 
performed  as  above. 

Secondly.  Following  the  course  of  the  oil  employed  for  sealing, 
lubricating,  and  cooling  purposes,  which,  as  previously  mentioned,  is 
heated  with  the  gas  during  compression,  and  is  passed  into  the  tank 
D,  to  the  bottom  of  which  it  falls.  From  the  bottom  of  the  tank  D, 
the  heated  oil  is  conducted  through  a  pipe  a  to  the  lowermost  pipe 
of  the  oil-cooler  6,  which  is  practically  similar  in  construction,  but  on 
a  smaller  scale,  to  the  ammonia  condenser,  and  is  likewise  cooled  by 
sprayed  or  atomised  cold  water.  After  being  sufficiently  reduced  in 
temperature  in  the  oil-cooler  6,  the  oil  flows  through  the  pipe  c,  strainer 
c?,  and  pipe  e,  into  the  oil-pump  f,  which  latter  is  so  constructed  that 
it  delivers  the  cooled  oil  into  the  compressor,  distributing  it  to  either 
side  of  the  piston  or  plunger  during  its  compression  stroke,  that  is 
to  say,  in  such  a  manner  that  no  oil  is  furnished  during  the  suction 
stroke  of  the  piston,  but  only  during  the  time  of  compressing,  thereby 
cooling  the  gas  during  its  period  of  heating.  The  heated  oil,  after 
leaving  the  compressor,  then  again  returns,  together  with  the  hot 
compressed  gas,  to  the  pressure  tank  D,  and  follows  the  same  round 
through  the  oil- cooler  6,  strainer  c?,  and  oil-pump  f,  back  to  the  com- 
pression cylinder.  It  will  be  obvious  that  the  oil,  as  well  as  the 
ammonia,  is  used  over  and  over  again,  no  loss  or  waste  of  either 
taking  place  except  that  which  may  occur  through  leakage. 

Any  small  quantities  of  oil,  however,  that  may  be  carried   over 


62   REFRIGERATION  AND  COLD  STORAGE. 

with  the  current  of  the  gas  from  the  pressure  tank  D  into  the  condenser 
F,  pass  along  with  the  liquid  ammonia  into  the  separating  tank  K, 
where,  by  reason  of  its  greater  weight,  this  oil  falls  to,  and  collects 
at,  the  bottom  of  the  tank.  As  soon  as  a  sufficient  quantity  of  oil 
has  become  thus  deposited,  it  is  drawn  off  and  passed  through  the 
oil-cooler  back  into  the  oil-pump.  The  oil  reservoir  or  tank  is  also 
connected  to  the  oil-pump  F. 

When  -the  apparatus  is  employed  for  the  manufacture  of  ice,  the 
evaporating  coils  N  are  placed  in  a  tank  containing  brine,  sufficient 
space  or  clearance  being  left  between  them  to  admit  of  the  insertion 
of  ice  cans  or  moulds  containing  the  water  to  be  frozen.  In  this 
instance  the  steam  used  for  driving  the  motor,  after  doing  its  duty 


Fig.  20. — Diagram  taken  from  Single- Acting  De  La  Vergne  Ammonia  Com- 
pressor, without  Sealing,  Lvibricating,  and  Cooling  Fluid. 

in  the  steam-engine  cylinder  E,  is  led  through  the  exhaust  pipe  s  into 
a  steam  filter  and  condenser,  where  it  is  purified  and  condensed.  The 
purified  condensation  water  then  passes  from  the  condenser  into 
a  water  regulator  tank,  and  from  the  latter  through  a  water-cooled 
coil  of  substantially  similar  construction  to  that  of  the  ammonia 
condenser  F  and  oil-cooler  b,  and  finally  is  delivered  into  the  ice  cans 
or  cases,  which  are  usually  constructed  of  galvanised  iron,  through 
suitable  india-rubber  hoses,  fitted  with  stop-cocks  or  valves. 

When  the  water  in  the  ice  cans  or  cases  is  frozen,  they  are  lifted 
out  and  transported  by  means  of  the  overhead  travelling  crane  to  the 
dip- tank  or  a  sprinkler,  where  the  blocks  of  ice  are  thawed  or  melted 
out,  after  which  the  empty  cans  are  refilled  with  water  through  the 
hose,  and  the  process  of  making  other  blocks  of  ice  is  commenced. 


THE   COMPRESSION    PROCESS    OR   SYSTEM.      63 

The  various  parts  are  clearly  indicated  upon  Fig.  19,  and  the 
paths  taken  by  the  ammonia,  the  sealing,  lubricating,  and  cooling 
oil,  and  the  steam  are  shown  by  the  arrows. 

The  advantages  derived  from  the  use  of  the  sealing,  cooling,  and 
lubricating  liquid  in  the  compressor  cylinder  will  become  very  apparent 
on  a  comparison  of  the  diagram  shown  in  Fig.  20,  which  was  taken 
from  a  gas  compressor  worked  without  employing  the  liquid,  with 
that  shown  in  Fig.  21,  which  was  taken  from  a  similar  compressor,  but 
with  the  charge  of  liquid. 

The  diagram  shown  in  Fig.  20  was  taken  from  a  14-in.  x  28-in. 
single-acting  gas  compressor,  working  with  a  direct  pressure  of  157  Ibs., 
and  a  back  pressure  of  20  Ibs.,  and  at  a  speed  of  thirty-six  revolutions 


Fig.  21. — Diagram  taken  from  Single- Ac  ting  De  La  Vergne  Ammonia  Com- 
pressor, with  Sealing,  Lubricating,  and  Cooling  Fluid. 

per  minute,  no  sealing,  cooling,  and  lubricating  liquid  being  used. 
A  indicates  the  adiabatic  curve,  and  B  the  isothermal  curve. 

The  adiabatic  curve  is,  as  is  well  known,  that  curve  which  would 
be  produced  were  the  air  or  gas  to  be  instantaneously  compressed,  that 
is  to  say,  without  transmission  of  heat,  and  the  isothermal  curve  is  that 
which  would  result  if  it  were  possible  to  compress  the  same  without 
raising  its  temperature  at  all.  In  actual  working  the  curves  obtained 
fall  between  the  adiabatic  curve  and  the  isothermal  curve. 

It  will  be  seen  by  an  inspection  of  this  diagram  that  the  com- 
pression curve,  which  by  right  should  approach  the  adiabatic  curve  A, 
on  the  contrary  falls  into  close  proximity  to  the  isothermal  curve  B,  and 
indicates  the  existence  of  a  leakage  past  the  piston  of  15-2  per  cent,  of 
the  gas  being  compressed,  and,  as  is  shown  by  the  curved  line,  which 


64   REFRIGERATION  AND  COLD  STORAGE. 

is  produced  by  the  re-expansion  of  the  gas  filling  the  clearance  between 
the  piston  and  compressor  head  or  cover,  a  further  loss  from  the  latter 
source  of  7*4  per  cent.,  that  is  a  total  loss  of  22-6  per  cent.,  due  to  not 
employing  the  liquid.  The  horse-power  shown  on  this  indicator  card 
is  44. 

The  diagram  shown  in  Fig.  21  was  taken  from  a  similar  compressor 
running  at  the  same  speed,  and  working  at  150  Ibs.  direct  pressure,  and 
with  a  back  pressure  of  27  Ibs.  The  actual  power  indicated  by  this 
card  is  48.  The  horse-power  measured  to  the  adiabatic  curve  A  equals 
53-6.  The  horse-power  saved  by  employing  the  sealing,  lubricating, 
and  cooling  liquid  is  5 '6  for  each  compressor,  or  in  a  machine  having 
two  compressors  a  total  saving  of  11 '2  H.P.  The  efficiency  of  the 
compressor  is  98*6  per  cent,  of  its  theoretical  value,  a  result  attained 


Fig.  22.  —Diagram  taken  from  Double-Acting  De  La  Vergne  Ammonia  Compressor, 
with  Sealing,  Lubricating,  and  Cooling  Fluid. 

by  the  use  of  the  liquid.  The  efficiency  of  the  compressor,  as  indicated 
by  the  card  shown  in  Fig.  20,  is  only  77  per  cent,  of  that  indicated  by 
the  card  shown  in  Fig.  21,  the  loss  being  the  result  of  the  non-use 
of  the  sealing  liquid. 

Fig.  22  shows  a  diagram  taken  from  a  12-in.  x  24-in.  double-acting 
gas  compressor,  running  at  a  speed  of  thirty-four  revolutions  per 
minute,  and  fitted  with  Louis  Block's  patent  improvements,  which 
latter  have  been  already  described  on  pages  58  and  59. 

The  steam  cylinder  actuating  the  above-mentioned  14-in.  x  28-in. 
gas  compressor,  whilst  the  diagrams  shown  in  Figs.  20  and  21  were 
being  taken,  was  18  in.  x  42  in.,  and  was  working  under  a  steam  pres- 
sure of  68  Ibs.  per  square  inch,  the  speed  being,  of  course,  the  same 
as  that  of  the  gas  compressors,  viz.,  thirty-six  revolutions  per  minute. 


66   REFRIGERATION  AND  COLD  STORAGE. 

Indicator  diagrams  taken  from  this  steam  cylinder  showed  on  the 
card  an  initial  pressure  of  65  Ibs.,  and  the  mean  effective  pressure  of 
the  diagrams  equalled  32'4  Ibs.  The  horse-power  developed  was  63, 
and  the  expansion  line  approached  so  close  to  the  theoretical  curve 
as  to  show  that  the  cut-off  valve  worked  well,  thus  effecting  a  great 
economy  in  steam  consumption. 

Fig.  23  shows  a  horizontal  type  of  belt  driven  Sterne  ammonia 
compressor  of  the  latest  design.  The  valves,  as  will  be  seen  from  the 
illustration,  are  arranged  in  the  end  covers  of  the  compressor,  and  are 
placed  in  cages  so  as  to  admit  of  their  removal  without  there  being 
any  necessity  for  disturbing  the  compressor  joints.  Special  attention 
has  also  been  paid  to  the  reduction  of  the  clearance  spaces  to  a 
minimum  so  that  the  greatest  possible  efficiency  may  be  obtained. 

Machines  on  the  ammonia  compression  system  are  made  by  a 
number  of  other  firms,  both  in  this  country  and  abroad,  certain 
specific  improvements  being  claimed  to  give  to  each  of  them  some 
particular  advantage.  It  would  be  impossible  in  this  little  work  to 
give  extended  descriptions  of  these  machines,  or,  indeed,  even  to  make 
brief  mention  of  all  of  them.  The  following,  however,  are  the  most 
salient  features  of  some  of  the  principal  amongst  them : — 

The  characteristic  feature  in  the  Frick  machine  is  the  means 
adopted  for  permitting  the  compressor  to  be  safely  worked  without 
clearance,  and  thereby  ensuring  the  complete,  or  practically  complete, 
discharge  of  the  gas  therefrom.  Two  forms  of  compressors  constructed 
on  this  principle  are  illustrated  in  Figs.  24,  25,  and  26. 

Referring  to  the  drawings,  A  is  the  compressor  pump  piston,  in 
which  is  placed  the  suction  valve  B,  which  is  of  ample  area,  and  is 
balanced  by  a  spring;  the  piston  working  metal  to  metal  against 
the  top  cylinder  head  without  clearance.  c  is  the  inlet  for  the 
ammonia  gas,  and  D  is  the  outlet  way  through  which  the  compressed 
gas  is  discharged  from  the  pump  barrel  or  cylinder  through  the 
aperture  and  valve  in  the  dome.  F  is  a  jacket  surrounding  the  pump 
cylinder,  and  into  the  clearance  or  space  thus  provided,  a  constant 
stream  of  cold  water  is  kept  circulating,  so  as  to  take  up  as  much 
of  the  specific  heat  of  compression,  and  of  the  latent  heat,  through  the 
wall  of  the  cylinder  as  possible,  and  thus  obviate  superheating  thereof. 
G  is  a  relief  valve  situated  in  the  cylinder  head,  which  valve  in  Fig.  24 
also  forms  the  discharge  valve,  and  is  acted  on  by  springs  E  and  G1, 
the  first  being  compressed  for  the  ordinary  discharge,  and  the  second 
when  the  safety  device  comes  into  operation.  In  the  arrangement 
shown  in  Fig.  25,  which  is  that  used  in  the  large  machines,  the  relief 


THE   COMPRESSION    PROCESS   OR   SYSTEM.      67 

valve  G  is  normally  retained  upon  its  seating  by  the  powerful  springs 
G1,  and  the  ordinary  discharge  or  outlet  valve  D  is  situated  centrally 
in  the  latter,  i  is  the  piston  rod  stuffing  box.  K  is  an  oil  reservoir 


Fig.  24. — Small  Single- Acting  Vertical  Type  Frick  Ammonia  Compressor. 
Vertical  Central  Section  through  Cylinder. 

and  hand  pump  for  lubricating  the  piston  rod,  and  through  the  small 
pipe  and  valve  L  the  pump  cylinder  when  required,  which  is  usually  only 
when  starting  a  new  machine,  or  one  that  has  been  standing  for  a 


68        REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD    STORAGE. 

considerable    time;    the  latter  also  serves  for  the   attachment^  of  an 
indicator,  to  enable  indicator  diagrams  to  be  taken  from  the  pump. 
It  will  be  seen  that  the  compressors  in  question  are  of  the  single- 


ptmawo  VALVE 


INDICATOR  WVLVE 


Fig.  25. — Large  Single- Acting  Vertical  Type  Frick  Ammonia  Compressor. 
Vertical  Central  Section  through  Cylinder. 

acting  type,  the  pistons  are  long,  and  are  each  provided  with  carefully 
fitted  rings,  and  the  arrangement  of  the  stuffing  boxes  and  glands 
shown,  moreover,  is  such  as  to  render  the  escape  of  gas  round  the 
piston  rods  practically  impossible  under  proper  working  conditions. 


THE   COMPRESSION    PROCESS   OR   SYSTEM.      69 

The  two  patterns  of  compressors  are  constructed  upon  a  substantially 
similar  principle ;  that  shown  in  Fig.  24  being  the  form  of  construction 
employed  in  the  case  of  small  machines,  and  that  in  Fig.  25  in  large 
ones.  In  both  arrangements  the  discharge  valve,  relief  valve,  together 
with  the  guides,  speeder,  and  false  seat,  are  entirely  self-contained  and 
independent  of  the  pump  cylinder,  rendering  it  possible  to  expedi- 
tiously  replace  the  whole  mechanism  by  a  new  one,  or  to  speedily 


Fig.  26.— Large  Single-Acting  Vertical  Type  Frick  Ammonia  Compressor  and 
Horizontal  Steam  Engine.     Sectional  Elevation  of  Complete  Machine. 

execute  any  necessary  repairs.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  valve 
mechanism  can  be  easily  got  at,  it  being  only  necessary  for  that  purpose 
to  remove  the  light  pump  head.  Fig.  26  is  a  vertical  central  section 
showing  the  complete  machine. 

The  operation  is  as  follows :  The  suction  valve  B  being,  as  before 
mentioned,  of  very  ample  area  and  balanced  by  a  spring,  affords  no 
resistance  to  the  passage  of  the  gas  upon  the  return  or  backward  stroke 


70   REFRIGERATION  AND  COLD  STORAGE. 

of  the  piston,  but  allows  of  its  flowing  freely  and  rapidly  into  the  pump 
cylinder,  through  the  gas  inlet  c,  under  the  action  of  the  back  pressure, 
to  the  vacant  space  above  the  piston.  The  rapid  closing  of  the  suction 
valve  B  at  the  instant  of  the  piston  beginning  its  forward  or  up-stroke 
is  ensured  by  a  cushion  spring,  and  the  gas  is  gradually  compressed 
until  it  equals  tKe  condensing  pressure  acting  upon  the  discharge 
valve  in  the  relief  valve  located  in  the  cylinder  head,  which  then 


L.  Hand  Pumf 
10fi24" 
Scale.  120  (ft* 


Fig.  27. 


Fig.  28. 


Fig.  29. 


Fig.  30. 


Fig.  31. 


Fig.  32. 


Diagrams  taken  from  Frick  Compressor. 

opens  to  admit  of  its  escape  to  the  condenser.  There  being  no 
clearance  between  the  piston  A,  when  at  the  termination  of  the  upward 
or  forward  stroke,  and  the  cylinder  head,  practically  no  gas  remains  in 
the  cylinder  to  re-expand  on  the  return  or  backward  stroke  of  the 
piston,  and  destroy  the  vacuum. 

It  will  be  seen  that  it  is  rendered  possible  to  do  this  with  perfect 
safety,  as  in  the  event  of  any  foreign  body  or  obstruction  getting 
accidentally  between  the  piston  A  and  the  cylinder  head,  the  valve  or 


THE   COMPRESSION    PROCESS   OR   SYSTEM.      71 

movable  portion  G  of  the  latter,  which  is  of  the  full  dimensions  of  the 
pump  bore,  will  give  way  and  allow  the  compressed  gas  to  pass  into 
the  dome,  and  thence  to  the  condenser,  the  movable  portion  or  relief 
valve  G  being  returned  to  its  seat,  under  the  action  of  the  spring 
G1,  and  the  back  pressure.  Under  normal  conditions,  however,  this 
relief  action  does  not  take  place,  the  discharge,  as  already  mentioned, 
being  effected  through  the  preliminary  opening  of  the  relief  valve, 
or  through  the  smaller  discharge  or  outlet  valve  D,  which  is  usually  of 
steel,  and  is  fitted  upon  a  seat  in  the  centre  of  the  movable  portion  of 
the  head  or  relief  valve  G. 

Were  no  provision,  such  as  the  above-described  relief  valve  or 
safety  head  G,  provided,  and  any  obstruction  to  become  accidentally 
interposed  between  the  piston  and  the  cylinder  end,  not  only  would 
the  latter  be  knocked  out,  and  serious  damage  to  the  mechanism  ensue, 
but  the  full  charge  of  ammonia  gas,  which  in  a  large  machine  is  worth 
a  considerable  sum,  would  be  lost. 

Figs.  27  to  32  show  several  indicator  cards  taken  from  Frick 
compressors,  the  originals  of  which  are  in  the  possession  of  the 
company.  It  will  be  noticed  on  an  inspection  of  these  cards  that  they 
show  sharp  corners  and  straight  vertical  lines,  which  is  the  indication 
of  a  practically  perfect  non-clearance  pump ;  furthermore,  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  horizontal  lines  are  very  straight,  and  the  compression 
curves  demonstrate  great  regularity,  which  latter  features  indicate 
perfect,  or  practically  perfect,  action  of  the  valves. 

In  practical  working  spring  safety  heads  of  the  type  just  described 
are  apt  to  give  trouble  owing  to  the  difficulty  of  adjusting  the  springs 
to  work  under  the  variations  of  temperature  to  which  they  are  exposed 
within  the  compression  cylinder,  and  also  by  reason  of  the  liability  of 
dirt  or  other  foreign  bodies  becoming  lodged  upon  a  seating  when  the 
head  is  raised,  and  preventing  it  from  forming  a  tight  joint  upon  its 
return  to  its  normal  position.  Mr  Arthur  G.  Enock  has  endeavoured 
to  obviate  these  objections,  and  at  the  same  time  to  provide  a  spring 
safety  device  which  will  admit  of  the  piston  being  worked  in  the 
compressor  absolutely  without  clearance,  and  which  device,  being 
located  externally  to  the  cylinder,  will  be  unaffected  by  the  variations 
in  temperature  caused  by  compression  of  the  working  agent  therein. 

Mr  Enock 's  compressor  is  fitted  for  the  above  purpose  with  the 
safety  device  shown  in  section  in  Fig.  33. 

In  the  construction  of  this  machine,  the  crosshead  is  provided  with 
a  short  extended  trunk  in  which  is  placed  a  powerful  spring.  The 
piston  rod  is  provided  with  a  disc  screwed  upon  it  which  butts  upon 


72   REFRIGERATION  AND  COLD  STORAGE. 


the  top  of  the  spring,  and  a  cap  or  cage  encircling  the  piston  rod  is 
employed  for  attaching  the  latter  to  the  crosshead  trunk.     The  pistons 

are  so  placed  that,  at  the  end  of 
the  compression  stroke,  they  make 
metallic  contact  with  the  cylinder 
head,  when  a  slight  compression 
takes  place  upon  the  spring  of  the 
crosshead,  and  the  lost  motion  is 
taken  up  at  this  point.  This  not 
only  secures  immunity  from  danger 
of  knocking  out  the  compressor 
head  or  damaging  the  piston  and 
piston  rod,  but  also  allows  the 
valve  an  extra  moment  for  closing, 
and  it  will  be  readily  seen  by 
reference  to  the  drawing  that  the 
back  rush  or  "  slip  "  of  gas  as  the 
piston  commences  the  suction 
stroke  will  be  entirely  prevented. 
In  Fig.  34,  which  is  a  direct  re- 
production from  a  photograph  of 
the  actual  parts,  the  crosshead, 
spring,  and  cap  are  shown  removed 
from  the  machine. 

It  need  hardly  be  pointed  out 
that  this  machine  should  pump  a 
good  deal  more  gas  with  a  given 
compressor  capacity  than  is  pos- 
sible in  any  of  the  other  types,  as 
it  would  not  only  discharge  the 
whole  of  its  capacity,  but  it  would 
not  allow  of  any  back  leakage. 
This,  the  inventor  avers,  has  been 
found  to  be  actually  the  case  in 
practical  work,  and  to  be  proved 

beyond   doubt  by  severe  and  ex- 
Fig.  33.— Vertical  Section  through  J  J 

Crosshead   and    Cylinder,    "  Enock "        tended     trials.         The     crosshead 
Patent  Compressor.  trunk    has     vertical    slots    in    it 

through  which  the  spring  can  be 

seen  and  examined,  and  the  spring  is  only  subject  to  the  ordinary 
temperatures  found  in  an  engine-room. 


THE   COMPRESSION    PROCESS   OR   SYSTEM.      73 

The  lift  and  fall  of  the  suction  and  discharge  valves  are  vertical, 
and  there  is  consequently  no  lateral  wear  and  tear  of  any  kind,  and 
the  valves  and  valve  seats  are  cut  from  special  pieces  of  solid  tool 
steel,  and  are  consequently  subject  to  very  little  hammering  out. 

The  compressor  jacket  is  provided  with  a  spiral  or  helical  annular 
space,  through  which  the  jacket  water  circulates,  and  considerable 
velocity  is  thus  secured  to  the  cooling  water,  and  a  much  more  rapid 
transfer  of  heat  takes  place.  It  is  also  impossible  for  air  or  gas 


Fig.  34. — [Safety  Crossheads  and  Springs.     Enock's  Patent  Compressor. 


bubbles  to  adhere  to  the  outside  walls  of  the  compressor  cylinder,  and 
this  is  in  itself  a  valuable  improvement. 

This  safety  crosshead  is  applicable  not  only  to  vertical  machines 
of  the  type  shown  in  our  illustration,  Fig.  33,  but  also  to  horizontal 
machines  for  single  or  double  action,  and  where  sufficient  headroom 
is  not  available  for  vertical  compressors  the  same  type  of  machine  is 
made  of  an  horizontal  pattern.  It  is  also  successfully  applied  to  com- 
pressors of  the  inclosed  type  such  as  that  illustrated  in  Fig.  35,  which 
is  suitable  for  refrigerating  and  ice-making  plants  on  a  small  scale,  and 
is  made  of  capacities  varying  from  one  quarter  of  a  ton  to  five  tons  of 


74   REFRIGERATION  AND  COLD  STORAGE. 

ice  per  twenty-four  hours.  The  compression  machine  in  this  case 
consists  of  two  vertical  single-acting  ammonia  compression  cylinders, 
which  are  mounted  upon  a  cast-iron  body,  with  end  covers  containing 
the  crankshaft  and  bearings.  There  are  no  pump  rod  glands  to  pack 
in  this  type  of  machine,  as  the  evaporating  gas  returns  from  the  pipe 
system  or  tank  coils  direct  to  the  body  of  the  compressors,  and  then 
flows  freely  through  the  suction  valves  into  the  compressors,  the  suction 
valves  being  of  a  special  balanced  type  and  located  in  the  compressor 


Fig.  35.— 5-ton  "Enock"  Patent  Compressor,  Inclosed  Type,  with  Coupled 
Vertical  Steam  Engine. 

pistons.  This  construction  does  away  with  the  expense  and  annoy- 
ance consequent  on  the  escape  of  refrigerant  through  pump  rod  glands, 
and  it  also  secures  the  operation  of  the  machine  with  the  smallest 
possible  expenditure  of  power,  on  account  of  the  absence  of  extensive 
friction  upon  the  pump  rods. 

The  lubrication  of  these  inclosed  compressors  is  automatic  through- 
out, and  the  machines  have  been  run  for  extended  periods  without 
any  -attention  in  this  direction.  The  crankshaft  runs  in  a  bath  of  oil, 


THE   COMPRESSION    PROCESS   OR    SYSTEM.      75 

which  is  contained  in  the  lower  part  of  the  compressor  body,  and  both 
bearings,  connecting-rod,  and  piston  are  automatically  lubricated  from 
the  crankshaft. 

The  suction  and  discharge  valves  are  so  arranged  that  immediate 
access  can  be  obtained  to  them  by  simply  removing  the  top  cover  of 
the  machine,  which  can  be  done  without  breaking  pipe  joints.  The 
suction  and  discharge  pipes  are  provided  with  the  ordinary  stop  -valves 
and  hand- wheels,  and  also  with  a  set  of  by-pass  valves  and  pipes  so 


Fig.  36.— 20-ton  Open  Type  Compressor,  fitted  with  Enock's  Patent 
Safety  Crosshead. 

arranged  that  the  refrigerant  can   be   drawn    from  one  part  of  the 
system  and  stored  in  another. 

A  certain  amount  of  oil  will  always  find  its  way  out  of  the  discharge 
valves  in  a  properly  lubricated  compressor,  but  owing  to  the  special 
arrangement  of  the  crankshaft  and  pistons  very  little  oil  gets  through 
in  this  machine.  An  oil  separator  of  a  special  type  is,  howrever, 
employed  as  a  safeguard,  the  gas  being  discharged  downwards  through 
a  series  of  perforated  baffle  plates,  and  then  rising  again  through  the 


76   REFRIGERATION  AND  COLD  STORAGE. 

slots  in  these  baffle  plates,  which  effectually  separate  and  retain  any 
oil  which  may  have  been  discharged  with  the  compressed  ammonia. 
The  gas  itself  passes  out  of  the  top  of  the  separator,  and  thence  into 
the  condenser.  Whatever  oil  is  separated  in  this  way  is  returned  to 
the  bottom  of  the  compressor  body  by  an  arrangement  of  valves  and 
pipe  connections. 

Fig.  36  illustrates  a  20-ton  open  type  of  York  pattern  machine, 
fitted  with  the  "  Enock  "  patent  safety  crosshead. 

As  regards  the  position  of  the  valves  in  the  Enock  compressor,  the 
suction  valve  is  placed  in  the  piston,  and  the  discharge  valve  in  the 
pump  head.  By  placing  the  valves  in  these  positions  a  very  large 
valve  area  is  obtained,  and  in  order  to  get  sufficient  opening  for  the 
free  passage  of  the  gas,  it  is  only  necessary  for  the  valve  to  lift  a  very 
short  distance.  The  advantages  of  this  are  twofold,  the  first  being 
that  while  the  piston  is  performing  the  downward  or  suction  stroke 
the  gas  can  flow  into  the  pump  easily  and  without  any  back  pressure 
being  set  up.  Second,  owing  to  the  slight  lift  necessary  with  the 
large  valve,  but  little  beat  upon  the  seat  takes  place.  The  same 
remarks  apply  to  the  discharge  valve,  and  with  a  very  free  passage 
for  the  discharge  of  the  compressed  gas,  the  pump  can  be  worked 
with  the  least  possible  expenditure  of  power.  Another  point  is  that 
of  the  rarefaction,  or  otherwise,  of  the  gas  as  it  enters  the  pump 
during  the  suction  stroke.  In  the  Enock  compressor  the  suction  valve 
being  placed  in  the  piston  and  the  cold  gas  always  coming  into  the 
pump  at  the  bottom,  the  entrance  of  the  gas  into  the  pump  at  the 
lowest  possible  temperature  is  ensured.  The  gas  increases  in  volume 
as  it  increases  in  temperature,  and  if  the  temperature  is  kept  as  low 
as  possible  the  weight  of  gas  pumped  at  each  stroke  is  greater  than 
it  would  be  if  the  gas  is  rarefied  on  entering  the  compressor. 

Fig.  37  shows  the  pattern  of  ammonia  compressors  of  the 
inclosed  type  adopted  by  Mr  Enock  for  the  machines  of  32  J  tons 
and  65  tons. 

The  larger  (32J  tons  and  over)  machines  on  test  show  a  volumetric 
efficiency  of  97  per  cent.,  and  work  almost  silently.  The  lift  on  the 
valves  is  only  about  ±  in.  All  valves  and  seats  are  cut  out  of 
solid  steel,  and  the  machines  are  balanced  so  that  when  required  they 
can  be  run  at  much  higher  speeds.  The  condensers  and  evaporators 
are  of  the  "  heat-interchanger "  type,  the  hot  gas  enters  at  the  top, 
and  the  cold  water  enters  at  the  bottom.  Consequently  the  liquefied 
ammonia  goes  out  at  about  61°,  with  water  going  in  at  60°.  This 
is  a  great  advantage,  because  on  an  ordinary  evaporative  condenser 


THE   COMPRESSION    PROCESS   OR   SYSTEM.      77 

with  water  going  on  at  60°,  the  liquid  ammonia  rarely  comes  off 
under  75°. 

The  same  principle  applies  to  the  evaporators,  which  are  of  the 
double-pipe  "  heat-interchanger "  type,  the  ammonia  flowing  through 
in  the  opposite  direction  to  the  flow  of  the  brine.  Consequently  the 
cooled  brine  comes  down  within  2°  or  3°  of  the  temperature  represented 
by  the  back  pressure  of  the  ammonia.  This  enables  a  very  high  back 
pressure  to  be  carried  for  a  given  brine  temperature. 

Fig.  38  is  a  sectional  elevation  of  the  Enock  self -oiling  compressor, 
midget  type.  In  this  machine  the  gas  comes  in  through  the  suction 


Fig.  37. — Enock  Inclosed  Type  65- ton  Compressor. 

stop-valve  A  down  suction  pipe  B,  and  into  pistons  c  through  the  holes 
in  upper  ends.  As  piston  descends,  gas  passes  through  suction  valve 
D  and  (as  piston  ascends)  is  compressed  through  discharge  valve  E, 
along  passage  F  up  discharge  pipe  F  (shown  partly  behind  suction  pipe 
B)  past  discharge  stop -valve  G  into  condenser  coils  H.  The  water 
running  over  coils  cools  the  gas  and  causes  it  to  condense,  and  the 
resulting  liquid  ammonia  passes  out  through  small  pipe  J  into  a 
receiver  (not  shown)  and  is  ready  to  do  its  cooling  work  again  in  the 
expansion  coils.  The  crosshead  spring  K  allows  the  crankshaft  L  to 
press  the  pistons  against  the  discharge  valve  seating  v,  and  thus  to 
expel  all  the  gas  with  perfect  safety.  The  suction  and  discharge  valves 


78   REFRIGERATION  AND  COLD  STORAGE. 

can  be  taken  out  and  examined  with  ease,  and  in  a  few  minutes  by 
taking  off  the  top  cover  of  the  machine.  Working  parts  are  lubricated 
by  the  oil  bath,  which  being  under  slight  pressure  also  effectually 
seals  the  packing  joint  M  (the  only  place  where  ammonia  might  other- 


Fig.  38. — Enock  Self -oiling  Compressor,  Midget  Type.     Sectional  Elevation. 

wise  escape)  and  thoroughly  lubricates  the  crankshaft  bearing.  The 
packing  bush  N  is  pressed  up  by  the  packing  nut  o  which  is  threaded, 
and  cannot  be  set  up  unevenly  like  an  ordinary  gland  bush.  The 
fly-wheel  P  and  loose  pulley  Q  are  supported  by  an  extra  bearing  R, 


THE   COMPRESSION    PROCESS   OR   SYSTEM.      79 

so  no  strain  ever  comes  on  the  packing  M.  Two  plugs,  ss,  are  pro- 
vided for  finding  height  of  oil  in  bath  without  opening  up  chamber, 
and  no  gauge  glasses  are  necessary.  Oil  is  put  in  at  plug  T. 
The  feet  of  machine  and  outer  bearing  are  planed  on  underside  and 
mounted  on  a  strong  rigid  cast-iron  bed  plate  u,  the  whole  being  very 
compact. 

The  ammonia  compression  machines  designed  by  Carl  Linde,  and 
first  patented  in  1870,  are  extensively  used,  and  this  type  of  machine 
is  said  to  give  very  good  results. 

In  the  Linde  compound  ammonia  compressor  the  high  and  low 
pressure  pistons  are  both  coupled  to  the  same  piston-rod,  and  an 
intermediate  chamber  connected  with  the  suction  and  back  pressure 


Fig.  39.  — Linde  Horizontal  Type  Compound  Ammonia  Compressor  and 
Compound  Steam  Engine.     Plan  View. 

side  connects  the  cylinders.  The  pressure  of  the  gas  at  its  inter- 
mediate stage  is  conducted  by  a  suitable  pipe  from  the  front  of  the 
low  pressure  piston  to  the  rear  of  the  smaller  cylinder,  where  it  acts 
on  the  smaller  piston  in  the  reverse  direction,  and  directly  balances  an 
equal  area  of  the  large  piston. 

Fig.  39  is  a  plan  view  showing  a  compound  ammonia  compressor, 
combined  with  a  compound  steam  engine.  In  the  drawing  M  is  the 
high  pressure  cylinder,  and  N  the  low  pressure  cylinder  of  the  com- 
pound steam  engine,  and  o  is  the  low  pressure  cylinder,  and  P  the  high 
pressure  cylinder  of  the  ammonia  compressor. 

In  this  machine  it  will  be  seen  that  the  entire  power  of  the  engine 
is  applied  to  one  crank,  and  the  compressor  is  driven  off  the  other 


8o        REFRIGERATION    AND    COLD    STORAGE. 

crank.  This  arrangement  entails  the  provision  of  a  very  powerful 
crankshaft  and  bearings  to  admit  of  its  safely  withstanding  the 
double  strain  to  which  it  is  thus  subjected  during  work.  An  objec- 
tion to  the  arrangement  is  the  additional  amount  of  friction  to  which 
it  gives  rise. 

A  type  of  Linde  machine,  intended  especially  for  land  installations, 
comprises  compound  ammonia  compressors,  arranged  in  line  hori- 
zontally and  driven  from  a  crank  upon  a  crankshaft  placed  centrally 
between  the  two  compressors,  and  at  right  angles  thereto.  The 
necessary  motion  is  imparted  to  the  crankshaft  by  means  of  a  tandem 
compound  jet-condensing  engine. 

The  method  employed  by  Linde  to  prevent  leakage  of  gas  past 
the  piston  rod  stuffing  box  and  gland,  is  to  provide  a  chamber  or  recess 
in  the  stuffing  box,  glycerine  or  some  other  suitable  lubricant  being 
constantly  forced  into  this  chamber  or  recess  at  a  somewhat  higher 
pressure  than  that  existing  in  the  compressor  cylinder,  the  result  of 
which  is  that  the  tendency  is  rather  for  the  lubricant  to  leak  or  escape 
inwardly,  than  for  the  ammonia  to  leak  outwardly.  A  suitable  separator 
is  provided  for  the  elimination  of  any  lubricant  that  finds  its  way  into 
the  pump  or  compressor  cylinder,  and  passes  out  with  the  ammonia. 

Another  feature  in  the  Linde  machine  is  the  method  of  cooling 
the  vapour  in  the  compression  cylinder,  by  the  introduction  into  the 
latter  of  a  small  portion  of  liquid  ammonia  with  the  gas  or  vapour, 
at  the  commencement  of  each  stroke,  whereby  it  is  reduced  to  a  refri- 
gerating temperature. 

According  to  Mr  Lightfoot,  the  following  are  the  results  that  were 
obtained  from  tests  made,  in  an  exhaustive  and  impartial  manner, 
by  a  committee  of  Bavarian  engineers,  with  an  ammonia  compression 
machine  constructed  on  the  Linde  system,  and  erected  in  a  brewery  in 
Germany  :* — 

Nominal  capacity  of  machine,  ice  per  24  hours  -  -  24  tons 

Actual  production  of  ice,  per  24  hours    -  39  '2  tons 

,,  ,,  ,,        per  hour  3,659  Ibs. 

Heat  abstracted  in  ice-making,  per  hour  -  731,800  units,  t 

Indicated  horse-power  in  steam  cylinder,  excluding  that 
required  for  circulating  the  cooling  water,  and  for 

working  cranes,  &c.      -  -  53 1.H.P. 

Indicated  horse-power  in  ammonia  pump  •  38  I.H.P. 

Thermal  equivalent  of  work  in  ammonia  pump,  per  hour  97,460  units,  f 

*  Proceedings,  Institution  of  Mechanical  Engineers,  1886,  p.  218. 
t  A  thermal  unit  is  the  amount  of  heat  necessary  to  raise  the  temperature  of 
1  Ib.  of  water  1°  by  the  Fahrenheit  scale  when  at  39 '4°.     Mech.  eq.  778  ft. -Ibs. 


THE   COMPRESSION    PROCESS    OR   SYSTEM.      81 

Ratio  of  work  in  pump  to  work  in  ice-making  -             -  1  to  7 '5 
Total  feed- water  used  in  boiler,  per  24  hours                  •  26,754  Ibs. 
Ratio  of  coal  consumed  to  ice  made,  taking  an  evapora- 
tion of  8  Ibs.  of  water  per  Ib.  of  coal  -                         -  1  to  26  "3 

The  pumps  were  driven  by  a  Sulzer  engine,  developing  1  I.H.P. 
with  21-8  Ibs.  of  steam  per  hour,  including  the  amount  condensed  in 
the  steam  pipes. 

The  Linde  machine,  as  built  in  the  United  States,  shows  several 
constructional  differences  as  compared  with  the  first  type  of  machine 


Fig.  40. — American  Pattern,  Linde  Horizontal  Type  of  Ammonia  Compressor. 
Part  Sectional  View. 

made  in  Germany.  Fig.  40  is  a  sectional  view  illustrating  the  most 
recent  design  of  Linde  compressor  cylinder,  as  made  by  the  Fred.  W. 
Wolf  Co.,  of  Chicago,  U.S. 

The  pattern  of  machine  made  by  the  Vilter  Manufacturing  Co., 
of  Milwaukee,  U.S.,  consists  of  either  one  or  two  horizontal  double- 
acting  ammonia  compressors  driven  by  a  horizontal  Corliss  engine, 
the  engine  and  compressor  cranks  being  keyed  on  the  extremities  of 
the  crankshaft  at  angles  to  one  another,  so  as  to  cause  the  highest 
gas  pressure  in  the  compressor  to  take  place  at  the  time  when  the 
6 


82   REFRIGERATION  AND  COLD  STORAGE. 


THE   COMPRESSION    PROCESS   OR   SYSTEM.      83 

highest  steam  pressure  is  acting  on  the  engine.  The  ammonia  com- 
pressor is  cast  with  slides  and  pillow  block  all  in  one  piece.  The 
wearing  surface  of  the  compressor  consists  of  a  cylindrical  bushing  or 
lining  which  is  forced  into  the  water  jacket  after  the  latter  is  bored. 
Four  ammonia  compressor  valves  are  located  in  the  two  circular  heads, 
the  latter  fitting  into  recesses  and  being  packed  with  metallic  packing. 
The  suction  and  discharge  valves  are  rendered  noiseless  in  action  and 
their  life  considerably  prolonged  by  the  provision  of  gas  cushions. 
The  compressor  plunger  is  fitted  with  self-adjusting  packing  rings  and 
also  bull  rings,  and  the  piston  and  follower  are  turned  circular  to 
exactly  fit  the  front  and  rear  heads  of  the  compressor,  and  thus  to 
reduce  the  amount  of  clearance  as  far  as  practicable,  the  plunger  rod 
being,  moreover,  adjustable  lengthways,  thus  admitting  of  an  equal 
division  of  the  clearance  being  made,  and  the  wear  of  the  crank  and 
crosshead  boxes  being  taken  up  when  desired. 

Leakage  of  gas  past  the  piston  or  plunger  rod  is  prevented  by  a 
stuffing  box  and  gland  fitted  with  a  metallic  packing,  held  in  position 
by  a  long  sleeve,  oil  being  circulated  through  the  latter  by  means  of 
an  automatically  operated  oil  pump,  and  the  oil  acting  both  to 
lubricate  the  piston  or  plunger  rod,  and  to  form  a  seal  to  prevent 
the  escape  of  ammonia.  A  separate  support  bolted  to  the  frame  of  the 
compressor  holds  the  outer  extremity  of  this  hollow  sleeve  in  place,  a 
packing  being  provided  at  the  outer  end  of  this  support  for  retaining 
the  oil. 

By-passes  are  provided  between  the  suction  and  discharge  pipes  in 
close  proximity  to  the  compressor,  thereby  admitting  of  the  valves 
being  operated  for  pumping  out  the  condenser. 

Wedge  adjustable  shoes  are  provided  in  the  crossheads,  and  the 
connecting  rods  are  fitted  with  solid  heads,  the  former  having  a  solid 
brass  box,  and  the  crankpin  a  brass  box  lined  with  babbit  metal, 
wedge  adjustment  being  provided  in  both  instances. 

Fig.  41  shows  an  ammonia  compressor  made  by  the  British 
Humboldt  Engineering  Co.,  Ltd.  The  valves  of  this  machine  are 
of  the  well-known  Humboldt  pattern,  which  construction  has  for 
many  years  past  given  good  results  in  practical  working.  The 
stuffing  box  is  fitted  with  metallic  packing,  and  a  special  injection 
device  is  provided  for  the  freezing  agent,  by  which  arrangement, 
amongst  other  advantages,  a  cool  stuffing  box  is  ensured. 

The  Fixary  compressor  is  shown  in  vertical  central  section,  some  of 
the  parts  being  left  in  elevation  in  Fig.  42.  It  consists  of  two  vertical, 
single-acting  cylinders  A,  B,  having  an  equalising  chamber  c,  situated 


84   REFRIGERATION  AND  COLD  STORAGE. 

between  them,  at  the  upper  extremity  of  which  is  provided  a  small 
valve  governing  an  aperture  leading  to  the  suction  side  of  the  com- 
pressor. In  the  upper  extremity  of  each  of  the  cylinders  A,  B  are 
provided  two  valves,  that  on  the  right-hand  side  opening  inwardly  and 
being  the  suction  or  inlet  valve,  and  that  on  the  left-hand  side  opening 
outwardly  and  being  the  outlet  or  delivery  valve.  The  space  below 
the  pistons  is  filled  with  oil  which  lubricates  the  pistons,  whilst  at 
the  same  time  preventing  the  gas  from  escaping  past  them  to  any 


Fig.  42.  — Two-Cylinder  Single- Acting  Fixary  Compressor. 
Vertical  Central  Section. 

great  extent.  Any  gas  that  does  find  its  way  beneath  the  pistons  passes 
into  the  equalising  chamber  c,  where  any  accumulation  of  it  is  drawn 
off  by  the  compressor,  through  the  small  valve  in  the  upper  extremity 
thereof,  and  one  or  other  of  the  suction  or  inlet  valves,  and  again 
returns  to  the  system  through  the  outlet  or  delivery  valves.  The  oil 
that  may  be  carried  through  the  valve  in  the  equalising  chamber 
serves  the  purpose  of  sealing  the  valves  and  filling  up  the  clearance 
spaces. 


THE   COMPRESSION    PROCESS    OR   SYSTEM.      85 

The  characteristic  feature  of  the  Neubecker  system  is  the  special 
device  for  preventing  leakage  taking  place  round  the  piston  rod.  To 
effect  this,  the  stuffing  or  gland  box,  through  which  the  piston  rod 
passes,  is  so  enlarged  as  to  form  an  annular  recess  or  chamber  surround- 
ing the  rod,  which  chamber  is  partly  filled  with  oil,  and  maintained 
at  a  corresponding  pressure  to  that  prevailing  in  the  surrounding 
atmosphere,  by  means  of  a  compensating  chamber,  which  latter  is 
connected  at  its  upper  extremity  to  a  small  auxiliary  pump  through  a 
pipe,  the  inlet  to  which  is  governed  by  a  valve  connected  to,  and 
controlled  by,  a  metallic  diaphragm,  the  upper  side  of  which  diaphragm 
is  exposed  to  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere. 

The  operation  of  this  compensating  chamber  is  as  follows : — The 
gas  which  may  escape  into  the  stuffing  box  chamber  passes  into  the 
compensating  chamber,  and  as  soon  as  sufficient  has  thus  accumulated 
to  raise  the  pressure  therein  above  that  of  the  atmosphere,  it  acts 
upon  the  flexible  diaphragm  to  expand  it  outwardly,  and  thereby  open 
the  valve  communicating  with  the  above-mentioned  auxiliary  pump, 
by  which  the  gas  is  drawn  off  or  removed  and  delivered  into  the 
refrigerator.  The  pressure  in  the  separating  chamber  then  again  falls 
below  that  of  the  atmosphere,  and  the  diaphragm  being  forced  inwardly 
by  the  atmospheric  pressure,  the  outlet  valve  closes.  The  lower  portion 
of  the  compensating  chamber  forms  a  well,  wherein  any  oil  that  leaks 
past  the  piston  rod  gland  of  the  compressor,  as  also  that  coming  from 
the  separator,  accumulates,  and  is  heated  by  a  steam  coil  or  worm,  so 
as  to  drive  off  any  gas  that  has  been  absorbed  by  the  oil,  after  which 
the  latter  is  drawn  off  from  the  bottom  of  the  compensating  chamber 
to  be  cooled  and  filtered  for  further  use. 

Various  patterns  of  ammonia  compressors  are  constructed  by  the 
Pulsometer  Engineering  Co.,  Ltd.,  on  their  improved  system,  ranging 
from  1  ton  ice-making  capacity  per  twenty-four  hours,  up  to 
installations  on  the  same  principle,  with  a  capacity  for  an  output  up 
to  25  tons  of  ice  or  more  per  day  of  twenty-four  hours. 

In  a  type  of  apparatus  particularly  suited  for  export,  everything, 
including  the  steam  engine,  compressor,  gas  condenser,  refrigerator, 
and  ice  tank,  is  mounted  on  one  continuous  bed,  all  the  ammonia 
connections  are  ready  made,  and  the  whole  can  be  readily  put  in  one 
case  and  sent  abroad,  all  that  is  necessary  on  its  arrival  being  to 
charge  the  machine  with  gas  and  the  ice  tank  with  brine. 

In  the  case  of  a  small  machine  of  1  ton  ice-making  capacity, 
such  as  that  first  mentioned,  either  a  vertical  high-pressure  engine,  or 
an  horizontal  one,  or  any  other  suitable  motor,  is  employed;  for 


86       REFRIGERATION    AND    COLD    STORAGE. 

larger  sizes,  however,  these  makers  prefer  to  use  cross  compound 
condensing  engines  of  the  horizontal  type,  and  of  extra  size  to  provide 
an  ample  margin  of  power  in  hot  weather,  and  to  give  the  best  results 
as  to  saving  in  steam  consumption  from  an  early  cut-off,  and  each 
engine  driving  a  compressor  tandem.  The  engine  condenser  is  generally 
made  of  the  surface  condensing  type,  and,  together  with  the  water 
circulating  pump,  placed  between  the  engines  and  driven  from  the 
low-pressure  crosshead.  This  arrangement  has  been  found  in  practice 
to  be,  with  long  strokes  of,  say,  at  least  30  in.,  most  reliable,  and  it 


Fig.  43. —Horizontal  Double-Acting  Ammonia  Compressor,  Pulsometer 
Engineering  Co.,  Ltd. 

admits,  moreover,  in  the  event  of  an  emergency,  of  running  at  a  high 
speed.  In  cases  where  the  very  highest  economy  is  desirable,  triple 
or  quadruple  expansion  engines  are  desirable. 

Fig.  43  illustrates  one  of  a  pair  of  pumps  employed  in  a  brewery 
and  having  a  cooling  capacity  of  one  hundred  barrels  per  hour.  As 
will  be  seen  from  the  drawing  the  ammonia  pump  is  of  the  double- 
acting  type,  and  is  arranged  horizontally.  It  is  intended  to  be  driven 
from  any  convenient  source  of  power  already  extant  in  the  brewery. 
To  obviate  leakage  and  loss  of  ammonia  gas,  the  stuffing  box  is  fitted 


THE   COMPRESSION    PROCESS   OR   SYSTEM.      87 

with  a  special  oil-lubricating  arrangement,  by  means  of  which  a  gas- 
tight  joint  is  secured  without  any  necessity  for  screwing  up  the  gland 
so  as  to  grip  too  tightly.  The  valves  work  without  any  springs  or 
buffers,  and  in  the  larger  sizes  are  so  arranged  that  they  can  be 
adjusted  from  the  exterior;  they  are  also  of  ample  area,  thereby 
reducing  the  pressure  on  the  pump,  and  preventing  the  latter  and 
the  engine  from  being  overworked. 

The  condenser  is  fitted  with  sets  or  series  of  lap-welded  tubes, 
which  are  subjected  to  high  tests  both  by  hydraulic  and  air  pressure, 
and  are  secured  in  a  special  arrangement  of  return  heads  or  ends  of 
forged  steel.  The  inlet  and  outlet  valves  are  also  of  forged  steel. 

The  evaporator  or  refrigerator  consists  of  a  welded  steel  shell, 
having  hammered  steel  tube  plates  into  which  are  fitted  lap-welded 
tubes  (subjected  to  a  similar  test  to  those  of  the  condenser)  in  such  a 
manner  that  they  can  be  readily -withdrawn  from  the  shell  for  inspec- 
tion or  renewal,  and  the  whole  is  fitted  in  a  tank  with  suitable  brine 
pump  connections.  The  inlet  and  outlet  tubes  are  likewise  of  forged 
steel. 

The  makers  prefer  the  use  of  sets  or  series  of  tubes  in  their  con- 
densers, and  refrigerators,  to  that  of  coils  or  worms,  for  the  following 
reasons.  That  coils  or  worms  are  usually  made  in  long  lengths  with 
a  number  of  welds,  consequently  should  such  a  tube  at  any  time 
exhibit  signs  of  weakness  it  would  entail  a  heavy  expense  to  renew  it, 
both  on  account  of  the  weight  of  metal  and  the  difficulty  of  replace- 
ment. In  a  refrigerator,  in  addition  to  the  above,  the  use  of  a  coil 
gives  rise,  according  to  them,  to  a  tendency  to  prime,  and  thus  cause 
damage  to  the  pump,  and  there  is,  moreover,  they  say,  considerable 
trouble  in  bringing  the  brine  into  such  intimate  contact  with  the 
outer  surfaces  of  the  tubes  as  is  advisable. 

When  desired,  an  arrangement  can  be  fitted  to  this  ammonia  com- 
pression machine,  by  means  of  which  the  ammonia  can  be  pumped 
from  the  refrigerator  into  the  condenser  or  vice  versa,  or,  if  desired, 
out  of  the  machine  altogether. 

An  advantage  of  no  small  importance  possessed  by  this  apparatus 
is  that  of  the  utmost  simplicity  of  construction,  thus  considerably 
facilitating  the  management.  The  workmanship  and  design,  more- 
over, are  calculated  to  ensure  the  attainment  of  the  greatest  strength 
and  of  the  maximum  durability  possible. 

Fig.  44  is  a  perspective  view  illustrating  a  small  single-acting  verti- 
cal ammonia  compressor  and  condenser,  constructed  on  the  Kilbourn 
inclosed  type  system.  In  this  installation  the  machine  is  intended  to 


88 


REFRIGERATION  AND  COLD  STORAGE. 


be  driven  by  a  gas  engine,  or  other  suitable  source  of  power,  and  it  is 
designed  for  cold  storage  on  the  direct  expansion  system.  The  floor 
space  occupied  is  small,  being  only  for  the  entire  plant,  including  a 
gas  engine  of  4  N.H.P.,  12  ft.  by  4  ft.  6  in.,  and  the  machine  is 
capable  of  maintaining  a  storage  capacity  of  from  8,000  to  10,000 
cub.  ft.,  at  a  suitable  temperature  for  frozen  mutton,  or,  with  the 
necessary  appliances,  of  making  2J  tons  to  2  tons  of  ice  per  twenty- 


Fig.  44.— Small  Vertical  Single- Acting  Kilbourn  Inclosed  Type  Ammonia 
Compressor  and  Condenser. 

four  hours.     The    condenser   and   refrigerator    are   composed   of   lap- 
welded  iron  coils  fitted  in  steel  or  wrought-iron  shells. 

The  late  Mr  J.  K.  Kilbourn,  C.E.,  was  the  inventor  and  patentee 
of  a  number  of  improvements  in,  and  connected  with,  refrigerating 
machinery,  his  chief  speciality  being,  however,  marine  refrigeration,  he 
having  had  a  wide  experience  in  this  direction,  and  several  marine 
types  of  ammonia  compression  machines,  constructed  on  his  system, 


THE   COMPRESSION    PROCESS   OR   SYSTEM.      89 

will  be  found  described  and  illustrated  in  the  chapter  on  Marine 
Installations. 

Fig.  45  is  a  sectional  view  of  the  Triumph  Ice  Machine  Co.,  Cin- 
cinnati, O.,  U.S.,  horizontal  pattern  double-acting  ammonia  compressor. 
It  will  be  seen  from  the  illustration  that  the  compressor  is  provided 
with  five  valves,  viz.,  three  suction  valves  and  two  discharge  valves, 
the  third,  or  auxiliary  suction  valve,  being  much  lighter  than  the 
main  valves,  and  perfectly  balanced,  and  it  being  claimed  by  the 
makers  tending  greatly  to  increase  the  economy  of  the  machine. 

Obviously  the  main  suction  valves  must  necessarily  be  of  sufficient 
dimensions  to  admit  the  charge  quickly  at  the  commencement  of  each 


Fig.  45. — Double- Acting  Horizontal  Type  Triumph  Ammonia  Compressor. 
Sectional  View. 

stroke,  and  the  springs  controlling  them  must  consequently  have  an 
appreciable  tension.  It  will  be  readily  seen  that  owing  to  this  fact  the 
pressure  of  the  gas  in  the  cylinder,  during  admission,  must  be  less  than 
it  is  in  the  suction  pipe  by  an  amount  equal  to  the  tension  of  these 
springs.  By  the  use  of  the  above-mentioned  third,  or  auxiliary  suction 
valve,  which  is  comparatively  light,  and  is  consequently  operated 
with  a  very  light  spring,  the  pressures  in  the  compressor  pump  are 
equalised,  and  a  fuller  charge  is  obtained  at  each  stroke,  thereby 
increasing  the  efficiency  of  the  machine. 

The  valves  comprise  each  a  guard  screwed  on  to  the  stem,  fitted 
nside  a  cage,  and  so  ribbed  as  to  reduce  the  port  area,  the  bottom  of 


90   REFRIGERATION  AND  COLD  STORAGE. 

the  stem  being  enlarged  for  that  reason.  Stems  extending  from  both 
the  suction  and  discharge  valves  to  the  exterior,  and  passing  through 
stuffing  boxes,  admit  of  their  being  adjusted  from  the  outside,  and 
any  desired  degree  of  tension  being  put  upon  the  springs.  The  object 
of  this  arrangement  is  to  adjust  the  machine  for  working  at  different 
pressures,  and  the  relative  temperatures  thereof. 

There  are  three  packing  compartments  in  the  piston  rod  stuffing 
box,  and  it  is  fitted  with  a  suitable  relief  valve  communicating  with 
the  suction.  The  heads  are  formed  concave,  and  of  a  radius  which 
enables  a  larger  valve  area  to  be  secured.  The  principal  shut-off 
valves  are  of  such  a  form  of  construction  as  to  admit  of  their  being 
packed  whilst  the  machine  is  working,  and  a  feature  in  the  design  of 


Fig.  46. — Double- Acting  Horizontal  Type  Triumph  Ammonia  Compressor 
and  Tandem  Compound  Condensing  Engine.     Plan  View. 

this  machine,  which  is  of  by  no  means  inconsiderable  advantage,  is 
that  every  portion  of  the  compressor  is  easily  accessible. 

Fig.  46  is  a  plan  view  showing  a  double-acting  compressor,  coupled 
direct  to  a  tandem  compound  condensing  steam  engine.  This  machine 
is  of  400  tons  capacity,  and  comprises  the  features  already  described 
with  reference  to  Fig.  45.  It  is  so  arranged  that  each  cylinder  can 
be  operated,  single  or  double-acting,  on  either  end.  A  separate  crank 
and  outer  bearing  are  provided,  thereby  adding  considerably  to  the 
strength  of  the  shaft.  Another  point  of  construction  which  is  of 
considerable  advantage  is  that  the  whole  machine  is  arranged  on  a 
straight  line,  thereby  giving  great  strength  and  rigidity.  It  is  also 
claimed  by  the  makers  that  there  is  no  breathing  of  the  cylinder 
in  this  construction,  and  that  a  great  deal  of  unnecessary  clear- 


THE   COMPRESSION    PROCESS   OR   SYSTEM.      91 

ance  is  not  allowed  to  take  place  at  each  compression  stroke  of  the 
machine. 

The  main  feature  of  novelty  claimed  in  the  ammonia  compressor 
invented  by  Thomas  Bell  Lightfoot,  and  for  which  he  obtained  a 
patent  in  1885,  is  that  compression  is  effected  at  one  side  only  of 
the  piston,  the  other  side  being  exposed  merely  to  the  pressure  of 
the  vapour  as  drawn  in  from  the  refrigerator.  The  suction  valve  is 
placed  concentrically  within  the  piston,  and  the  delivery  valve  within 
the  cylinder  cover. 

The  main  distinctive  feature  of  the  Pictet  machine  is  the  means 
adopted  for  preventing  superheating  of  the  ammonia  gas  during  com- 
pression in  the  cylinder  of  the  pump,  and  the  loss  that  would  ensue 
therefrom,  which,  were  there  no  means  employed  for  its  reduction, 
might  amount  to  as  much  as  30  per  cent,  in  a  double-action  compressor. 
In  some  arrangements,  as  has  been  already  mentioned,  provision  is 
made  for  effecting  this  by  injecting  a  small  quantity  of  liquid  into 
the  compressor,  which  liquid  in  evaporating  maintains  the  gas  or 
vapour  in  a  condition  of  saturation,  thereby  admitting  of  the  com- 
pression being  effected  under  such  conditions  as  to  approximate  more 
closely  to  the  isothermal  function;  in  others,  again,  the  compressor 
cylinder  is  water- jacketed  for  a  like  purpose.  In  the  Pictet  machine, 
however,  in  addition  to  a  water  jacket  round  the  compressor  cylinder 
or  barrel,  the  piston  and  piston  rod  of  the  compressor  are  likewise 
formed  hollow,  and  through  this  space  a  constant  stream  of  water  is 
kept  circulating  for  cooling  purposes. 

The  results  obtained  by  this  arrangement  are  much  lessened  by 
the  great  thickness  of  metal  that  is  required  in  the  parts.  The 
loss  in  a  well-jacketed  and  water-cooled  compressor,  according  to  the 
experiments*  of  Professor  Den  ton,  amounting  to  21 -4  per  cent.,  and 
where  less  efficiently  jacketed  the  loss  may  rise  to  about  25  per  cent. 

In  the  specification  of  a  patent  granted  to  Raoul  Pictet  in  1887  he 
describes  an  improved  vessel  or  compartment  for  use  in  a  refrigerating 
apparatus,  wherein  the  volatile  liquid  employed  is  subjected  to  evapora- 
tion so  as  to  produce  cold,  which  refrigerates  brine  or  other  non- 
congealable  liquid  surrounding  the  evaporating  compartment.  The 
improved  cooler  or  refrigerator  is  claimed  to  be  suitable  for  use 
with  either  a  compression  or  an  absorption  machine,  and  consists  of 
two  tubes  arranged  horizontally,  and  connected  at  their  extremities 
by  bent  tubes,  and  at  their  lower  sides  by  pendant  U-shaped  tubes, 
which  latter  are  preferably  secured  by  means  of  solder  joints  to  sockets 
*  Transactions,  American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers,  vol.  xii. 


92   REFRIGERATION  AND  COLD  STORAGE. 

brazed  on  the  tubes,  and  are  further  connected  with  each  other  by 
conducting  bands. 

In  the  latter  part  of  1887  a  patent  was  obtained  by  Samuel  Puplett 
and  Jonathan  Lucas  Rigg  for  improvements  in  refrigerating  machines, 
and  several  further  improvements  have  since  been  added  by  Puplett. 

The  main  features  of  the  1887  patent,  which  are  equally  applicable 


Fig.  47. — Double- Acting  Puplett  Ammonia  Compression  Machine. 

to  any  ice-making  and  cooling  apparatus  wherein  any  one  of  the  con- 
densable gases  is  used  as  a  frigorific  agent,  are  as  follows : — 

The  provision  of  chambers  or  reservoirs  either  situated  directly  at 
the  bottom  of,  and  communicating  with  the  inlet  valve  chests,  or  in 
any  other  suitable  position,  and  connected  thereto  by  means  of  pipes. 
These  chambers  or  reservoirs  serve  to  receive  the  oil  which  finds  its 
way]  into  the^cylinder  of  the  compressor  pump,  principally  round  the 


THE   COMPRESSION    PROCESS    OR   SYSTEM.      93 


piston  rod,  and  which  would  other- 
wise accumulate  beneath  the 
valves.  To  the  undersides  of  the 
chambers  or  reservoirs  are  fitted 
draw-off  cocks,  by  means  of  which 
the  oil  may  from  time  to  time  be 
withdrawn  whilst  the  machine  is 
in  motion,  and  without  any  ap- 
preciable loss  of  gas  or  admission 
of  air  taking  place. 

Complete  liquefaction  of  the 
gas  is  ensured  by  carrying  the 
return  liquid  pipe  between  the 
condenser  and  refrigerator  through 
the  refrigerating  or  ice  making 
tank  or  box,  instead  of  outside 
the  latter,  as  is  usually  done,  thus 
utilising  the  low  temperature  of 
the  brine  to  complete  the  con- 
densation of  the  gas. 

In  Fig.  47  is  illustrated  a 
modern  type  of  Puplett  ammonia 
compression  machine  especially 
designed  for  use  in  breweries  for 
cooling  worts  and  yeast  rooms. 

The  cooling  capacity  of  this 
machine  varies  from  20  barrels 
of  worts  per  day  to  200  barrels 
per  day,  and  the  horse-power  re- 
quired from  3  up  to  12,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  size  of  the  machine. 
The  apparatus  can  be  connected 
to  existing  hot  and  cold  liquor 
backs  and  collecting  tanks. 

Sir  Alfred  Seale  Haslam  took 
out  a  patent  in  1894  for  an  im- 
proved compressor  especially  in- 
tended for  use  with  refrigerating 
machines,  and  particularly  ap- 
plicable to  compound  compressors 
wherein  the  gas  is  compressed  in 


94        REFRIGERATION   AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

stages.  The  objects  of  the  invention  are  to  prevent  the  gas  from 
escaping  or  coming  in  contact  with  the  air,  and  to  avoid  dead  spaces 
in  the  apparatus.  The  chief  novel  features  are  claimed  to  be  as 
follows : — First,  a  pump  cylinder  having  a  chamber  at  one  or  both 
ends  through  which  the  piston  rod  passes,  and  which  is  kept  supplied 
with  lubricating  and  sealing  liquid  from  a  reservoir  through  which 
the  gas  to  be  compressed  also  passes.  Second,  two  single  and  double 
acting  pumps  arranged  tandem  to  each  other,  and  with  the  compres- 
sion ends  of  their  cylinders  next  each  other,  and  having  between 
them  a  chamber  supplied  with  lubricating  and  sealing  liquid,  through 
which  their  common  piston-rod  passes.  Fig.  48  shows  this  machine 
in  vertical  central  section  through  one  of  the  ammonia  compressor 
cylinders,  drawn  to  an  enlarged  scale,  and  illustrating  the  self-sealing 
oil  chamber. 

The  operation  of  this  compressor  is  as  follows : — After  adjusting 
the  glands  of  the  receiving  and  separating  vessel,  the  latter,  and  the 
central  chamber,  is  charged  with  lubricating  and  sealing  fluid  to  a 
suitable  height.  The  gas  is  then  drawn  through  the  supply  pipe, 
accompanied  by  the  requisite  amount  of  the  lubricating  and  sealing 
fluid,  which  latter  is  admitted  to  the  low-pressure  cylinder  by  a  cock 
or  valve,  through  the  suction  valve,  and  compression  to  the  desired 
extent  is  then  carried  out. 

Fig.  49  shows  a  Haslam  machine  having  one  double-acting  com- 
pressor driven  by  a  compound  drop-valve  steam  engine.  The  compressor 
is  of  the  standard  Haslam  type,  with  two  suction  and  two  delivery 
valves  in  each  cover.  The  trunk  form  of  guide  is  found  to  give  great 
rigidity  and  ensure  perfect  alignment.  The  steam  engine  is  of  the 
Haslam  latest  drop-valve  type,  having  governor  regulated  inlet  valves 
on  the  high-pressure  cylinder.  The  machine  shown  in  the  illustration 
has  recently  been  built  for  a  large  meat  freezing  works  in  South 
America.  The  compressor  is  22|  in.  by  40  in.  stroke.  An  inde- 
pendent steam  surface  condenser  and  ammonia  condenser  of  the 
evaporative  type  are  usually  supplied  with  machines  of  this  class. 

Fig.  50  illustrates  a  Haslam  horizontal  machine  with  compound 
engine  and  two  ammonia  compressors  of  the  double  acting  type.  The 
arrangement  of  the  steam  engine  valve  gear,  with  the  governor  con- 
trolling the  inlet  valves  of  the  high-pressure  cylinder,  will  be  clearly 
seen  in  the  engraving.  The  low-pressure  cylinder  is  steam-jacketed, 
and  both  cylinders  are  lagged  and  covered  with  planished  steel,  and 
.  have  polished  iron  caps  over  the  end  covers.  If  desired,  one  compressor 
may  be  worked  while  the  other  is  being  overhauled. 


95 


I 


THE   COMPRESSION    PROCESS   OR   SYSTEM.      97 

Fig.  51  shows  a  Haslam  horizontal  compound  ammonia  machine 
which  is  specially  suitable  for  working  in  hot  climates,  where  the 
temperature  of  the  water  used  for  the  ammonia  condensers  is  high. 
The  steam  engine  is  of  the  compound  "drop- valve"  type,  and  drives 
two  compressors  from  the  tail  rods,  arranged  to  compress  the  ammonia 
gas  in  two  stages.  The  low-pressure  ammonia  compressor  is  of  the 
double-acting  type,  and  the  high-pressure  ammonia  compressor  is  of 
the  single-acting  type,  so  that  the  gland  is  only  subject  to  the  inter- 
mediate pressure.  The  machine  from  which  the  illustration  is  taken 
has  for  some  years  been  making  ice  at  Singapore,  and  has  given 
excellent  results. 

Amongst  the  pioneers  of  refrigerating  machinery  in  the  United 
States  was  Mr  David  Boyle.  The  modern  type  of  Boyle  ammonia 
compressor  consists  of  two  vertical  single-acting  pumps  arranged  in 
combination  with  a  vertical  or  an  horizontal  engine.  The  compressor 
valves  are  mounted  in  removable  valve  boxes,  and  both  the  suction  and 
discharge  valves  are  situated  in  the  upper  head,  where  they  are  held  in 
place  by  cross-bars  and  a  set-screw  to  each  of  them.  There  is  a  division 
in  the  centre  of  the  head.  The  gas  being  delivered  through  its  pipe, 
which  is  secured  in  an  extension  on  the  cylinder  communicating  with 
the  inlet  chamber,  enters  the  cylinder  through  its  valve  on  the 
downward  stroke  of  the  piston.  The  gas  is  compressed  upon  the 
upward  or  return  stroke  of  the  piston  until  such  time  as  it  becomes 
equal  to  the  pressure  in  the  condenser,  when  the  discharge  valve  in 
the  opposite  side  of  the  head  rises  and  permits  the  discharge  of  the 
gas  through  the  valve  and  communicating  chamber  to  the  compressor 
discharge  pipe,  to  take  place. 

The  suction  chamber  likewise  communicates  with  the  lower  end  of 
the  cylinder  of  the  compressor  so  as  to  allow  the  latter  to  be  filled 
with  gas  during  the  upward  stroke  of  the  piston,  and  to  permit  its 
escape  therefrom  during  the  downward  stroke  of  the  piston.  A  solid 
pattern  of  piston  fitted  with  a  number  of  snap-rings  having  sufficient 
tension  to  prevent  any  leakage  of  gas,  is  employed,  and  the  piston  rod 
stuffing-box  gland  is  adjustable  through  a  worm  and  /worm-wheel 
arrangement  by  means  of  a  hand- wheel  from  the  exterior. 

A- water  jacket  surrounds  the  upper  part  of  the  compressor  cylinder, 
and  an  inlet  and  outlet  admit  of  a  constant  flow  of  water  being 
maintained  through  the  same. 

The  York  Manufacturing  Co.,  of  York,  Pa.,  U.S.,  are  makers  of 
compound  ammonia  compressors  in  which  all  the  gas  has  to  be  drawn 
through  the  suction  valves,  and  these  latter  have  to  divide  the  space 
7 


* 

'So 


THE   COMPRESSION    PROCESS    OR   SYSTEM.      99 

on  the  heads  of  their  cylinders  together  with  the  delivery  valves, 
being  consequently  limited  in  dimensions.  When  the  compressors  are 
of  large  size  the  gas  is  passed  through  a  condenser  between  the  two 
stages  of  compression  for  the  purpose  of  abstracting  a  portion  of  the 
heat,  reducing  the  volume  and  saving  power.  The  connecting  pipes 
are  located  on  the  top,  and  in  some  instances  a  tubular  condenser  is 
provided,  which  arrangement  is  said  to  give  good  results.  The  valve 
in  the  low-pressure  cylinder  is  formed  annular,  and,  therefore,  requires 
only  about  half  the  lift  of  a  mitre  valve  in  order  to  give  the  same 
discharge  opening. 

These  makers  arrange  their  compressor  cylinders  vertically,  but 
they  employ  in  combination  therewith  both  vertical  and  horizontal 
steam  engines. 

The  medium-sized  machines  are  made  with  two  low-pressure 
cylinders  placed  on  the  outside,  and  one  high-pressure  cylinder  placed 
between  them.  The  crankpins  of  the  low-pressure  pistons  are  all 
in  line,  and  the  high-pressure  crankpin  on  which  the  horizontal 
engine  works  is  placed  at  180°. 

In  the  case  of  the  very  large-sized  machines  four  compressor 
cylinders  are  arranged  in  a  row,  and  are  worked  by  four  cranks,  the 
two  outside  ones  of  which  are  high  pressure,  and  the  two  intermediate 
ones  between  these  being  low  pressure.  The  two  connecting  rods  from 
a  cross-over  compound  engine  each  operate  respectively  one  of  the 
outer  cranks.  The  fly-wheels  are  overhung,  and  the  pipes  from  the 
cylinder  heads  connect  the  high  and  low  pressure  cylinders  through  a 
condenser  or  cooler. 

This  company  also  build  single-acting  compressors,  and  in  Fig.  52 
is  shown  one  of  their  latest  designs  of  a  vertical  type  of  single-acting 
machine.  A  large  type  of  compressor  constructed  by  them,  and  having 
a  capacity  of  400  tons  refrigeration,  has  two  single-acting  ammonia 
pumps  30  in.  in  diameter  by  48  in.  stroke,  and  driven  by  a  horizontal 
cross  compound  condensing  engine,  having  a  high-pressure  cylinder 
of  30  in.  diameter,  and  a  low-pressure  cylinder  of  58  in.  diameter 
by  48  in.  stroke,  the  crankshaft  being  provided  with  two  throws  and 
four  bearings,  and  the  fly-wheel  being  in  the  centre  of  the  bed-plate 
between  the  two  cranks.  The  weight  of  this  machine  is  over  178|-  tons. 

The  vertical  type  of  ammonia  compressor  made  by  the  Remington 
Machine  Co.,  Wilmington,  Del.,  U.S.,  is  of  the  single-acting  inclosed 
crank  pattern,  the  crankshaft  extending  through  one  side  of  the 
casing  only,  and  being  fitted  with  a  single  stuffing  box  on  that  side, 
and  a  central  bearing,  so  as  to  render  the  construction  more  rigid.  In 


ioo      REFRIGERATION   AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

the  bottom  of  the  casing  is  an  oil  bath  into  which  the  cranks  dip,  and 
the  central  bearing  is  at  all  times  flooded  with  oil.  There  are  two 
cylinders,  cast  in  one,  and  fitted  with  heads  carrying  the  suction  and 
discharge  valves  mounted  in  cages.  The  heads  of  the  two  cylinders 
are  connected  on  the  suction  side  to  a  strainer-box  for  intercepting 
any  dirt  or  foreign  matter,  and  the  discharge  side  is  connected  with 


Fig.  52. — Single- Acting  Vertical  Type  Ammonia  Compressor  (York  Manufacturing 
Company).     Sectional  Elevation  of  Complete  Machine. 

a  throttle  valve  which  is  common  to  both  the  cylinders.  The  pistons 
are  of  the  common  trunk  pattern.  This  machine  is  typical  of  the 
inclosed  compressor  made  by  the  Automatic  Refrigerating  Machine 
Co.,  Sydney,  N.S.W.,  and  San  Francisco,  and  of  a  number  of  machines 
of  this  class  made  by  various  other  makers. 

The  ammonia  compressors  constructed  by  the  Tuxen  and   Ham- 
merich's  Engineering  Works,  Ltd.,  of  Nakskov,  Denmark,  are  mostly 


THE   COMPRESSION    PROCESS    OR   SYSTEM.      101 

of  the  horizontal  double-acting  type.  Fig.  53  shows  a  belt-driven 
machine.  The  pump  cylinder  is  fitted  with  a  lining  made  from  a 
special  hard  mixture  of  cast  iron,  so  as  to  obviate  the  porosity  which 
is  inevitable  when  they  are  cast  in  one  piece,  and  thus  to  prevent  the 
absorption  of  ammonia  by  the  metal.  When  worn,  moreover,  a  liner, 
or  bush,  of  this  description  can  be  removed,  and  replaced  by  a  new 
one,  the  cylinder  being  thus  renewed  at  much  less  cost  in  time  and 
money  than  is  the  case  when  the  cylinder  is  made  of  a  single  casting. 


Fig.  53.— Horizontal  Type  of  Belt-driven  Tuxen  and  Hammerich  Ammonia 

Compressor. 

The  valves  are  made  of  steel,  and  the  valve  boxes  are  arranged  in  such 
a  manner  that  the  valves  can  be  withdrawn  without  necessitating  the 
disconnection  of  any  other  portion  of  the  machine  or  connections. 

A  gas-tight  joint  is  formed  at  the  piston  or  plunger  rod  stuffing 
box  by  means  of  an  oil  chamber  formed  between  the  packing  rings, 
and  by  a  patented  arrangement  the  pressure  of  the  gas  in  the  com- 
pressor is  employed  to  maintain  a  constant  pressure  of  oil  in  this 
sealing  chamber ;  in  this  manner,  it  will  be  seen,  the  tendency  of  the 


102       REFRIGERATION    AND    COLD    STORAGE. 

ammonia  itself  to  escape  is  utilised  to  prevent  its  escape.  Another 
feature  in  this  compressor  is  that  the  oil  chamber  is  connected  to  the 
suction  side  of  the  compressor,  so  that  in  the  event  of  the  machine 
running  hot  it  may  be  cooled  by  the  simple  expedient  of  running  a 
current  of  cold  air  through  the  oil  chamber.  This  arrangement  is  free 
from  valves,  and  other  working  parts  which  are  liable  to  fall  into 
disrepair,  and,  moreover,  requires  practically  no  attention,  and  is 
claimed  by  the  makers  to  admit  of  a  pressure  being  kept  up  equal  to 
the  pressure  of  the  ammonia,  however  much  the  latter  may  vary,  a 
duty  which  it  is  impossible  to  perform  by  any  arrangement  of  pump, 
and  besides  which  the  latter  arrangement  is,  according  to  them, 
inferior  in  many  other  respects. 

In  a  type  of  double-acting  vertical  ammonia  compression  machine 
constructed  by  the  Buffalo  Refrigerating  Machine  Co.,  of  Buffalo, 
N.Y.,  U.S.,  the  ammonia  pump  cylinder  and  the  steam  engine  cylinder 
are  in  line  vertically,  and  are  bolted  to  a  cast-iron  framing  mounted  on 
a  heavy  bed-plate.  Fig.  54  shows  the  ammonia  compressor  cylinder 
in  vertical  central  section.  The  piston  is  fitted  with  self-adjusting 
packing  rings,  one  at  each  end,  and  the  pressure  of  the  gas  acts  upon 
the  conical  surfaces  of  these  rings  so  as  to  expand  them  outwardly 
equally  in  all  directions,  and  so  form  a  gas-tight  joint.  The  pressure 
and  suction  valves  are  of  large  area,  so  that  all  wire-drawing  of  the 
gas  is  avoided ;  moreover,  they  are  so  arranged  as  to  leave  a  minimum 
of  spaces  to  retain  gas,  and  they  are  formed  with  lengthy  guide 
surfaces,  and  supplied  with  cushioning  chambers,  to  prevent  improper 
strains,  and  admit  of  their  closing  upon  their  seatings  without  noise 
and  hammering.  On  the  bottom  of  the  suction  valve  stem  a  collar 
is  provided,  which  has  the  advantage  of  preventing  it  from  falling  into 
the  compressor  cylinder  should  the  nut  on  the  upper  end  of  the  valve 
stem  accidentally  work  off. 

The  valves  are  mounted  in  cages,  which,  it  will  be  seen  from  the 
drawing,  are  so  constructed  that  they  can  be  readily  removed  from,  or 
replaced  in  position,  without  necessitating  the  dismounting  of  any  other 
part.  A  lengthy  stuffing  box  is  provided  to  prevent  leakage  of  gas 
round  the  piston  rod,  and  an  oil  chamber  therein,  between  the  upper 
and  lower  packings,  is  automatically  supplied  with  oil  from  an  oil  tank. 
This  oil  tank  is  charged  with  oil,  as  necessary,  by  means  of  a  hand 
pump  connected  to  the  tank.  The  lower  part  of  the  stuffing  box  oil 
chamber  is  connected  with  the  lower  part  of  the  oil  tank,  and  the 
upper  part  of  the  latter  is  connected  with  the  suction  valve  of  the 
compressor,  as  shown  in  the  illustration  (Fig.  54).  The  result  of  this 


THE   COMPRESSION    PROCESS    OR   SYSTEM.      103 

arrangement  is  that  the  oil  in  the  oil  tank  is  constantly  under  the 
suction  pressure  of  the  machine  on  both  top  and  bottom  ends  of  the 
cylinder.  The  oil  tank  being  higher  than  the  stuffing  box  oil  chamber, 


Fig.  54. — Vertical  Type  of  Steam-driven  Buffalo  Ammonia  Compressor. 
Vertical  Central  Section  through  Cylinder. 

the  oil  flows  from  the  former  to  the  latter  by  gravity,  and  should  any 
leakage  of  ammonia  occur  through  the  first  layers  of  packing  into  the 
stuffing  box  oil  chamber,  it  will  be  drawn  into  the  suction  pipe  of  the 


104       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

machine,  and  in  this  manner,  according  to  the  makers,  provision  is 
made  to  prevent  the  stuffing  box  pressure  ever  exceeding  the  working 
suction  pressure  of  the  condenser. 

Suitable  valves  on  the  connecting  pipes  communicating  with  the 
oil  tank  admit  of  regulating  the  amount  of  oil  passing  to  the  stuffing 
box  oil  chamber,  and  enough  oil  adheres  to  the  piston  rod,  and  passes 
into  the  cylinder  to  lubricate  the  latter. 

The  clearance  spaces  between  the  piston  and  the  heads  of  the 
compressor  cylinder  are  reduced  to  the  lowest  possible  point,  the 
thickness  of  a  sheet  of  packing  being  all  that  is  provided.  As  will 
be  seen  from  the  drawing,  the  compressor  cylinder  is  completely 
surrounded  by  a  water  jacket  to  carry  off  the  heat  generated  during 
compression. 

The  Arctic  Machine  Manufacturing  Co.,  of  Cleveland,  Ohio,  U.S., 
have  been  successfully  manufacturing  refrigerating  machinery  for  the 
past  twenty-two  years  or  more,  and  machines  constructed  by  them 
as  far  back  as  1879  are  still  running.  The  modern  types  of  machine 
built  by  the  Company  comprise  a  double-acting  vertical  ammonia 
compressor,  combined  with  a  vertical  steam  engine,  and  two  vertical 
compressors  combined  with  a  horizontal  steam  engine.  The  fly-wheel 
is  now  generally  located  between  the  upright  columns,  but  in  some 
patterns  of  machine  it  is  still  placed  on  the  exterior,  and  is  provided 
with  an  outside  bearing.  The  valves  of  the  compressor  are  mounted 
in  cages,  and  are  so  arranged  as  to  be  readily  get-at-able.  The  stuffing 
box  of  the  compression  piston  rod  is  formed  deep,  and  provided  with 
oil  sleeves. 

The  ammonia  compression  machine  made  by  Geo.  Challoner,  Sons,  & 
Co.,  of  Oshkosh,  Wis.,  U.S.,  belongs  to  the  inclosed  class.  A  pattern 
made  by  this  Company  is  a  triple  cylinder  single-acting  machine,  the 
entire  box  frame  of  which  is  cast  in  one  piece,  and  is  secured  to  an 
arched  bed-plate.  Circular  removable  flanges  at  each  extremity  carry 
extra  long  babbitted  crankshaft  bearings,  and  are  provided  with 
stuffing  boxes  and  glands,  made  of  considerable  length  to  prevent 
leakage  of  oil  or  gas  round  the  crankshaft.  The  interior  crankshaft 
bearings  are  so  mounted  within  the  box  frame  as  to  be  easily  dis- 
mounted when  desired.  The  working  parts  of  the  machine  run  in 
an  oil  bath  in  the  hollow  box  frame,  and  lubrication  is  thus  ensured 
without  exterior  aid.  The  upper  part  of  the  frame  is  faced  and 
bored  to  receive  the  pump  cylinders,  which  latter  can  be  removed 
and  replaced,  if  required,  without  disturbing  the  box  frame. 

In  the  larger  patterns  of  machines  the  pump  cylinders  are  provided 


THE   COMPRESSION    PROCESS    OR   SYSTEM.      105 

with  safety  heads.  The  suction  valves  are  located  in  the  pistons,  and 
the  discharge  valves  are  either  in  the  safety  heads  or  in  the  false 
heads,  and  both  suction  and  discharge  valves  are  so  arranged  that  they 
can  be  removed  without  necessitating  the  disconnection  of  the  pipe 
connections.  The  connection  to  the  suction  is  in  the  box  frame 
beneath  the  cylinders,  so  that  the  frame  is  maintained  cool  by  the 
low  temperature  gas  returning  to  the  pump  cylinders.  The  discharge 
connections  are  formed  to  the  pump  cylinders  above  the  safety  heads, 
and  both  connections  are  fitted  with  stop -valves,  and  a  by-pass  is 
also  provided,  so  as  to  admit  of  the  pumps  being  reversed  to  pump 
the  gas  from  the  high  to  the  low  pressure  side.  A  suitable  purge 
valve  on  the  discharge  connection  admits  of  the  box  frame  being 
pumped  out,  and  likewise  the  discharge  of  any  air  gaining  admission 
to  the  interior  on  the  opening  of  the  frame. 

A  machine  made  by  the  Ideal  Refrigerating  and  Manufacturing  Co., 
of  Chicago,  is  fitted  with  an  arrangement  for  the  more  even  distribution 
of  the  work  of  the  compressor  piston.  To  effect  this  the  diameter  of 
the  crankpiii  circle  is  formed  much  larger  than  the  piston  stroke,  and 
connection  is  made  through  a  toggle  lever  arrangement.  It  is  claimed 
that  as  the  connecting  rod  to  the  crankshaft  brings  the  two  toggle 
levers  connected  to  the  piston  rod  into  line,  the  force  that  is  available 
for  moving  the  piston  will  increase  independently  of  the  action  of  the 
toggle  levers. 

According  to  the  makers  the  effect  of  the  intermittent  motion 
which  the  cam  head  on  the  piston  imparts  to  the  valve  is  to  somewhat 
more  than  double  the  life  of  the  latter,  owing  to  the  length  of  time 
during  which  motion  is  arrested  whilst  the  crank  is  passing  the  dead 
centre,  the  toggle  being  then  in  a  straight  line  with  the  piston  rod. 
They,  moreover,  aver  that  it  affords  a  considerable  advantage,  inasmuch 
as  it  gives  the  valve  ample  time  to  get  properly  seated,  and  for  all  the 
gas  to  be  expelled  from  the  cylinder,  and  not  be  sucked  in  again  on 
the  return  stroke,  thus  greatly  increasing  the  efficiency  of  the  machine. 

A  vertical  single-acting  ammonia  compressor  (Stallman's)  manu- 
factured by  the  Creamery  Package  Manufacturing  Co.,  of  Chicago, 
111.,  U.S.,  consists  of  a  pair  of  pumps,  the  lower  portion  of  the  cylinders 
being  cored  out  so  as  to  form  a  series  of  ports,  which  lead  from  the 
suction  inlet  round  the  piston  and  communicate  with  the  cylinders  at 
such  times  as  the  pistons  are  at  the  bottom  or  limit  of  their  downward 
stroke.  In  this  manner,  the  cylinders  having  been  partly  filled  by  the 
gas  delivered  through  the  suction  valves  in  the  pistons  during  their 
downward  stroke,  the  charge  will  be  fully  completed  at  the  termination 


io6       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

of  the  stroke,  and  the  utmost  pressure  of  evaporation  be  obtained  in 
the  cylinders  owing  to  the  passage  of  gas  through  the  above-mentioned 
ports. 

The  discharge  valve  seat  rests  upon  a  shoulder  formed  by  the 
enlargement  of  the  upper  part  of  the  cylinder.  This  seat  is  made 
of  tool  steel,  and  is  forced  into  position  before  the  last  or  finishing 
cut  is  made,  and  is  bored  out  with  the  cylinder,  forming  practically 
a  portion  of  the  walls  of  the  latter.  The  outlet  port,  to  which  is 
connected  the  discharge  pipe,  is  situated  immediately  above  the  valve 
seat,  connected  with  the  enlarged  portion  of  the  cylinder,  and  branching 
off  from  same  at  right  angles.  The  discharge  valve  is  of  steel,  and 
turned  up  from  the  solid.  It  has  a  disc-shaped  bottom  of  larger 
diameter  than  the  cylinder,  and  rests  upon  the  above-mentioned  seat 
in  the  annular  enlargement  in  the  cylinder;  the  upper  part  of  the 
valve  is  cylindrical,  and  this  trunk-shaped  portion  slides  in  the  enlarged 
bore  of  the  cylinder  to  form  a  guide. 

When  making  its  upward  stroke  the  piston  passes  through  the 
discharge  valve  seat,  and  comes  into  contact  with  the  valve  itself. 
The  pressure  on  this  valve  is  regulated  by  a  spring  having  a  screw 
adjustment  through  the  cylinder  head.  This  arrangement  admits  of 
the  complete  discharge  of  the  gas  from  the  cylinder,  and  at  the  same 
time  forms  a  safety  head,  there  being  no  clearance  at  all,  and  no  loss 
of  efficiency  from  the  re-expansion  of  gas  from  such  clearance.  Another 
advantage  claimed  for  this  arrangement  is  that  owing  to  the  size  of 
the  valves  a  very  slight  movement  only  is  required,  whilst  they  give 
very  large  areas  of  openings,  and  allow  of  large  volumes  of  gas  passing 
rapidly. 

The  cylinders  are  so  mounted  upon  the  frames  containing  the 
crankshaft  bearings  and  crosshead  guides  as  to  cause  all  the  strains 
to  fall  upon  the  frames  direct,  instead  of  upon  bearings  in  a  separate 
bed-plate.  The  result  of  this  form  of  construction  is  an  absolute 
rigidity  of  alignment,  and  the  frames  are  firmly  secured  in  position 
by  a  massive  bed-plate  of  box  pattern.  The  two  compressors  can 
be  provided  with  independent  suction  connections,  and  can  then  be 
worked  independently  in  installations  so  operated  that  different  con- 
ditions of  temperature  and  varying  back  pressures  exist,  as,  for  instance, 
in  cases  where  both  ice-making  and  refrigerating  are  carried  out 
together,  or  where  freezing  chambers  are  run  along  with  ordinary 
cold  stores. 

Fig.  55  is  a  vertical  section  through  the  pump  cylinder  of  a  single- 
acting  vertical  ammonia  compressor,  designed  by  Mr  C.  A.  MacDonald, 


THE   COMPRESSION    PROCESS    OR   SYSTEM.      107 

and  made  by  the  Hercules  Ice- Making  and  Refrigerating  Machinery 
Co.,  of  Chicago,  111.,  U.S. 


Fig.  55.— Vertical  Type  of  Steam-driven  Hercules  Ammonia  Compressor. 
Vertical  Central  Section  through  Cylinder. 

A  special  feature  in  this  pump  is  that  an  arrangement  is  provided 


io8       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

for  allowing  free  communication  between  the  inlet  branch  and  the 
interior  of  the  cylinder  when  the  piston  is  right  down,  or  at  the  end  of 
its  travel  in  a  downward  direction.  This  consists  of  a  belt  or  passage 
cast  around  the  lower  part  of  the  cylinder  which  is  in  connection  with 
the  inlet  branch,  holes  being  formed  into  this  belt  or  passage  through 
the  walls  of  the  barrel.  The  positions  of  these  holes  are  such  that 
some  will  be  lower  than  the  piston  when  it  is  at  the  extremity  of  its 
downward  stroke,  thus  affording  free  access  for  the  gas,  entirely 
independently  of  the  valves,  before  the  return  .stroke.  These  holes 
have  to  be  formed  by  cores  when  casting  the  pump  cylinder,  and  the 
arrangement  causes  the  casting  to  be  rather  a  difficult  one  to  make. 
The  holes,  however,  serve  to  compensate  for  the  reduction  in  the  size 
of  the  inlet  valve,  and  allow  of  a  full  back  pressure  of  gas  being 
obtained  above  the  piston  before  compression  is  commenced. 

Somewhat  similar  arrangements  to  the  above  are  provided  in  the 
Antarctic  single-acting  compressor  (designed  by  Mr  Norman  Selfe, 
C.E.),  made  by  the  Antarctic  Refrigerating  Machine  Co.,  of  Sydney, 
N.S.W.,  and  San  Francisco,  and  in  that  of  the  Auldjo  Machine  Co., 
Australia. 

The  ammonia  compression  machines  constructed  by  the  Case 
Refrigerating  Machine  Co.,  of  Buffalo,  N.Y.,  U.S.,  are  of  massive 
build,  and  at  the  same  time  are  so  designed  as  to  take  up  a 
comparatively  small  amount  of  floor  space. 

A  special  feature  in  their  construction  is  that  the  piston  rods  of 
both  the  compressor  cylinder  and  the  steam  engine  cylinder  are  con- 
nected to  the  same  crosshead  which  works  between  the  cylinders.  The 
steam  cylinder  is  situated  below  and  directly  in  line  with  the  compressor 
pump  cylinder,  thus  admitting  of  a  direct  transmission  of  power  in  a 
straight  line,  and  doing  away  with  all  the  strains  and  friction  which 
occur  in  the  case  of  a  crankshaft  and  connecting  rods.  A  constant 
stream  of  water  is  kept  flowing  through  a  water  jacket  surrounding  the 
compression  cylinder  to  keep  the  latter  cool  during  work. 

Another  point  in  this  make  of  compressor  is  that  the  suction  and 
discharge  valves  work  horizontally,  an  arrangement  which  admits  of 
allowing  only  a  very  small  pocket  for  the  retention  of  compressed 
gas,  and  of  reducing  the  clearance  to  the  lowest  possible  fraction. 

A  double-acting  horizontal  ammonia  compressor  manufactured  by 
the  A.  H.  Barber  Manufacturing  Co.,  of  Chicago,  111.,  U.S.,  is  shown 
in  Fig.  56. 

The  machines  of  this  Company  are  as  a  rule  built  with  a  box  framing 
and  a  central  crank  in  the  case  of  belt-driven  machines,  and  a  Tangye 


THE   COMPRESSION   PROCESS   OR   SYSTEM.      109 

pattern  frame  and  side  crank  when  coupled  directly  to  a  steam  engine. 
The  cylinder  is  sunk  into  the  frame,  the  cylinder  flanges  being  set  in 
the  centre  of  and  strongly  bolted  to  the  frame,  thus  equalising  the 
pressure,  so  that  the  cylinder  has  no  possible  chance  to  move  or  rock ; 
and  a  flat  locomotive  pattern  guide  is  employed  which  admits  of  the 
frame  of  the  machine  being  formed  both  deep  and  rigid,  and  rendering 
it  practically  impossible  for  the  cylinder  to  get  out  of  line. 

The  cylinder  and  valves  are  completely  surrounded  by  water,  thereby 
preventing  the  springs  of  the  latter  from  becoming  overheated  and 


Fig.  56.— Double- Acting  Horizontal  Type  Barber  Steam-driven  Ammonia 
Compressor. 

losing  their  tension,  and  in  this  manner  increasing  their  efficiency. 
The  valves  and  their  seatings  are  constructed  of  tool  steel,  and  are 
hardened  to  render  their  life  as  long  as  possible.  The  valves,  more- 
over, can  be  easily  removed  without  having  to  disturb  any  other  joints. 
The  piston  is  light,  fitted  with  metallic  packing  rings,  and  the  piston 
rod  stuffing  box  is  rendered  perfectly  gas-tight  by  a  double  packing 
with  a  central  oil  chamber.  The  arrangement  of  the  lubricator  is 
such  that  it  will  oil  the  cylinder,  valves,  and  piston  rod.  A  strainer 
placed  in  the  suction  pipe  or  conduit  near  the  compressor  prevents  any 
scale  or  other  matter  passing  into  the  latter. 


i  io       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD    STORAGE. 

The  smallest  possible  amount  of  clearance  (^T  in.  at  each  end  of  the 
piston  stroke)  is  left,  and  provision  is  made  for  the  taking  up  of  any 
slackness  in  the  connecting  rod  through  wear  on  the  crank  shaft  or 
guide. 

The  valves,  which  are  of  a  patented  form  of  construction,  cannot 
by  any  chance  drop  into  the  compressor  cylinder,  there  being  no  nuts 
or  keys  to  wear  out  and  get  loose.  The  compressor  shown  in  Fig.  49 
is  one  of  12-ton  refrigerating  capacity,  and  is  connected  directly  with 


Fig.  57. — Double- Acting  Horizontal  Type  Barber  Electrically-driven  Ammonia 

Compressor. 

the  driving  shaft  of  a  horizontal  Corliss  engine,  with  a  heavy  fly-wheel 
located  between  to  answer  for  both.  The  floor  space  occupied  by  this 
machine  (engine  and  compressor)  is  8  ft.  by  9  ft. 

It  is  claimed  by  the  makers  that,  owing  to  the  extremely  small 
amount  of  clearance  in  the  pump  cylinder,  and  the  arrangement  of  the 
valves,  it  is  possible  for  each  stroke  of  the  piston  to  compress  the  full 
area  of  gas  contained  in  the  cylinder. 

In  Fig.  57  is  illustrated  an  8-ton  compressor  supplied  by  the  above 
company  to  do  refrigerating  work  in  the  dairy  building  at  the  Trans- 


THE   COMPRESSION    PROCESS   OR   SYSTEM,      in 

Mississippi  Exposition,  at  Omaha,  Neb.,  U.S.  This  machine  is  con- 
nected by  a  shaft  to  an  electric  motor  through  a  raw-hide  pinion  and 
cut  gear,  the  motor  and  compressor  being  both  mounted  upon  the 
same  base  or  bed-plate.  As  this  arrangement  does  away  with  all  belts, 
hangers,  or  shafting,  it  occupies  but  little  space,  and  it  is  always  ready 
for  work.  The  makers  state  that  they  can  from  experience  thoroughly 
recommend  the  adoption  of  this  pattern  machine  when  electric  power 
is  to  be  used,  having  installed  a  number  of  different  sized  compressors 


Fig.  58.— Small  Single- Acting  Horizontal  Type  Barber  Steam-driven 
Ammonia  Compressor. 

with  the  electric  motor  connected  up  in  this  manner,  which  have  been 
found  in  practical  working  to  give  great  satisfaction,  and  to  require 
but  little  attention. 

Fig.  58  shows  a  very  small  single-acting  ammonia  compressor 
known  as  the  "baby  compressor,"  made  by  the  same  company.  As 
will  be  seen  from  the  illustration,  this  compressor  is  of  the  inclosed 
type,  the  piston  and  crankshaft  running  in  an  oil  bath,  and  therefore 
working  noiselessly  and  requiring  little  or  no  attention.  The  com- 


ii2       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD    STORAGE. 

pressor  is  coupled  direct  to  a  vertical  engine,  the  power  required  to 
drive  being  under  3  H.P.  The  refrigerating  capacity  of  this  little 
machine  is  1J  tons,  and  it  is  adapted  for  use  in  creameries,  meat 
markets,  butchers'  cold  stores,  hotels,  &c.,  in  fact  in  any  place  where 
only  a  small  plant  is  needed. 

Ammonia  compression  machines  of  several  different  patterns  are 
built  by  the  Vulcan  Iron  Works,  San  Francisco,  California,  U.S. 
Their  horizontal,  double-acting  type  of  compressor  has  a  strong  girder 
frame.  The  compressor  pump  cylinder  (Fig.  59)  is  furnished  with  a 
piston  of  extra  length  fitted  with  special  packing  rings  that  will  take 
up  any  wear  that  may  develop.  A  are  the  suction  inlets,  and  B  are 


Fig.  59. — Double- Acting  Horizontal  Type  Vulcan  Ammonia  Compressor. 
Central  Section  through  Cylinder. 


the  discharge  outlets.  The  suction  and  discharge  valves  are^  of  steel, 
simple  in  construction,  of  large  area,  easily  removable  for  cleaning  or 
inspection,  and  they  are  so  made  and  arranged,  being  provided  with 
a  proper  safety  device  (which  will  be  seen  from  the  sectional  view, 
Fig.  59),  that  in  case  of  accident,  they  cannot  fall  into  the  cylinder 
and  wreck  the  machine.  As  will  be  seen  from  the  illustration,  more- 
over, the  stuffing  box  of  the  piston  rod  is  provided  with  an  oil  cellar 
or  chamber  c  through  which  cold  oil  is  constantly  circulated  by  means 
of  a  pump  attached  to  the  top  of  the  frame,  this  oil  bath  serving,  as 
in  other  machines,  the  double  purpose  of  acting  as  a  seal  to  prevent 
the  leakage  of  any  ammonia,  and  of  lubricating  the  piston  rod.  The 
cylinder  of  the  ammonia  compressor  is  water- jacketed,  and  neatly 


THE   COMPRESSION    PROCESS  OR   SYSTEM.      113 

lagged,   a  circulation  of  water  being  kept  up  through  the  jacket  to 
remove  the  heat  generated  by  the  compression  of  the  ammonia  gas. 

The  compressor  is  provided  with  a  dirt  trap  for  catching  and 
intercepting  any  foreign  matter  that  may  be  brought  back  from  the 
expansion  piping,  and  preventing  it  from  passing  into  the  cylinder. 


•AUCTION     »IPe 


Fig.  60. — Small  Single- Acting  Vertical  Inclosed  Type  Vulcan  Ammonia 
Compressor.     Elevation  partly  in  Vertical  Section. 

Suitable  cross  connections  are  also  provided  for  enabling  the  condenser 
to  be  pumped  out  for  examination,  repairs,  &c.  The  crosshead  and 
connecting  rod,  as  well  as  the  crankpin  and  the  main  bearing,  are 
formed  of  extra  strength  and  with  large  wearing  surfaces,  every 
provision  being  made  for  meeting  any  excess  of  regular  duty. 

The  construction  of  the  compressor  will  be  readily  understood  from 
8 


ii4      REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

the  above  description,  and  from  an  inspection  of  the  sectional  view, 
Fig.  59.  They  are  built  in  sizes  from  10  tons  refrigerating  capacity 
and  upwards,  and  can  be  worked  either  on  the  dry  or  wet  gas  system. 
The  compressors  are  constructed  for  belt  driving,  or  are  connected 
direct  to  a  Corliss  or  Meyer  cut-off  steam  engine. 


Fig.  61. — Small  Single-Acting  Vertical  Inclosed  Type  Vulcan  Ammonia 
Compressor.     Transverse  Section. 


A  small  vertical  single-acting  compressor  of  the  inclosed  type, 
also  made  by  the  above  firm,  is  shown  in  the  sectional  views,  Figs.  60 
and  61.  The  construction  of  the  machine  is  as  follows: — A  is  the 
piston  yoke.  B  is  the  piston  yoke  guide,  c  are  the  yoke  blocks.  D  is 
the  crank  box.  E  is  the  crank  sleeve.  F  is  the  guide  bushing.  G 


THE   COMPRESSION    PROCESS   OR   SYSTEM.      115 

is  the  crankshaft  bushing.  H  is  the  crankshaft  stuffing  box  gland.  I  is 
the  oil  valve.  J  is  the  suction  valve.  K  is  the  discharge  valve.  L  is 
the  discharge  valve  guide.  M  is  the  cylinder  head.  N  is  the  discharge 
valve  cap  and  tension  spring,  o  is  the  suction  valve  seat.  P  is  the 
pipe  gland.  Q  are  the  gauge  valves.  E  is  the  packing  or  dividing 
ring,  s  is  the  relief  valve.  T  is  the  hollow  box  frame  or  casing  cover, 
u  is  a  dirt  trap  for  intercepting  any  foreign  matter  and  preventing 
access  thereof  to  the  pump  cylinder,  v  is  the  body  or  frame  of  the 
compressor,  w  is  the  bed  or  base  plate,  x  is  the  guide  cover.  Y  is 
the  crankshaft.  And  z  is  the  crank  box  wearing  strip. 

The  cylinder  opens,  it  will  be  seen,  into  the  crank  chamber,  the 
sides  of  which  constitute  the  supporting  frame,  thereby  bringing  the 
cylinder  and  shaft  close  together.  The  crank  is  forged  on  end  of  a 
heavy  steel  shaft  which  passes  through  a  stuffing  or  packing  box  and 
gland  in  the  side  of  the  crank  chamber,  and  the  crankpin  is  of  special 
construction,  having  a  hardened  steel  sleeve  held  in  place  by  a  collar. 
The  motion  is  transmitted  to  the  piston  through  a  strong  yoke  having 
a  guide  on  its  lower  side.  A  movable  cover  or  bonnet  plate  T  admits 
of  access  being  had  to  the  crank  chamber.  The  latter  chamber  is 
filled  with  oil  to  a  level  just  above  the  packing  box  of  crankshaft, 
the  height  of  the  oil  in  the  chamber  being  indicated  at  any  time  by 
the  gauge  glass  shown  in  Fig.  60,  and  this  oil  bath  both  acts  as  a 
lubricant  to  the  moving  parts  of  the  machine  in  the  crank  chamber, 
and  also  as  a  seal  for  the  packing  box  of  the  crankshaft. 

The  ammonia  gas  enters  the  crank  chamber  below  the  piston,  the  suc- 
tion valve  is  provided  with  a  safety  cage  and  is  situated  in  the  centre  of 
the  piston,  and  the  discharge  valve  is  placed  in  the  cylinder  head,  and  both 
these  valves  are  made  of  forged  steel.  A  water  jacket  having  a  proper 
outlet  surrounds  the  pump  cylinder,  and  suitable  facilities  for  cleaning 
are  provided.  The  wearing  parts  being  supplied  with  removable  bushings 
tends  to  prolong  the  life  of  the  machine  at  a  small  future  expense. 

This  inclosed  type  of  vertical  single-acting  compressor  is  made  in 
sizes  varying  from  i  ton  up  to  3J  tons  refrigerating  capacity  per 
twenty-four  hours.  Another  pattern  of  this  machine  has  two  of  these 
compressors  mounted  upon  one  base  or  bed-plate,  and  connected  by 
a  solid  steel  shaft  with  a  crank  on  each  end,  and  a  single  fly-wheel 
located  centrally  between  the  cylinders.  The  working  parts  of  this 
compressor  are  identical  with  the  above,  and  this  type  is  made  of 
from  5  to  10  tons  refrigerating  capacity  per  twenty-four  hours.  The 
small  |-ton  machine  requires  only  from  J  to  J  H.P.  for  driving 
purposes,  and  the  floor  space  occupied  is  only  18  in,  x  30  in, 


ii6       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD    STORAGE. 

A  compressor  of  the  inclosed  type  with  two  cylinders  in  line 
horizontally  is  likewise  made  by  Mr  B.  Lebrun,  of  Nimy,  Belgium, 
in  which  any  escape  of  ammonia  past  the  pistons  is  received  in  a 
bell-shaped  receptacle  above  the  crank  chamber,  and  after  passing 
through  a  strainer  is  drawn  in  by  the  pumps  on  their  suction  strokes. 

The  St  Glair  compressor  is  one  of  the  compound  type,  consisting 
of  a  combination  of  two  or  more  single-acting  compressors  in  such  a 
manner  that  the  gas  is  partly  compressed  at  a  lower  pressure  in  one 
compressor,  and  then  passed  to  another  wherein  the  higher  compres- 
sion is  applied.  This  machine  has  been  greatly  improved  by  Mr  Thomas 
Shipley,  and  is  manufactured  by  the  York  Manufacturing  Co.,  of 
York,  Pa.,  U.S. 

A  number  of  other  types  of  ammonia  compression  machines  will 
be  found  described  in  the  chapter  devoted  especially  to  marine 
refrigeration. 


CHAPTER   VII 

• 

THE  COMPRESSION   PROCESS  (continued) 

Properties  of  Ether—  Modern  Ether  Machines—  Properties  of  Methyl  Chloride- 
Methyl  Chloride  Machines—  Properties  of  Sulphurous  Acid  —  Sulphurous  Acid 
Machines  —  Properties  of  Carbonic  Acid  —  Carbonic  Acid  Machines. 

PROPERTIES  OF  ETHER,  AND  ETHER  MACHINES. 

p    TT     \ 

ETHER,     2    5  >O,  is  a  colourless  liquid  of  great  mobility,  and  possessed 
CHJ 


25 


of  a  strong  and  peculiar  ethereal  smell.  Ether  is  lighter  than  water, 
having  a  specific  gravity  0-736,  and  it  is  not  miscible  with  the  latter 
liquid.  The  boiling  point  of  ether  is  34-5°,  and  its  vapour  is  thirty- 
seven  times  heavier  than  hydrogen.  Ether  burns  with  a  luminous 
flame,  and  explodes  when  it  is  mixed  with  air.  The  specific  heat  of 
liquid  ether  is  0'51. 

The  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  ether  as  an  agent  or  medium 
have  already  been  touched  upon  (pages  43  and  44),  but  they  may  be 
here  recapitulated. 

The  great  feature  of  ether  is  that  it  possesses  the  quality  of  working 
with  a  low  pressure  in  the  condenser,  an  advantage  of  considerable 
importance  in  very  warm  climates,  as  the  efficiency  of  a  low-pressure 
ether  machine  does  not  fall  off  appreciably,  even  when  the  condensing 
water  attains  to  a  comparatively  high  temperature.  This  is  also 
advantageous  by  reason  of  the  low  condenser  pressure  —  not  exceeding 
from  7  to  10  Ibs.  per  square  inch,  even  in  the  hottest  climates  —  being 
favourable  to  the  maintenance  of  tight  joints,  and  the  consequent 
economy  of  the  chemicals.  This  low  working  pressure  and  the  great 
simplicity  of  all  the  working  parts  renders  this  class  of  machine, 
moreover,  comparatively  easy  to  manage. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  large  size  of  the  compressor  required,  about 
seventeen  times  that  of  an  ammonia  compressor  of  the  same  capacity, 
is  objectionable,  both  by  reason  of  first  cost  of  the  machine  and  the 
space  occupied  by  it.  Another  serious  objection  is  the  highly  inflam- 
mable nature  of  ether.  Owing  to  its  low  boiling  point  great  precautions 

117 


n8       REFRIGERATION   AND   GOLD   STORAGE. 

are  necessary  to  avoid  explosions  when  using  this  substance,  by  reason 
of  the  vapour  becoming  mixed  with  air. 

All  formula  and  rules  intended  for  use  with  ammonia  compressors 
are  equally  applicable  to  ether  compressors,  except,  however,  that  it 
must  be  noted  that  the  specific  heat  of  the  saturated  vapour  of  ether 
is  positive,  and  that  consequently  it  will  superheat  during  expansion, 
and  will  condense  during  compression.  This  quality  renders  it  un- 


Fig.  62. — Belt-driven  Horizontal  Type  West  Ether  Compression  Machine. 


necessary  to  make  any  provision  against  superheating,  and  an  ether 
compressor  is  invariably  worked  with  dry  vapour. 

The  ether  machines  of  Twining,  Harrison,  Tellier,  Siebe  Gorman 
&  Co.,  and  Delia  Beffa,  have  been  already  briefly  alluded  to  on  pages 
37  to  42.  In  Fig.  62  is  illustrated  a  modern  standard  type  of  ether 
machine  constructed  by  H.  J.  West  &  Co.,  Ltd.,  London,  which  the 
company  now  supply  for  use  in  tropical  countries.  A  commercially 
successful  ether  compression  machine  for  the  manufacture  of  ice 


THE   COMPRESSION    PROCESS   OR   SYSTEM.      119 

in  large  quantities  was  built  by  Mr  Henry  J.  West,  the  founder  of 
this  firm,  in  the  year  1859,  and  the  manufacture  of  machines  of  this 
type  has  been  continued  successfully  up  to  the  present  day.  The 
machine  shown  in  the  illustration  (which  is  intended  to  be  belt-driven) 
is  of  the  horizontal  type,  and  is  arranged  with  the  condenser  on  one 
side,  and  an  ice-making  tank  upon  the  other. 

In  the  larger  pattern  of  ether  machines  made  by  the  firm,  having 
a  capacity  of  from  12  cwt.  of  ice  daily  and  upwards,  the  ether  com- 
pressor is  placed  on  the  same  bed- plate  as  the  steam  engine,  and  is 
connected  tandemwise  to  the  engine  piston  rod.  The  motion  work 
of  these  machines  is  of  sufficiently  massive  construction,  and  all 
wearing  surfaces  are  of  ample  proportions,  each  bearing,  moreover, 
being  provided  with  an  automatic  lubricator. 

An  ether  compression  machine  not  being  called  upon  to  withstand 
the  same  high  pressures  as  a  carbonic  acid  machine,  or  even  an 
ammonia  machine  (the  working  pressure  of  an  ether  machine  being 
only  about  7  Ibs.  to  10  Ibs.  per  square  inch  above  that  of  the 
atmosphere),  the  same  strength  of  construction  is  not  demanded, 
and  the  design  is  very  considerably  simplified.  The  difficulty  of 
making  and  maintaining  tight  joints  is  a  comparatively  easy  matter, 
the  pressure  under  which  ether  evaporates  in  the  refrigerator  being 
lower  than  that  of  the  external  atmosphere,  but  a  very  slight  tendency 
exists  towards  leakage  at  the  gland  of  an  ether  compressor.  Any 
leakage,  moreover,  of  air  that  may  occur  into  the  ether  machine 
through  faulty  packing  or  joints,  merely  causes  a  slight  accumulation 
of  pressure  in  the  condenser,  which  can  be  easily  relieved  by  means  of 
a  valve  provided  for  the  purpose. 

As  ether  possesses  no  affinity  for  the  constituents  of  the  atmosphere, 
there  is  consequently  no  danger  of  decomposition  taking  place,  and  the 
formation  of  acids  or  gases  that  may  act  injuriously  on  the  interior 
surfaces  of  the  machine,  as  is  the  case  with  sulphurous  acid,  which, 
under  like  conditions,  decomposes  and  forms  sulphuric  acid. 

A  quality  possessed  by  ether  is  that  it  is  in  a  liquid  state  at  the 
ordinary  atmospheric  pressure,  and  at  the  usual  atmospheric  tempera- 
tures, so  that  it  can  be  drawn  out  of .  the  plant  at  any  time  and  stored 
in  drums.  This  fact  renders  ether  an  especially  suitable  agent  or 
medium  for  use  in  portable  refrigerating  and  ice-making  plants,  con- 
sequently, machines  working  on  the  low-pressure  ether  anhydride 
process  are  those  most  usually  chosen  for  military  purposes,  and  such 
machines  were  successfully  used  by  the  British  Government  for  military 
operations  and  field  hospital  work  in  the  Abyssinian  War  in  1868,  the 


120       REFRIGERATION,  AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

Ashantee  Campaign  in  1874,  the  military  operations  in  Egypt  in  1883, 
the  Ashantee  Campaign  of  1895,  the  Soudan  Campaign  of  1896-97,  and 
the  last  protracted  and  unfortunate  war  in  South  Africa. 

PROPERTIES  OP  METHYL  CHLORIDE,  AND  METHYL  CHLORIDE  MACHINES. 

Another  very  low-pressure  agent  or  medium  is  methyl  chloride 
(CH3C1),  which  is  obtained  as  a  colourless  gas  which  condenses  at  -20° 
Fahr.  Methyl  chloride  is  formed  by  acting  upon  methyl  alcohol  with 
hydrochloric  or  muriatic  acid,  or  with  phosphorus  pentachloride,  and 
is  also  obtained,  together  with  other  substances,  by  the  action  of 
chlorine  upon  marsh  gas. 

Machines  operating  with  methyl  chloride  as  an  agent  are  manu- 
factured by  Messrs  Douane,  of  Paris.  As  the  pressure  used  with  this 
agent  does  not  exceed  10  Ibs.  per  square  inch  above  that  of  the 
atmosphere,  the  same  remarks  apply  to  methyl  chloride  compressors  as 
to  ether  compressors,  and  the  construction  is  practically  identical. 
The  condenser  and  evaporator  tubes  of  the  methyl  chloride  machines 
made  by  Messrs  Douane  are  all  covered  with  electro-deposited  copper. 

In  Fig.  63  is  illustrated  in  vertical  central  section  a  compression 
machine,  designed  by  Mr  M.  E.  Douane.  In  this  machine  the  cooler 
or  refrigerator  is  shown  on  the  left-hand  side  of  the  drawing.  There 
is  a  hollow  standard  surmounted  by  a  single-acting  cylinder,  the  top  of 
which  has  valves  for  suction  and  discharge.  The  space  above  the 
discharge  valve  communicates  with  a  coil  leading  by  a  tube  to  the  stop- 
cock serving  for  the  admission  of  the  refrigerating  liquid  in  the  cooler. 
The  chamber  underneath  the  suction  valve  communicates  by  a  pipe 
with  the  outlet  of  vapour  from  the  cooler.  A  gauge  screwed  upon  a 
nozzle  shows  the  pressure  in  the  cooler.  The  piston  of  the  compressor 
is  worked  by  a  rod  and  crankshaft  which  passes  through  a  stuffing  box 
in  the  side  of  the  hollow  standard. 


PROPERTIES  OF  SULPHUROUS  ACID,  AND  SULPHUROUS  ACID  MACHINES. 

Sulphurous  acid  or  sulphur  dioxide  (SO2)  is  a  gas  obtained  by  the 
burning  of  sulphur,  as  has  been  already  mentioned  on  page  44. 
Sulphurous  acid  has  a  molecular  weight  of  65,  and  a  density  of  32. 
The  specific  heat  of  liquid  sulphurous  acid  is  '41  (water  =1).  The 
critical  pressure  is  79  atmospheres,  and  the  critical  temperature  312° 
Fahr.  The  specific  gravity  of  the  gaseous  acid  is  2-211  (air  =  l),  and 
the  specific  gravity  of  the  liquid  at  a  temperature  of  -4°  Fahr.  is  1'491. 


THE    COMPRESSION    PROCESS    OR   SYSTEM.      121 

Andreef  gives  the  following  formula  for  expressing  the  relation  of 
the  specific  gravity  s  of  the  liquid  to  the  temperature  t : — 

a  =  1-4333  -  0-00277(5  -  0-000000271*2. 

Sulphurous  acid  or  sulphur  dioxide  possesses  the  advantage  of  being 
liquefiable  at  a  comparatively  low  temperature,  and  machines  adapted 
to  use  this  agent  or  medium,  whilst  not  operating  at  anything  like  as 
low  a  pressure  as  ether  or  methyl  chloride  machines,  still  work  at  a 
very  much  lower  one  than  ammonia  machines,  with  condensing  water 


Fig.  63. — Single- Acting  Inclosed  Type  Douane  Methyl  Chloride  Compressor. 
Vertical  Central  Section. 

at  normal  temperature,  the  pressure  being  only  from  about  36 '75  to 
44  Ibs.  per  square  inch.  Sulphur  dioxide  possesses  certain  lubricating 
qualities,  consequently  compressors  using  this  agent  require  no  extra 
lubrication. 

Sulphur  dioxide  is  liable  to  form  sulphuric  acid  on  exposure  to  the 
air,  and  cause  corrosion — iron  being  the  metal  chiefly  acted  upon,  and 
gun-metal  or  copper  being  tolerably  immune  against  attack.  Conse- 
quently it  is  necessary  to  take  great  precautions  against  the  presence 
of  any  leaky  joints  in  the  apparatus. 


122       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD    STORAGE. 

This  comparatively  low  working  pressure,   and  consequent  corre- 
spondingly low  temperature  of  compression,  admits  of  machines  using 


Fig.  64. — Belt-driven  Double- Acting  Vertical  Type  Quiri  Sulphurous 
Acid  Compression  Machine. 

this  agent  working  without  superheating,  and  with  dry  vapour.     This 
latter  is  not  practicable  in  the  case  of  machines  working  with  either 


THE   COMPRESSION    PROCESS    OR   SYSTEM.      123 

ammonia  or  carbonic  acid,  in  both  of  which  superheating  is  impossible 
— especially  so  in  the  case  of  carbonic  acid — on  account  of  the  overheat- 
ing of  the  piston  and  stuffing  box  that  would  occur,  and  consequently 
all  these  latter  machines  work  more  or  less  on  the  wet  system,  and  a 
small  portion  of  the  work  of  evaporation,  which  ought  to  take  place 
in  the  refrigerator  exclusively,  has  to  be  effected  in  the  compressor. 

A  number  of  different  patterns  of  machines  adapted  to  work  with 
sulphur  dioxide  are  made  by  Quiri  &  Co.,  Schiltigheim,  Alsace.  The 
smallest  type  of  machine  made  by  this  firm,  which  is  shown  in  Fig. 


Fig.  65. — Belt-driven  Double- Acting  Horizontal  Type  Quiri  Sulphurous 
Acid  Compressor. 

64,  has  a  vertical  compressor,  the  cylinder  being  bolted  to  the  lower 
head  which  is  formed  in  one  piece  with  the  guides,  the  latter,  as  well 
as  the  crankshaft  journals,  being  cast  together  with  the  condenser. 
The  compressor  is  of  the  double-acting  type,  and  is  provided  with 
valves  of  phosphor  bronze,  with  steel  spindles.  These  machines  are 
made  in  sizes  of  from  4|  cwt.  to  12  cwt.  ice-making  capacity  per 
twenty-four  hours. 

The  larger  sizes  of  machines  are  of  the  double-acting  horizontal 
pattern,  and  are  arranged  either  for  belt  or  rope  drive,  or  are  direct 
coupled  to  a  steam  engine. 


124       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD    STORAGE. 

The  belt-driven  compressors  consist  either  of  a  single  cylinder 
double  acting  pump,  such  as  that  shown  in  Fig.  65,  which  is  of  re- 
markably simple  construction,  or  of  two  practically  similar  pumps, 
laterally  coupled,  that  is  to  say,  arranged  side  by  side,  and  having  a 
single  crankshaft  with  two  end  cranks,  and  a  central  fly-wheel  between 
the  two  compressors  adapted  for  a  rope  drive. 

In  another  arrangement,  intended  for  rope  driving,  two  similar  com- 
pressors are  mounted  in  line  upon  the  ends  of  a  single  bed  plate.  Both 
the  piston  rods  of  the  compressor  cylinders  are  in  this  case  coupled 
through  their  connecting  rods  to  the  same  crankpin  upon  a  crank  at 
the  end  of  a  crankshaft  supported  in  a  bearing  upon  the  bed-plate,  and 
in  an  outside  bearing  in  a  suitable  pedestal.  Upon  this  crankshaft 
is  a  fly-wheel,  grooved  for  rope  driving.  This  machine  may  be  coupled 
to  a  Sulzer  steam  engine. 

One  pattern  of  steam-driven  compressor  consists  of  a  compressor 
practically  similar  to  that  shown  in  Fig.  58,  laterally  coupled  to  a  steam 
engine  with  slide  valve  motion,  in  a  similar  manner  to  the  two  pumps 
above  mentioned. 

These  anhydrous  sulphuric  acid  compressors  are  each  connected 
with  a  condenser,  either  of  the  submerged  or  immersion  type,  or, 
in  cases  where  condensing  water  is  scarce,  with  a  condenser  of  the 
atmospheric  evaporative  type,  and  with  a  refrigerator,  and  the  entire 
refrigerating  apparatus  consists  of  these  parts  solely,  no  oil-pumps, 
oil-separators,  rectifying  apparatus,  or  other  accessories,  such  as  are 
required  with  ammonia  and  carbonic  acid  machines,  being  necessary. 
This  fact  obviously  enables  anhydrous  sulphuric  acid  machines  to  be 
very  much  simplified  in  construction,  and  renders  their  successful 
working  a  far  easier  matter  to  accomplish,  as  the  manipulation  of  the 
above  apparati  is  troublesome,  and  to  an  unskilled  attendant  presents 
many  serious  difficulties.  This  system  is  one,  therefore,  which  should 
most  undoubtedly  be  advantageous  for  small  machines  intended  for 
use  in  hotels,  creameries,  dairies,  and  in  private  houses,  and  by 
butchers,  fishmongers,  &c.,  and  in  other  places  where  the  machine  is 
left  to  the  care  of  a  comparatively  unskilled  person. 

A  very  small  and  remarkably  compact  belt-driven  anhydrous  sulphur 
dioxide  or  sulphurous  acid  machine,  designed  and  patented  by  Messrs 
Douglas  &  Conroy,  and  manufactured  by  W.  Douglas  &  Sons,  Ltd., 
Putney,  London,  S.W.,  is  shown  in  Figs.  66  to  69.  Instead  of  the 
compressor  being  mounted  vertically  upon  the  side  of  the  condenser, 
as  it  is  in  the  small  machine  previously  described,  it  is,  it  will  be 
seen,  placed  horizontally  upon  the  top  of  the  condenser,  and  is  of  the 


THE   COMPRESSION    PROCESS   OR   SYSTEM.      125 

inclosed  type,  consisting  of  two  single-acting  horizontal  cylinders, 
arranged  in  line,  the  pistons  being  operated  by  a  crank  working  in  a 
box.  The  arrangement  will  be  readily  understood  from  the  general 
view  of  the  apparatus  shown  in  Fig.  66,  upon  which  for  convenience  the 
various  parts  are  marked,  and  from  the  various  other  views,  Fig.  67 


Fig.  66. — Belt-driven  Horizontal  Inclosed  Type  Douglas -Conroy  Sulphurous 
Acid  Compression  Machine.     Elevation  partly  in  Vertical  Section. 

being  a  plan  of  the  compressor,  Fig.  68  a  vertical  section  on  the 
line  A-B,  Fig.  67,  and  Fig.  69  being  a  vertical  section  on  the  line  C-D, 
Fig.  67. 

The  compressor  is  of  the  single-acting  duplex  inclosed  type,  and 
consists  of  two  cylinders  arranged  in  the  same  line  axially,  united  by 
a  central  casing  forming  the  crank  chamber,  and  mounted  on  a  bracket 


126       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

on  one  side  of  the  upper  part  of  the  condenser.  The  sides  of  the 
chamber  are  closed  by  gas-tight  covers  in  one  of  which  is  provided 
a  stuffing  box  and  gland  through  which  passes  the  crankshaft.  The 
outer  portion  of  the  crankshaft  is  supported  in  a  bearing  in  a  pedestal 
carried  upon  another  bracket  provided  upon  the  opposite  side  of  the 
upper  part  of  the  condenser,  and  this  shaft  has  mounted  upon  its 
outer  end  the  fast  and  loose  driving  pulleys,  and  on  the  inner  end, 
within  the  central  crank  box  or  chamber,  a  disc  crank. 


Fig.  67.— Belt-driven  Horizontal  Inclosed  Type  Douglas -Conroy  Sulphurous 
Acid  Compression  Machine.     Plan  of  Compressor. 


The  two  pistons  working  in  the  pump  cylinders  are  rigidly  fastened 
together  by  means  of  a  rectangular  frame  or  plate  secured  between 
them  by  bolts.  The  result  of  this  arrangement  is  that  the  pistons 
act  as  a  continuous  guide,  being  entirely  free  from  lateral  thrusts,  and 
the  usual  guides  are  thus  dispensed  with,  thereby  considerably  simpli- 
fying the  construction.  The  pin  of  the  crank  disc  works  in  a  slot 
provided  in  the  central  rectangular  frame  or  plate  connecting  the 
pistons.  This  admits  of  a  pause  at  the  end  of  each  stroke,  which  is 


THE   COMPRESSION    PROCESS   OR   SYSTEM.      127 

advantageous  inasmuch  as  it  gives  the  valves  time  to  reseat  themselves 
properly  before  the  commencement  of  the  return  stroke. 

Four  valves  are  provided,  two  at  each  extremity  of  the  duplex- 
pump  cylinders,  viz.,  one  for  compression  and  the  other  for  suction, 
and  each  pair  of  similar  valves  is  united  into  one  pipe  by  means  of  a 


Fig.  68. — Belt-driven  Horizontal  Inclosed  Type  Douglas- Con roy  Sulphurous 
Acid  Compression  Machine.     Section  on  line  A-B,  Fig.  67. 

tee  connecting  piece.  The  central  crank  box  or  chamber  is  kept 
partially  full  of  oil,  so  that  the  working  parts  are  immersed  in  an  oil 
bath  and  have  the  most  perfect  lubrication. 

The  condenser  consists  of  a  cast-iron  tank  and  serves  as  a  pedestal 
to  support  the  compressor.     In  this  tank  is  placed  a  coil  of  wrought- 


128       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

iron  pipe  tested  to  a  pressure  of  500  Ibs.  per  square  inch,  and  welded 
into  one  piece  without  joints,  in  which  coil  the  sulphurous  acid  gas 
is  liquefied  by  the  pressure  from  the  compressor  aided  by  the  cold 
water  circulating  in  the  tank. 


Fig.  69. — Belt-driven  Horizontal  Inclosed  Type  Douglas -Conroy  Sulphurous 
Acid  Compression  Machine.     Section  on  line  c-D,  Fig.  67. 

The  evaporator  or  refrigerator  consists  of  a  suitable  tank  having 
a  coil  submerged  in  brine,  and  when  the  machine  is  used  in  connection 
with  a  cold  room  or  store  this  evaporator  tank  is  formed  of  galvanised 
iron  and  of  rectangular  shape,  and  is  placed  directly  in  the  room  or 
store  to  be  cooled. 


THE   COMPRESSION    PROCESS    OR   SYSTEM.      129 

Fig.  70  shows  a  horizontal  type  of  belt-driven  Humboldt  sulphurous 
acid  or  sulphur  dioxide  compression  machine.  A  feature  of  this 
machine  is  that  the  cylinder  is  jacketed,  no  cooling  of  the  piston  rod 
being  provided.  The  general  design  of  the  machine,  which  is  made  by 
the  British  Humboldt  Engineering  Co.,  Ltd.,  London,  will  be  seen 
from  the  illustration. 

Amongst  other  firms  manufacturing  sulphurous  anhydride  com- 
pression machines  mention  may  be  made  of  the  following : — A.  Borsig, 
Tegel,  bei  Berlin,  Germany ;  The  Raoul  Pictet  Company,  of  Paris ; 
Delion  &  Lepen  of  Pre  St  Gervais,  Paris  ;  the  Societe  Genevoise  de 
Construction,  of  Geneva;  and  Thomas  Ths.  Sabroe  &  Co.,  Ltd., 
Aarhus,  Denmark. 

PROPERTIES  OF  CARBONIC  ACID,  AND  CARBONIC  ACID  MACHINES. 

Carbon  dioxide,  or,  as  it  is  commonly  called,  carbonic  acid  (CO2), 
has  a  molecular  weight  of  44,  and  a  density  of  22.  Carbon  dioxide  is 
invariably  formed  when  carbon  is  burned  in  an  excess  of  air  or  oxygen. 
The  best  method  of  preparation  is  by  acting  upon  marble,  chalk,  or 
other  form  of  calcium  carbonate  with  hydrochloric  or  muriatic  acid. 
Carbon  dioxide  occurs  free  in  air,  and  in  the  water  of  some  mineral 
springs,  the  quantity  of  the  gas  present  in  air  being  about  4  volumes 
per  10,000  volumes  of  air.  As  carbon  dioxide  is  evolved  in  respira- 
tion and  by  the  burning  of  coal-gas,  &c.,  it  is  always  present  in  larger 
quantities  in  dwelling-houses  than  in  the  open  air.  Carbon  dioxide 
gas  is  also  given  off  during  the  process  of  fermentation,  and  is  found  in 
the  bottom  of  old  wells,  &c. 

The  advantages  to  be  gained  by  the  use  of  this  agent  or  medium 
are  :  non-inflammability,  high  specific  gravity,  thus  rendering  its  heat 
of  vaporisation  for  a  given  volume  much  higher  than  that  of  ammonia ; 
and  non-corrosive  action  on  copper,  which  latter  quality  is  of  special 
advantage  in  marine  refrigerating  installations.  The  objections  to  its 
use  have  been  already  gone  into  in  a  previous  chapter. 

A  simple  and  at  the  same  time  effective  way  to  test  the  purity  of 
liquefied  carbonic  acid  is  to  solidify  it,  in  which  condition  the  slightest 
impurity  can  be  instantly  detected  by  smelling.  A  ready  method  of 
effecting  this  solidification  is  given  by  the  Carbonic  Acid  Gas  Com- 
pany, London,  as  follows : — "  Place  the  tube  on  a  box  or  chair  in  a 
horizontal  position,  tightly  fasten  a  small  linen  or  canvas  bag  (4  to  6 
in.  square)  over  the  nozzle  of  the  tube,  and  open  the  valve  fully. 
The  acid  will  then  stream  out  with  full  force,  become  solid  inside  the 
9 


130       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 


3 

2 

I 


THE   COMPRESSION    PROCESS    OR   SYSTEM.      131 

bag,  and  remain  in  that  state  for  hours,  evaporating  only  very  slowly, 
and  showing  a  temperature  of  about  200°  Fahr.  below  freezing  point." 

Carbon  dioxide  machines  have  already  been  dealt  with  on  pages 
45  to  47,  where  brief  descriptions  of  the  original  machines  of  Wind- 


Fig.  71.— Belt-driven  Vertical  Type  Hall  Carbonic  Acid 
Compression  Machine. 

hausen  and  Lowe  will  be  found.  As  will  be  found  there  mentioned  the 
Windhausen  machine  has  been  greatly  improved  by  J.  &  E.  Hall,  Ltd., 
of  Dartford,  Kent,  the  proprietors  of  the  original  patents,  who  have 
been  largely  instrumental  in  introducing  this  system  all  over  the  world. 


132       REFRIGERATION   AND   COLD    STORAGE. 

Figs.  71  to  77  illustrate  a  small,  exceedingly  compact  and  well- 
designed  belt-driven  carbonic  anhydride  machine  made  by  the  above 
firm.  The  design  of  this  machine  is,  it  will  be  seen,  both  simple 
and  compact,  and  as  the  use  of  this  agent  admits  of  a  very  small  size 
of  compressor  being  employed  relatively  to  the  work  performed,  the 


Fig.  72. — Belt-driven  Vertical  Type  Hall  Carbonic  Acid  Compression  Machine. 

Sectional  View. 


whole  machine  occupies  but  little  space.  The  general  arrangement  of 
the  machine  will  be  readily  understood  from  the  sectional  view,  Fig.  72, 
in  which  c  is  the  compressor  vertically  mounted,  as  shown,  on  the  side 
of  the  condenser  tank  or  casing  r,  the  latter  being  fitted  with  coil  e. 
n  is  the  evaporator  casing  fitted  with  an  evaporator  coil  t,  and  arranged 
inside  the  condenser  r,  so  that  its  lower  part  is  surrounded  by  the  latter, 


THE   COMPRESSION   PROCESS   OR   SYSTEM.      133 

the  condenser  coils  e  occupying  the  annular  clearance  or  space  round 
the  evaporator,  and  the  evaporator  casing  n  forming  an  insulated  divi- 
sion between  the  condenser  casing  r  and  the  evaporator  coils  t.  o  is  the 
regulating  or  expansion  valve  or  cock,  and  g  and  p  are  respectively  the 
condenser  and  evaporator  gauges,  s  is  the  separator,  P  is  a  patent 
safety  valve,  o  is  a  patent  hollow  oil  gland  for  preventing  leakage 
taking  place  round  the  compressor  piston  rod.  GO  is  the  connecting 
rod,  s  is  the  crankshaft,  D  the  driving  pulley,  and  B  the  brine  circu- 
lating pump. 


Figs.  73  and  74. — Belt-driven  Vertical  Type  Hall  Carbonic  Acid  Compression 
Machine.     Cross  Section  and  Vertical  Central  Section  through  Cylinder. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  machine  consists  essentially  of  a  circular  or 
rectangular  cast-iron  tank  r  carrying  the  compressor  c,  inside  which 
tank  are  the  condenser  coils  e,  and  inside  these  again  is  a  double  tank 
n,  with  insulation  between  and  the  evaporating  coils  t  in  the  centre. 

The  compressor  cylinder  c,  which  is  shown  in  vertical  longitudinal 
section  in  Fig.  74,  and  in  transverse  or  cross  section  looking  on  back 
end  in  Fig.  73,  is  cast  in  a  special  hard  bronze  for  these  small-sized 
machines,  by  which  means  the  two  essentials  of  soundness  and  hardness 
are  ensured,  and  the  suction  and  delivery  valves  are  identical  for 
facilities  of  interchange.  The  compressor  piston  rod  gland  o  is  kept 


134       REFRIGERATION    AND    COLD   STORAGE. 


gas-tight  by  means  of  two  cupped  leathers  on  the  compressor  rod,  as 
clearly  shown  in  Fig.  74.  A  special  oil  is  forced  into  the  space  between 
these  two  cup  leathers  at  a  pressure  above  the  greatest  pressure  liable 
to  occur  in  the  compressor,  so  that  whatever  leakage  takes  place  at  the 
gland  is  a  leakage  of  this  special  oil,  either  into  the  compressor  cylinder, 
or  out  into  the  atmosphere,  and  there  can  be  no  leakage  of  the  gas. 
What  slight  leakage  of  the  special  oil  takes  place  into  the  compressor 
cylinder  is  advantageous,  inasmuch  as  it  serves  both  to  lubricate  the 

compressor  and  to  fill  up  all  clear- 
i  ances. 

If  the  gland  should  require  pack- 
ing, and  no  cup  leathers  be  available, 
the  special  ring  shown  in  Fig.  67  may 
be  used  with  ordinary  packing  (see 
chapter  on  "Management,"  &c.). 

The  loss  of  oil  from  the  lubricator 
due  to  leakages  is  replaced  by  means 
of  a  small  hand  pump,  a  few  strokes 
of  which  will  be  required  to  be  made 
every  four  or  five  hours  whilst  the 
machine  is  at  work,  as  may  be  indi- 
cated by  the  position  of  the  piston 
rod  of  the  pressure  lubricator. 

The  oil  passing  into  the  com- 
pressor cylinder  serves  the  purpose, 
as  above  mentioned,  of  filling  up  the 
clearance  spaces,  and  any  surplus 

Fig.  75.  -  Belt-driven  Vertical  above  what  is  ^quired  for  this  pur- 
Type  Hall  Carbonic  Acid  Compres-  pose  will  be  discharged  with  the  gas 
sion  Machine.  Vertical  Section  through  the  delivery  valves.  In 
through  Spiral  Packing  Ring.  or(ier  to  prevent  the  oil  discharged 

with  the  gas  from  passing  into  the 

condenser  coils,  all  the  gas  is  delivered  into  the  separators  wherein  it  is 
made  to  impinge  against  the  sides  of  the  vessel,  and  the  oil  adhering  to 
the  latter  drains  to  the  bottom,  and  is  drawn  off  from  time  to  time  as 
occasion  may  require,  whilst  the  compressed  gas  passes  off  by  an 
opening  at  the  top  on  its  way  to  the  condenser.  In  the  suction  passage 
is  fitted  a  suitable  copper  strainer  as  shown  in  Fig.  76. 

The  condenser  consists  of  coils  e,  of  wrought-iron  hydraulic  pipe, 
usually  of  ~  in.  bore,  which  in  the  submerged  or  immersed  type 
employed  in  the  present  example  are  placed  in  the  tank  r,  and 


THE   COMPRESSION    PROCESS   OR    SYSTEM.      135 


surrounded  with  water.     The  coils  are  electrically  welded  together  into 
such  lengths  as  to  avoid  the  presence  of  any  joints  inside  the  tank. 

The   evaporator   or  refrigerator  consists   of  an  insulated  tank  n, 
containing  nests  of  coils  t,  also  formed  of  long  lengths  of  electrically 


Fig.  76. — Belt-driven  Vertical  Type  Hall  Carbonic  Acid  Compression  Machine. 
Vertical  Central  Section  through  Suction  Passage. 

welded  wrought-iron  hydraulic  pipes  within  which  the  carbonic 
anhydride  evaporates.  The  heat  required  for  evaporation  is  obtained 
from  the  brine  surrounding  the  pipes.  A  regulating  or  expansion 
valve  o  placed  between  the  condenser  coils  e  and  the  evaporator  coils  t 
admits  of  the  quantity  of  liquid  carbonic  anhydride 
passing  from  the  condenser  being  suitably  regulated. 

To  enable  the  compressor  c  to  be  opened  up  for 
examination  of  the  valves  and  piston  without  loss 
of  carbonic  anhydride,  stop-valves  are  fitted  on  the 
suction  and  delivery  sides,  by  means  of  which  the 
carbonic  anhydride  can  be  confined  to  the  condenser 
and  evaporator. 

As  the  machine  might  be  again  started,  after 
being  thus  shut  down,  without  the  delivery  valve 
being  opened,  which  would  lead  to  an  excessive 
pressure  in  the  delivery  pipe,  owing  to  there  being  _ 

no  outlet  from  the  latter,  and  probably  result  in  the  driven  Vertical 
fracture  of  this  pipe,  a  safety  valve  P  is  provided.  Type  Hall  Car- 
This  safety  valve,  which  is  shown  in  vertical  central  bonic  Acid  Corn- 
section,  drawn  to  an  enlarged  scale,  in  Fig.  77,  con-  pression  Ma- 
sists,  it  will  be  seen,  of  an  ordinary  spring  safety  ne'  ,  ^er '  1.ca 
valve,  at  the  base  of  which  is  a  thin  copper  disc  A,  through  Safety 
which  is  designed  to  relieve  any  excessive  pressure,  Valve. 
considerably  below  that  to  which  the  machines  are 
tested.  The  disc  is  made  perfectly  gas-tight,  an  object  which  it  would 
not  be  possible  to  obtain  by  means  of  the  spring  safety  valve  alone, 
and  this  latter  only  comes  into  action  upon  the  rupture  of  the  copper 
disc  A. 


136       REFRIGERATION   AND   COLD   STORAGE. 


THE   COMPRESSION    PROCESS   OR   SYSTEM.      137 


138       REFRIGERATION   AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

Great  care  has  necessarily  to  be  exercised  in  making  these  copper 
discs,  so  as  to  guard  against  variations  in  strength,  due  to  any 
differences  either  in  the  thickness  or  hardness  of  the  copper  sheets  out 
of  which  the  discs  are  made. 

About  1J  brake  horse-power  is  required  to  drive  this  smallest  size 
self-contained  vertical  type  of  machine. 

A  horizontal  single-cylinder  double-acting  Hall  carbonic  anhydride 
steam-driven  compressor,  side  by  side  pattern,  is  shown  in  Fig.  78. 
This  type  of  compressor  is  arranged  with  the  compressor  and  single 
steam  cylinder  side  by  side,  both  connected  up  to  the  same  shaft. 
The  machine  is  especially  made  for  ice-making  plants  in  which  clear 
ice  is  made  from  distilled  water.  The  machine  shown  in  the  illustra- 
tion has  a  capacity  of  60  tons  of  ice  per  day. 

Fig.  79  illustrates  a  horizontal  duplex  Hall  carbonic  anhydride 
machine,  fitted  with  compound  steam  cylinders  arranged  side  by  side, 
and  with  a  surface  or  jet  steam  condenser  located  in  the  front  part  of 
the  machine.  The  two  compressors  are,  it  will  be  seen,  driven  by  tail 
rods  from  the  steam  cylinders,  and  the  cranks  of  the  latter  are  placed 
at  right  angles  to  each  other,  thereby  ensuring  an  even  turning 
movement. 

Each  compressor  cylinder  is  arranged  to  deliver  the  compressed 
carbonic  acid  or  carbonic  anhydride  into  an  independent  condenser 
consisting  of  coils  of  pipe,  in  which  the  compressed  carbonic  anhydride 
is  condensed  into  a  liquid  form  by  the  cooling  water  circulating  round 
the  pipes,  the  coils  of  pipes  being  contained  in  a  steel  casing  through 
which  the  water  is  circulated.  A  separate  evaporator  or  refrigerator 
is  provided  in  connection  with  each  of  the  above-mentioned  condensers, 
this  evaporator  consisting  of  coils  of  pipes,  in  which  the  liquid  carbonic 
anhydride  evaporates,  and  during  this  process  cools  the  brine  surround- 
ing these  coils. 

Figs.  80  and  81  show  two  of  the  most  recent  patterns  of  Hall 
carbonic  acid  compressors.  The  vertical  belt-driven  type  shown  in 
Fig.  80  is  constructed  in  sizes  of  1  to  5  tons  ice-making  capacity.  The 
horizontal  type  illustrated  in  Fig.  81  is  constructed  in  sizes  of  6  tons 
ice-making  capacity  and  upwards. 

The  general  construction  of  the  above  machines  is  clearly  shown  in 
the  illustrations.  The  vertical  machines  of  up  to  2  tons  ice-making 
capacity,  however,  are  fitted  with  the  Hall  standard  double-acting 
hard  bronze  CO.,  compressors.  The  larger  vertical  machines  and  the 
whole  of  the  horizontal  machines  are  provided  with  double-acting  CO.2 
compressors,  each  cut  from  a  solid  ingot  of  special  high  carbon  steel, 


THE   COMPRESSION    PROCESS   OR   SYSTEM.      139 

and  all  sizes  are  provided  with  patent  oil  sealed  glands  and  pressure 
lubricators.  The  compressor  pistons  are  fitted  with  hydraulic  leathers 
and  the  glands  on  the  standard  machines  each  contain  two  hydraulic 
leathers,  the  gland  being  kept  tight  by  the  oil  from  the  pressure 
lubricator.  In  special  cases,  or  for  tropical  work,  however,  the 
machines  are  frequently  fitted  with  the  Hall  patent  metallic  gland 


Fig.  80. — Vertical  Type  of  Belt-driven  Hall  Carbonic  Acid  Compressor. 
Most  Recent  Pattern. 

packing,   still    retaining   the   pressure   lubricator,    and   with   metallic 
piston  rings. 

The  compressor  suction  and  delivery  valves  are  made  interchange- 
able, and  each  are  provided  with  separate  and  interchangeable  valve 
seats.  The  valves  and  seats  are  made  of  special  hard  steel,  and  are 
so  arranged  that  they  can  readily  be  withdrawn  or  replaced  without 
disturbing  any  of  the  connections.  As  shown  in  the  illustrations 


6 


00 

<*> 


140 


THE   COMPRESSION    PROCESS   OR   SYSTEM.      141 

both  vertical  and  horizontal  machines  have  the  open  type  flat  slipper 
guide,  which  gives  much  greater  accessibility.     All  bearing  surfaces 


Fig.  82.  —Vertical  Type  of  Steam-driven  West  Carbonic  Acid  Compression 

Machine. 

are  of  ample  size  to  ensure  satisfactory  and  continuous  working  over 
long  periods, 


H2   REFRIGERATION  AND  COLD  STORAGE. 

Fig.  82  illustrates  a  steam-driven  vertical  carbonic  anhydride 
machine,  built  by  H.  J.  West  &  Co.,  Ltd.,  London.  This  type  of 
machine  is  made  in  Various  sizes,  from  No.  1  machine  of  3  cwt. 
ice-making  capacity  per  twenty-four  hours,  up  to  the  No.  8  machine 
of  2  tons  ice-making  capacity  per  twenty-four  hours,  the  smaller  sizes 


Fig.  83. — Vertical  Type  West  Carbonic  Acid  Compression  Machine.     Vertical 
Central  Section  through  Compressor  Cylinder. 

being  belt-driven.  The  amount  of  condensing  water  at  55°  Fahr. 
required  for  the  smaller  size  is  48  gals,  per  hour,  and  that  for  the 
larger  400  gals,  per  hour. 

The  arrangement  of  this  type  of  vertical  compressor  is  very  neat  and 
compact.  A  rigid  girder-shaped  vertical  cast-iron  frame  carries  the  com- 
pressor and  motion  work,  and  the  perfect  alignment  of  the  piston  rod 


THE    COMPRESSION    PROCESS    OR   SYSTEM.      143 

and  crosshead  is  secured  by  boring  the  pump  seat  and  guide  channel  in 
one  operation.  The  condenser,  which  is  of  the  submerged  type,  is  placed 
behind  the  compressor,  and  is  coupled  directly  to  it  by  an  extension  of 
the  wrought-iron  coil  without  any  intermediate  pipes  or  joints. 

These  small  machines  have  compressor  cylinders  cast  from  a  special 
bronze  alloy,  combining  the  requisite  strength  and  soundness,  and 
finishing  to  a  perfectly  hard,  smooth  surface  for  the  piston  rings  to 
work  on. 


Fig.  84. — Vertical  Type  West  Carbonic  Acid  Compression  Machine.     Vertical 
Central  Section  through  Valve.     Enlarged  Scale. 

The  construction  of  the  compressor  will  be  readily  understood  from 
the  vertical  central  section  shown  in  Fig.  83.  The  suction  and  delivery 
valves  are  made  exactly  alike,  and  of  the  same  size  for  the  purpose  of 
interchangeability,  so  that  one  spare  valve  will  replace  either.  The 
valve,  which  is  shown  in  central  section,  drawn  to  a  greatly  enlarged 
scale  in  Fig.  84,  is  made  of  tempered  steel,  and  beats  upon  a  hard 
phosphor  bronze  seat,  forming  a  perfectly  gas-tight  joint  when  closed. 
Another  point  is  that  the  weight  of  the  valve  is  reduced  to  a  minimum, 
and  the  lift  is  under  one-eighth  of  an  inch,  so  that  it  has  no  tendency 


144       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD    STORAGE. 

bo  hammer  itself  to  pieces.  The  method  of  forming  a  gas-tight  joint 
round  the  piston  rod  is  shown  in  Fig.  83  and  is,  it  will  be  seen, 
practically  similar  to  that  employed  in  Messrs  Hall's  carbonic  acid 
compressor.  Two  capped  hydraulic  ram  leathers  are  placed  face  to 
face  upon  the  rod  about  3  in.  apart,  the  space  between  them  being 
filled  with  oil,  which  is  fed  in  from  the  small  lubricator  shown  on 
the  left-hand  side  of  the  illustration.  The  oil  bath  which  surrounds 
the  rod  both  effectively  stops  all  leakage  of  gas,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
serves  to  lubricate  the  piston  rod  and  cylinder,  and  to  fill  up  the 
clearance  spaces.  The  surplus  oil  passing  through  the  compressor  is 
trapped  in  an  oil  separator,  from  which  it  can  be  removed  as  desired. 

A  dead  weight  safety  valve  is  fitted  to  all  these  compressors,  except 
the  very  smallest  size,  and  is  set  to  blow  off  a  little  above  the  highest 
working  pressure  of  the  machine.  The  design  and  construction  of  this 
little  machine  is  good,  the  bearings  have  liberal  wearing  surfaces,  and 
are  adjustable,  thus  reducing  wear  and  tear  to  a  minimum,  and  tending 
to  prevent  any  noise  when  running.  Special  attention  is  paid  to  the 
lubrication  of  the  working  parts,  every  bearing  and  working  surface 
is  provided  with  an  automatic  lubricator,  which  feeds  just  sufficient 
oil  to  maintain  the  surfaces  in  proper  working  condition,  and  no  more, 
thus  preventing  or  greatly  reducing  dirt,  waste,  and  the  tendency  to 
hot  bearings. 

A  standard  pattern  of  belt-driven  horizontal  carbonic  anhydride 
compressor  is  also  made  by  the  same  firm.  The  steam-driven  horizontal 
compressor  is  arranged  tandemwise  to  the  steam  engine  cylinder,  and 
the  compressor  piston  rod  is  coupled  to  a  tail  rod  on  the  steam  piston. 
Steam-driven  horizontal  compressors  are  also  made  of  the  duplex  type, 
coupled  direct  to  compound  or  triple  expansion  condensing  steam 
engines,  and  so  arranged  that  one-half  the  plant,  consisting  of  com- 
pressor, condenser,  and  evaporator,  may  be  disconnected  for  overhauling 
or  repairs,  whilst  the  other  half  continues  in  operation. 

Machines  of  6  tons  ice-making  capacity  and  over  are  fitted  with 
compressors  bored  out  of  a  solid  steel  forging,  by  which  both  soundness 
and  strength  of  material  is  secured,  and  furthermore,  a  hard,  smooth, 
glassy  surface  for  the  piston  rings  and  cup  leathers  to  work  upon. 

Kroeschell  Brothers  Ice-Making  Co.,  of  Chicago,  111.,  U.S.,  manu- 
facture carbonic  anhydride  machines  of  both  vertical  and  horizontal 
patterns,  the  former  being  that  used  for  the  smaller  sizes  of  machines, 
and  the  latter  for  the  larger  ones. 

Fig.  85  shows  a  front  view  of  a  small  vertical  belt-driven  machine 
of  J  ton  ice-making  capacity  per  twenty-four  hours,  and  requiring 


THE   COMPRESSION    PROCESS    OR   SYSTEM.      145 

1  H.P.  for  driving  purposes.  This  type  of  machine  is  made  in  seven 
different  sizes,  the  smallest  being  the  above,  and  the  largest  having 
an  ice-making  capacity  of  3  tons  per  twenty-four  hours,  and  requiring 
12  H.P.  Two  vertical  single-acting  compressors  are  located  inside 
the  cast-iron  condenser  tank,  which  latter  is  mounted  upon  a  frame 


Fig.  85. — Vertical  Type  Belt-driven  Kroescliell  Carbonic  Acid  Compression 

Machine. 


consisting  of  a  box  casting  carrying  the  crankshaft  and  guides.  The 
compressor  cylinders  are  made  of  semi-steel,  which  secures  the  two 
essentials  of  soundness  and  hardness,  and  the  piston  rods  are  provided 
with  a  patent  stuffing  box  sealed  with  glycerine.  This  device  consists 
of  cupped  leathers  on  the  compressor  rod,  into  the  spaces  or  chambers 
10 


146       REFRIGERATION   AND    COLD   STORAGE. 

between  which  glycerine  is  forced  at  a  pressure  superior  to  the  suction 
pressure  in  the  compressor,  so  that  any  leakage  at  the  stuffing  box  is 
a  leakage  of  glycerine,  either  into  the  compressor  cylinder  or  out  into 
the  atmosphere,  and  not  a  leakage  of  gas. 

Obviously  the  leakage  of  glycerine  into  the  compressor  cylinder  is 
an  advantage,  as  it  both  serves  to  lubricate  the  piston  and  also  to  fill 
up  all  clearances.  The  glycerine  is  forced  into  the  chambers  by  means 
of  a  hand  pump,  a  few  strokes  of  which  are  required  to  be  made  every 
four  or  five  hours.  Each  cylinder  has  a  suction  and  discharge  valve, 
all  of  which  are  located  at  the  top  of  a  joint  or  common  cylinder  head, 
thus  rendering  them  easily  accessible.  The  valves  are  made  of  forged 
steel,  and  are  so  designed  as  to  combine  strength  with  lightness.  On 
one  side  of  the  cylinder  head  is  provided  a  filling  valve,  which  can  be 
easily  connected  by  means  of  a  short  pipe  with  the  ordinary  drum  of 
carbonic  anhydride  now  in  common  use.  Stop-valves  are  provided  in 
the  suction  pipe  as  well  as  the  condenser  coil,  so  that  the  suction  and  dis- 
charge valves  in  the  condenser  coil  can  be  examined  without  loss  of  gas. 

The  condenser  consists  of  a  spiral  coil  made  of  extra  strong  iron 
pipe,  surrounding  the  compressor,  and  is  connected  at  one  end  with 
the  discharge  side  of  the  latter,  and  at  the  other  end  with  a  combined 
separator  and  liquid  receiver,  placed  at  the  back  of  the  frame. 

The  crankshaft  bearings  are  formed  in  the  cast-iron  frame  support- 
ing the  condenser  tank,  and  the  double-throw  crankshaft  actuates  the 
compressor  pistons  by  means  of  strong  yokes,  having  guides  at  the 
lower  side,  thus  enabling  the  long  connections,  such  as  connecting  rods 
and  crossheads,  which  would  be  otherwise  necessary,  to  be  dispensed 
with.  The  double-throw  crankshaft  is  made  of  forged  steel,  and  is 
extended  or  overhanging  at  one  side  of  the  frame,  so  as  to  receive 
the  fast  and  loose  driving  pulleys. 

The  receiver  consists  of  a  strong  wrought-iron  cylinder,  with  a 
stop-valve  located  at  the  top,  and  a  blow-off  cock  at  the  bottom,  the 
latter  admitting  of  the  glycerine  carried  over  from  the  cylinder  being 
drawn  off.  A  gauge  mounted  upon  a  three-way  valve,  by  means  of 
which  it  can  be  caused  to  communicate  either  with  the  compressing 
or  with  the  suction  side  of  the  machine,  is  provided  on  the  top  of  the 
condenser  tank. 

On  the  opposite  side  of  the  machine  to  the  driving  pulleys  is 
provided,  as  will  be  seen  in  the  drawing,  a  small  hand  pump,  by  the 
operation  of  which  the  cylinders  can  be  lubricated.  A  safety  valve 
is  also  provided  to  guard  against  possible  accident  through  neglect  or 
ignorance  on  the  part  of  the  attendant. 


THE   COMPRESSION    PROCESS   OR   SYSTEM.      147 

The  larger  sizes  of  vertical  combined  compressors  and  condensers 
are  identical  in  design  with  the  exception  that  they  are  fitted  with 
connecting  rods  and  crossheads  instead  of  yokes,  and  these  cross- 
heads  and  connecting  rods,  as  also  the  main  bearings  and  the  double- 
throw  crankshaft,  are  all  of  extra  strength,  and  have  large  wearing 
surfaces,  and  every  provision  is  made  in  them,  as  in  the  smaller 
machine,  for  meeting  any  excess  of  regular  duty.  All  the  machines 
are  fitted  with  an  automatic  lubricating  device.  The  machines  are 
also  built  direct  coupled  with  a  vertical  steam  engine,  or  geared  to  an 
electric  motor. 


Fig.  8(5. — Horizontal  Type  Belt-driven  Kroeschell  Carbonic  Acid  Compression 

Machine. 

The  larger  sizes  of  carbonic  anhydride  machines  constructed  by 
the  firm  are,  as  before  intimated,  of  the  horizontal  pattern,  and  their 
standard  sizes  run  from  2  tons  ice-making  capacity  per  twenty-four 
hours  up  to  50  tons  ice-making  capacity  per  twenty-four  hours,  requiring 
respectively  8  H.P.,  and  120  H.P.  for  driving  purposes. 

Fig.  86  shows  a  standard  pattern  of  belt-driven  Kroeschell  hori- 
zontal double-acting  compressor.  The  compressor  cylinder  is  provided 
with  a  jacket  through  which  the  return  gas  passes,  which  arrangement 
it  is  claimed  both  imparts  greater  strength  to  the  cylinder,  and  also 


148       REFRIGERATION    AND    COLD    STORAGE. 

keeps  it  perfectly  cool.  The  piston  rods,  connecting  rods,  cranks,  pins, 
and  valves  are  made  of  forged  steel,  and  the  latter  are  made  identical 
for  facilities  of  interchange. 


O 
& 

H" 


oo 
d 


Leakage  round  the  compressor  piston  rod  is  prevented  by  an 
arrangement  similar  to  that  used  on  the  small  vertical  type  of  machine, 
but  instead  of  the  hand  pump,  a  belt-driven  pump  operating  con- 


THE   COMPRESSION    PROCESS    OR   SYSTEM.      149 

tinuously  is  provided  for  replacing  the  glycerine  which  leaks  out  of  the 
stuffing  box. 

Any  glycerine  which  passes  into  the  compressor  beyond  what  is 
necessary  to  fill  the  clearance  spaces  is  discharged  with  the  gas  through 
the  delivery  valves.  This  glycerine  is  prevented  from  going  into  the 
system  by  a  separator  in  which  the  glycerine  drains  to  the  bottom,  and 
can  be  drawn  off  from  time  to  time.  As  glycerine  has  no  affinity  for 
carbonic  acid,  and  consequently  undergoes  no  change  in  the  machine, 
there  is  no  chance  of  the  condenser  coils  becoming  clogged. 

The  condenser  consists  of  coils  of  wrought-iron  extra  Jheavy  pipes 
so  welded  as  to  avoid  any  joints  in  the  tank,  and  arranged  either  on 
the  submerged  or  on  the  atmospheric  or  evaporative  principle.  Tho 
evaporator  also  consists  of  similar  coils  of  pipes,  a  regulating  or  ex- 
pansion valve  being  provided  between  it  and  the  condenser.  The 
safety  valve  consists  of  a  housing  at  the  base  of  which  is  a  thin  disc, 
calculated  to  blow  off  at  a  pressure  considerably  below  that  to  which 
the  machines  are  tested.  The  joints  have  all  special  flange  unions  and 
brass  bushings,  and  are  made  absolutely  gas-tight  with  packing  rings 
of  vulcanised  fibre  which,  whilst  withstanding  heat,  have  also  sufficient 
elasticity  to  ensure  the  tightness  of  the  joint  when  either  hot  or  cold. 

The  firm  also  make  belt  or  rope  driven  horizontal  double-acting 
double  compressors  arranged  tandem-wise  or  in  line,  and  driven  from  a 
crank  on  a  central  crankshaft.  These  machines  are  suitable  for  large 
installations. 

Fig.  87  illustrates  a  horizontal  type  of  belt-driven  Humboldt  car- 
bonic acid  compression  machine.  A  feature  in  this  machine  is  the 
facility  with  which  the  parts  can  be  got  at  for  inspection  or  repairs. 
The  pressure  valve  is  fitted  with  a  safety  device  which  is  connected 
with  the  suction  channel. 

Fig.  88  shows  a  large  duplex  carbonic  anhydride  compressor  built 
by  the  Haslam  Foundry  and  Engineering  Co.,  Ltd. 

A  carbonic  acid  machine  made  by  the  Cochran  Company,  Lorain, 
Ohio,  United  States,  is  of  the  belt-driven  vertical  pattern,  and  the 
compressor  cylinder  is  mounted  upon  a  box-shaped  or  hollow  bed-plate 
on  which  is  placed  the  condenser,  thus  forming  a  very  compact  and 
neat  arrangement,  and  lending  itself  to  transport. 

A  later  design  of  machine  by  this  company  has  the  hollow  or 
box  pattern  bed-plate  extended,  and  is  driven  by  a  motor  mounted 
upon  the  latter. 

A  compact  and  well-designed  horizontal  type  of  carbonic  acid 
compressor  is  made  by  the  Atlas  Co.,  Ltd.,  Copenhagen,  which  firm 


150       REFRIGERATION   AND   COLD   STORAGE. 


•1- 


THE   COMPRESSION    PROCESS    OR   SYSTEM.      151 

manufacture  the  refrigerating  machinery  under  the  Schou  patents, 
originally  made  by  the  Tuxen  &  Hammerich  Co. 

A  recent  design  of  carbonic  acid  machine  built  by  Mollet,  Fontaine, 
et  Cie,  of  Lille,  France,  consists  of  a  single-acting  compressor  direct- 
driven  by  a  horizontal  steam  engine.  The  arrangement  for  forming 
a  gas-tight  joint  round  the  compressor  piston  rod  comprises  a  stuffing 
box  having  three  compartments,  the  two  outer  ones  being  filled  with 
glycerine,  a  small  portion  of  which  is  drawn  in  by  the  rod  into  the 
inner  box  or  compartment  to  act  as  a  lubricant.  One  of  these  com- 
pressors was  exhibited  at  the  late  Paris  Exhibition  in  the  French 
brewery  section. 

Another  carbonic  acid  machine  shown  at  the  above  Exhibition 
was  one  built  by  Escher,  Wyss,  et  Cie,  Switzerland.  This  machine 
comprises  a  single  compressor  cylinder  fitted  with  cast-steel  valves  on 
phosphor  bronze  seats,  and  driven  direct  by  a  horizontal  50  H.P. 
steam  engine.  The  capacity  of  the  machine  is  12  tons  of  ice  per 
twenty-four  hours. 

Thomas  Ths.  Sabroe  &  Co.,  Ltd.,  Aarhus,  Denmark,  are  manu- 
facturers of  a  vertical  type  of  carbonic  anhydride  machine,  which  has 
the  foundation  plate  of  the  compressor  and  the  condenser  cast  in  one 
piece,  and  all  the  parts  made  interchangeable.  The  general  arrange- 
ment of  the  apparatus  resembles  that  of  Hall's  vertical  pattern  machine. 

Carbonic  acid  machines  are  also  made  by  Wegelin  &  Hiibner, 
Act.-Ges.,  Halle-on-Saale ;  D.  Stewart  &  Co.,  Ltd.,  Glasgow;  and 
others,  whose  machines  the  space  at  our  disposal  does  not  permit  us 
to  undertake  to  describe  here. 


CHAPTER   VIII 

CONDENSEES   AND   WATEE   COOLING  AND 
SAVING  APPARATUS 

Submerged  Condensers— Amount  of  Cooling  Water  Required — Atmospheric  or 
Open-Air  Evaporative  Surface  Condensers — Amount  of  Condenser  Surface 
Required — Amount  of  Cooling  Water  Required — Supplementary  Condensers 
or  Forecoolers  —  Double-Pipe  Condensers  —  Hendrick's  Condenser — Water 
Cooling  and  Saving  Apparatus— Water  Cooling  Towers. 

As  has  been  already  mentioned  in  the  fifth  chapter,  one  of  the  three 
essential  parts  of  any  compression  machine  is  the  condenser,  the 
function  of  which  is  to  supplement  the  action  of  the  compressor  or 
pump. 

The  condensers  in  most  general  use  may  be  classified  under  two 
main  heads,  the  submerged  type  of  condenser  and  the  atmospheric 
or  open-air  evaporative  surface  type  of  condenser,  the  first  having 
always  some  arrangement  of  coils  immersed  or  submerged  in  a  tank 
of  cooling  water,  and  the  second  invariably  consisting  of  coils  of  pipe 
or  tube  exposed  to  the  air,  with  water  trickling  over  them. 

SUBMERGED  CONDENSERS. 

The  submerged  type  of  condenser  is  the  only  one  applicable  in 
some  cases,  as  for  instance  in  marine  installations ;  it  has,  besides, 
certain  specific  advantages  which  will  be  next  treated  of,  but  it  may 
be  premised  that  it  consumes  a  large  amount  of  cooling  water,  which, 
where  water  has  to  be  paid  for  at  a  high  figure,  may  amount  to  a 
serious  item  in  the  working  expenses.  The  system,  however,  admits 
of  the  condenser  being  located  in  any  part  of  the  building,  or  in  the 
open  air,  as  may  be  desired,  occupies  comparatively  little  space,  allows 
the  cooling  water  to  be  admitted  to  the  condenser  at  the  bottom  near 
the  exit  for  the  condensed  gas,  so  that  the  water  gradually  rises  as  it 
becomes  warmer,  until  it  is  discharged  at  the  top,  whilst  the  warm 

152 


SUBMERGED   CONDENSERS. 


153 


gas  entering  the  condenser  at  the  top-header,  flows  downward  through 
the  coils,  and  parting  with  its  sensible  and  latent  heat  to  the  cooling 


COLO  WATER  INLET  • 
TURBINE  TO  OPERATE  AGITATOR 


Fig.  89.— Chew's  Patent  Submerged  Type  Condenser.      Vertical  Central  Section. 

water  becomes  liquid  and  drains  away  to  the  bottom-header.     And, 
finally,  the  submerged  pipes  in  a  condenser  of  this  description  remain 


154       REFRIGERATION   AND   COLD    STORAGE. 

clean,  and  therefore  in  an  efficient  condition,  much  longer  than  they 
do  when  exposed. 

To  secure  the  utmost  efficiency  of  a  condenser  of  the  submerged 
type  it  is  absolutely  necessary  that  the  cooling  water  should  be  kept 
in  a  state  of  agitation  by  some  suitable  means  so  as  to  prevent  the 
formation  and  collection  of  a  film  of  warm  water  round  the  pipes. 

Several  condensers  of  the  submerged  type  have  been  already  illus- 
trated, and  briefly  described,  in  connection  with  various  compression 
machines,  in  previous  chapters. 

Fig.  89  shows  in  vertical  central  section  a  patent  condenser  of  the 
submerged  type,  invented  by  Mr  Leuig  Chew,  and  manufactured  by 
Messrs  H.  J.  West  &  Co.,  Ltd.,  London. 

The  construction  of  this  apparatus  is  almost  sufficiently  obvious 
from  the  drawing,  and  but  little  explanation  is  needed.  A  special 
feature  is  the  automatic  device  for  breaking  up  the  above-mentioned 
film  of  warm  water,  and  dispersing  the  air  bubbles,  thus  bringing  the 
cold  water  into  intimate  contact  with  the  surfaces  of  the  pipes,  and 
promoting  the  most  complete  interchange  of  heat.  This  device  con- 
sists of  a  revolving  agitator,  fitted  with  helical  blades,  which  is  slowly 
and  automatically  rotated  by  a  small  turbine  fixed  on  the  top  of  the 
condenser,  and  operated  by  the  same  water  which  is  afterwards  used 
to  circulate  through  the  condenser  for  cooling  purposes.  This  arrange- 
ment offers  the  obvious  advantage  of  saving  the  expenditure  required 
for  driving  the  agitator,  as  well  as  enabling  the  more  or  less  complex 
arrangement  of  toothed  gearing  and  belt  pulleys,  used  when  it  is 
driven  in  that  manner,  to  be  dispensed  with. 

Compound  submerged  condensers  are  also  constructed  by  some 
makers.  In  one  arrangement  of  this  description  the  hot  gas  from  the 
compressor  is  first  passed  into  a  primary  condenser,  consisting  of  a 
single  coil  of  pipe  submerged  in  a  tank ;  the  gas  and  liquid  leaving  this 
coil  at  the  bottom  is  passed  on  to  a  secondary  condenser,  and  is  there 
delivered  by  a  distributing  head,  or  manifold  inlet,  to  the  tops  of  three 
coils  submerged  in  a  second  tank  located  above  the  first  one.  The 
cooling  water  is  admitted  to  the  bottom  of  the  upper  or  secondary 
condenser  tank,  and  is  taken  from  the  top  of  the  latter  to  the  bottom 
of  the  lower  or  primary  condenser  tank,  and  finally  runs  off  by  an 
overflow  at  the  top  of  the  latter. 

In  a  better  arrangement  than  the  above  the  single-coil  primary 
condenser,  to  which  the  hot  gas  from  the  compressor  is  first  delivered, 
is  located  on  the  top,  and  the  secondary  condenser  with  three  coils 
to  which  the  gas  and  liquid  is  next  passed,  is  placed  below  or  under- 


SUBMERGED  CONDENSERS.        155 

neath  the  former.  The  cooling  water  is,  in  this  arrangement,  delivered 
simultaneously  to  the  bottoms  of  both  condensers,  and  is  finally  run 
off  in  a  like  manner  at  the  tops  of  them. 

Fig.  90  shows  a  pattern  of  condenser  patented  by  H.  H.  Schou, 
which  is  divided  into  two  or  more  sections,  connected  so  that  the 
cross  area  of  a  section  will  be  suited  to  the  state  and  feed  of 
the  cooling  medium  therein.  These  separate  coils  are  either  of  equal 
or  different  lengths,  and  may  be  arranged  in  several  ways.  In  the 
form  shown  in  the  drawing  the  liquefied  agent  enters  the  coil  marked 
f,  and  as  it  evaporates  passes  through  the  coupling  A,  coils  d,  e, 
coupling  i,  and  coils  a,  b,  c,  from  which  the  gas  is  removed  by  the 
pipe  g. 

A  type  of  condenser,  patented  by  Mr  T.  B.  Lightfoot  in   1885, 
consists  of  coils  or  zigzag  pipes,  arranged   with  one  or  more  zigzag 
passages  between  them,  formed  in  a  tank  or  vessel, 
the  arrangement  being  such  that  the  water  or  re- 
frigerating medium  enters  the  coils  or  zigzag  pipes 
at  the  bottom,   the  vapour   being  drawn   off  by  a 
pump  at  the  top,  whilst  the  fluid  to  be  cooled  enters 
the  tank  or  vessel  at  the  top  of  the  tank,  and  after 
travelling  along   the  whole  length   of   each  coil  or 
zigzag,  is  drawn  off  at  the  bottom. 

The    coils    of    pipe    in    a    submerged    condenser      gcllo^f    pat'ent 
usually  consist  of  IJ-in.  to  2-in.  pipe  in  one  or  more      Condenser, 
sections,   preferably  a  number   connected   by  mani- 
fold inlets  and  outlets,  so  that  one  or  more  of  the  sections  may  be 
shut   off  for   repairs,   &c.      In    some   constructions   the   pipe   at   the 
vapour  inlet  end  is  of  larger  dimensions,  and  arranged  to  taper  down 
to   the   outlet   end,    the   agent   being    there    partially   liquefied,    and 
occupying  less  space. 

The  amount  of  condenser  surface  to  be  employed  is  best  determined 
by  practice.  According  to  Professor  Siebel  it  has  been  found  that  for 
average  conditions  (incoming  condenser  water  70°  and  outgoing  con- 
denser water  80°,  more  or  less)  for  each  ton  of  refrigerating  capacity 
(or  for  \  ton  ice-making  capacity)  it  will  take  40  sq.  ft.  of  condenser 
surface,  which  corresponds  to  64  running  feet  of  2-in.  pipe,  or  to 
90  running  feet  of  IJ-in.  pipe.  Frequently  20  sq.  ft.  of  condenser 
surface,  and  even  less,  are  allowed  per  ton  of  refrigeration  (double  that 
for  actual  ice-making  capacity),  but  this  necessitates  higher  condenser 
pressure,  &c.,  and  is  deemed  poor  economy  by  many  engineers. 

The  Triumph  Ice  Machine  Co.  give  for  their  ammonia  condensers 


156       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

about  120  ft.  of  IJ-in.  pipe,  or  70  ft.  of  2-in.  pipe  per  ton.  They  also 
recommend  at  least  20  in.  clearance  space  between  the  coils  to  admit 
of  easy  access  to  all  parts;  that  the  condenser  should  never  exceed 
20  ft.  in  length ;  and  that  it  should  never  be  above  sixteen  pipes  high. 
According  to  Professor  Siebel*  again  the  number  of  square  feet  of 
cooling  surface  P  required  in  a  submerged  condenser  may  be  approxi- 
mately calculated  after  the  formula — 

F  =  -    /*       sq.ft., 


in  which  h  is  the  heat  of  vaporisation  of  1  Ib.  of  ammonia  at  the 
temperature  of  the  condenser,  k  the  amount  of  ammonia  passing  the 
compressor  per  minute,  and  ra  the  number  of  units  of  heat  transferred 
per  minute  per  square  foot  of  surface  of  iron  pipe,  having  saturated 
ammonia  vapour  inside,  and  water  outside,  t  represents  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  ammonia  in  the  coils,  and  ^  that  of  the  cooling  water 
outside  of  the  coils,  i.e.,  mean  temperature  of  the  inflowing  and  out- 
flowing cooling  water.  Taking  the  figures  already  given  as  a  guide,  the 
factor  m  is  equal  0-5,  so  that  the  formula  reads — 

*-jCS£^r-;«fcfc 


This  formula,  like  others  which  have  been  given  on  this  subject,  is, 
it  must  be  understood,  an  empirical  or  experimental  one. 

Referring  to  amount  of  cooling  water  required,  the  same  authority 
observes  that  the  heat  which  is  transferred  to  the  ammonia  whilst  pro- 
ducing the  refrigeration,  and  also  the  heat  equivalent  to  the  work  done 
upon  the  ammonia  by  the  compressor  (superheating  being  prevented), 
must  be  carried  away  by  the  cooling  water,  expressed  in  thermal 
units;  and  speaking  theoretically,  the  sum  of  these  two  heat  effects 
is  equal  to  the  heat  of  vaporisation  of  the  ammonia  at  the  temperature 
of  the  condenser.  On  the  basis  of  this  consideration,  the  amount  of 
cooling  water  A,  in  pounds  required  per  hour,  may  be  expressed  by 
the  formula — 

h.k  x  60  „ 


or  in  gallons  after  division  by  8 -33,  the  signs  having  the  same  signifi- 
cance as  in  the  foregoing  formulas,  with  the  exception  of  t,  which 
represents  the  actual  temperature  of  the  outgoing,  and  tv  which  repre- 

*  "Compend  of  Mechanical  Refrigeration,"  H.  S.  Rich  &  Co.,  Chicago,  1899. 


ATMOSPHERIC    CONDENSERS. 


157 


sents  the  actual  temperature  of  the  incoming  cooling  water.  Practically 
the  amount  of  water  used  varies  all  the  way  from  3  to  7  gals,  per 
minute  per  ton  ice-making  capacity  in  twenty-four  hours. 

The  following  table,  compiled  by  Mr  Eugene  T.  Skinkle,  gives  the 
dimensions  of  submerged  condensers  of  some  plants  in  actual  operation 
in  the  United  States  :  — 

DIMENSIONS  OF  SUBMERGED  CONDENSERS. 


>»         * 

Tanks. 

O 

C 

c  >, 

bJO 

1   1  1 

ft              rt 

'o 

r* 

^ 

c 

& 

If 

if. 

«l 
rV 

i 

1 

'B  S 

U 

"S 

.» 
ffi 

I 

c 

i  1 

ftj" 

.s-.§>.« 

bf:2    i  .SH 

h 

£ 

fe 

«  ° 

J         S. 

"•S 

a  to 

12.2          g  a 

c 

c 

J3 

.2 

-^  c 

1 

s 

1  IE 

fejO 

5] 

I       f 

I 

1 

1 

SJ 

3 

o 

S 

OQ 

1 

H 

«  6 
II 

^ 

5         10 

10  i     3£ 

6iJA 

9 

12 

7* 

855 

171 

85-5 

10         20 

10       7i 

3 
TTT 

20 

12 

7i 

1,900 

190 

95- 

12|       25 

10 

71 

6^     1% 

22 

12 

7| 

2,090 

167 

83-6 

15         30 

10 

6| 

TJT 

25 

12 

7|      1 

2,375 

151-6 

79-16 

20         35 

10 

10^ 

ITT 

27 

12 

2,565 

128-25 

73-28 

30         50 

10     10 

12i 

27 

24 

71 

5,130 

171 

102-6 

40         75 

14     10 

1S| 

a 

27 

24 

H| 

7,695 

191-1 

102-6 

60       110 

14     13 

13J 

ft 

35 

24 

UJ 

9,975 

166-25 

90-68 

Average     - 

167- 

89- 

ATMOSPHERIC  OR  OPEN-AIR  EVAPORATIVE  SURFACE  CONDENSERS. 

In  this  class  of  condenser  the  lines  of  pipes  or  tubes  through  which 
the  agent  passes  are  so  located  as  to  be  exposed  to  more  or  less  con- 
stant currents  of  air,  and  generally,  in  addition  to  the  latter,  cooling 
water  is  caused  to  trickle  over  the  pipes.  The  vaporised  agent  should 
preferably  be  passed  in  this  arrangement  in  an  opposite  direction  to  the 
cooling  water.  That  is  to  say,  it  should  be  admitted  at  the  bottom  of 
the  condenser,  and  in  this  case  the  liquid,  as  fast  as  it  is  formed,  passes 
off  to  the  side  into  a  vertically-placed  manifold.  By  this  means  the 
warm  gas  entering  the  condenser  meets  the  warmer  water,  and  the  gas 
as  it  ascends  in  the  condenser  constantly  meets  colder  water,  until  its 
temperature  is  nearly  reduced  to  that  of  the  water  when  it  first  comes 
in  contact  with  the  condenser  pipes,  liquefaction  then  taking  place. 

Atmospherical  condensers  which  are  said  to  give  excellent  results 
are  also  formed  of  vertical  sections  of  pipe,  the  compressed  vapour 
being  delivered  to  each  section  at  the  top  from  a  common  manifold  or 


158       REFRIGERATION    AND    COLD    STORAGE. 


distributing  head,  and  discharging  the  liquid  at  the  bottom  into  another 
common  manifold  or  distributing  head,  which  latter  is  connected  with 
the  liquid  receiver. 

The  ordinary  form  of  atmospheric  condenser  is  of  very  simple 
construction,  and  consists  essentially  of  a  stack  of  tubes  placed  in  lines, 
with  return  bends  and  heads,  and  some  water-distributing  arrangement. 
Fig.  91  is  a  diagram  showing  a  simple  plan  for  distributing  the  water, 
which  is  self-explanatory.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  cooling  water 
should  pass  through  an  exactly  contrary  sequence  to  that  undergone 
by  the  compressed  vapour,  viz.,  during  its  downward  course  it  should 


.  Ihh-rir^Ht^  «  i   *  »  LI 

^y^^^^a^.^Hf) 

[    C'/.-;-',>^y^v:vr/-: 

\      L    '•'••••'.'.'    ; 

•:•:"••••••':.•••  g  \ 

J>s    .  .-,. 

•.r,^,-1,^-';---;-:^'-.-^'^,-1^     ) 

/"       ^.'.     .'.•'-. 

••'•.'.•:•:.•-••••  •..•.•'•'•"1  7 

(    v-"v'J 

L^i-  '        •    '  '  '  1 

/   F 

(to^i^l 

Q[S£J  -:;'.:,-/j-::..r 

3222SSS 

:-...,••.•..•• 

••.'.-.     ,.".•'•    '  .    P\ 

G'::^v'-vi'.:^;; 

^^^^^^g    ) 

Fig.  91. — Diagram  showing  Simple  Method  of  Distributing 
Water  in  Atmospheric  Condenser. 

constantly  meet  warmer  gas  or  vapour,  and  consequently  be  gradually 
increased  in  temperature  until  it  finally  leaves  the  condenser  by  the 
trough  shown  at  the  bottom.  By  means  of  this  gradual  extraction  of 
heat  the  difference  between  the  initial  and  final  temperature  of  the 
water  will  be  greater  than  could  be  obtained  were  the  gas  and  the 
water  to  flow  in  the  same  direction.  In  the  De  La  Vergne,  Eclipse, 
and  other  standard  American  condensers,  the  gas  enters  at  the  bottom, 
whilst  the  cooling  water  is  applied  at  the  top. 

In  Fig.  92  is  a  diagram  showing  a  common  arrangement  for  the  dis- 
tribution of  water,  n  indicating  the  water  trough  in  transverse  section, 
and  s  the  condenser  tubes  through  which  the  hot  gas  or  vapour  passes. 


ATMOSPHERIC   CONDENSERS. 


159 


This  arrangement,  it  will  be  seen,  results  in  the  water  spattering  to  such 
an  extent  that  partitions  have  to  be  provided  between  and  at  the  ends 
of  the  series  of  vertical  coils.  Fig.  93  shows  diagrammatically  a  very 
simple  plan,  given  in  an  American  journal,  for  avoiding  this  objection- 
able spattering,  which  consists  of  a  strip  of  metal  or  fin,  T,  which  is 
attached  to  the  underside  of  each  of  the  condenser  pipes  or  tubes  s,  and 
which  serves  to  guide  the  water  falling  from  the  trough  R  quietly  to  the 
top  of  the  pipe  or  tube  below  where  the  stream  divides,  one-half  pass- 


Fig.  92. — Diagram  showing  Objec- 
tions to  Common  Plan  of  Distribut- 
ing Water  in  Atmospheric  Con- 
densers. 


Fig.  93.  —  Diagram  showing 
Method  of  avoiding  Spattering  in 
Distributing  Water  in  Atmospheric 
Condenser. 


ing  down  and  round  one  side  of  the  tube,  and  the  other  half  down  the 
other  side  of  the  tube  as  shown. 

Fig.  94  shows  an  arrangement  adopted  by  some  American  and  other 
makers  for  removing  the  liquefied  agent  from  the  condenser,  and 
delivering  it  into  the  storage  tank,  as  soon  as  formed.  This  is  effected 
by  the  introduction  of  drip-pipes  v,  connected  with  the  return  heads 
u  of  several  of  the  coils  of  pipe  or  tube  s,  and  with  the  storage  tank 
or  liquid  receiver  w,  so  as  to  draw  off  the  liquid  at  different  levels. 


160       REFRIGERATION   AND    COLD    STORAGE. 


In  this  manner  the  liquid  formed  near  the  top  of  the  condenser  at  a 
lower  temperature  is  prevented  from  falling  to  the  warmer  lower  coils, 
in  which  a  reabsorption  of  a  certain  amount  of  heat  would  take  place, 
with  a  resultant  loss  of  work. 

Fig.  95  illustrates  an  open-air  evaporative  surface  condenser,  built 
by  Messrs  Haslam,  of  Derby,  which  is  arranged  to  work  upon  the 
principles  above  enunciated,  by  which  the  greatest  possible  amount 
of  efficiency  is  secured.  The  condenser  shown  is  built  in  a  nest  of 
five  sections,  thus  rendering  it  more  convenient  for  transport,  and  also 

admitting  of  easy  access  being  had  to 
all  parts  of  the  apparatus  for  repairs. 
Each  section  is  provided  with  indepen- 
dent valves  and  cocks,  so  that  any 
particular  section  may  be  shut  off  at 
any  time  if  desired. 

Fig.  96  shows  the  Haslam  interlaced 
type  of  ammonia  condenser.  In  this 
pattern  each  nest  is  composed  of  three 
independent  coils  of  pipe  welded  into 
one  continuous  length.  The  ends  of 
the  three  coils  are  connected  to  headers 
at  the  top  and  at  bottom,  thus  making 
each  nest  complete  in  itself.  Valves 
are  provided  to  isolate  each  nest,  and 
these  in  turn  are  connected  by  headers, 
the  number  of  nests  being  in  accordance 
with  the  size  of  the  machine.  A  slotted 
pipe  is  provided  at  the  top  of  each  nest 
to  distribute  the  water,  which  in  this 
type  of  condenser  is  generally  circulated 
over  and  over  again,  being  cooled  by 
evaporation  into  the  atmosphere.  This 

type  of  condenser  is  useful  where  water  is  scarce,  only  a  small 
quantity  being  required  to  make  up  the  losses  due  to  evaporation, 
wastage,  &c. 

In  Fig.  97  is  illustrated  an  atmospheric  or  open-air  condenser  made 
by  the  Triumph  Ice  Machine  Co.,  Cincinnati.  This  condenser  is 
arranged  in  sections,  and  is  so  constructed  as  to  permit  of  the  ready 
removal  of  any  pipe  or  fitting,  without  the  necessity  for  shutting  down 
the  plant  or  losing  any  of  the  agent.  The  apparatus  has  double,  extra 
heavy,  wrought  iron  pipe  headers. 


Fig.  94. — Arrangement  for 
Removing  Liquefied  Agent  from 
Atmospheric  Condenser. 


ATMOSPHERIC    CONDENSERS. 


161 


The  atmospheric  condensers  designed  and  manufactured  by  the 
Fred.  W.  Wolf  Co.,  of  Chicago,  has  pipes  made  from  selected  skelp, 
with  drop-forged  Bessemer  steel  flanges  screwed  on  to  same  whilst  hot, 
thus  admitting  of  its  shrinking  in  place  when  cool.  Galvanised  iron 
troughs,  fitted  with  a  patent  levelling  device,  are  provided  for  distri- 
buting the  cooling  water,  and  perforated  steel  strips  are  secured 
between  the  pipes.  An  inlet  and  an  outlet  valve  are  fitted  to  each 
section,  so  that  anyone  of  them  can  be  emptied  without  interfering 
with  the  operation  of  the  others. 


Fig.  95.— Haslam  Atmospheric  or  Open-air  Evaporative  Surface  Condenser. 

In  Fig.  98  is  illustrated  an  atmospheric  or  open-air  evaporative 
surface  condenser,  built  on  Kau's  system,  with  either  copper  or  iron 
pipes,  by  Quiri  &  Co.,  Schiltigheim,  Alsace.  The  construction  of  this 
condenser  will  be  readily  understood  from  the  engraving. 

Evaporative  condensers  are  also  cooled  by  artificial  currents  of  air, 
propelled  by  a  fan  or  blower,  in  which  case  a  very  powerful  evaporation 
is  established.  Whether  or  not  an  arrangement  of  this  description 
would  prove  to  be  an  economical  one,  depends  upon  the  temperature 
and  cost  of  the  cooling  water  procurable  relatively  to  the  cost  of 
driving  the  fan. 
ii 


1 62       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 


ATMOSPHERIC   CONDENSERS. 


163 


Fig.  97. — Triumph  Atmospheric  or  Open-air  Evaporative  Surface  Condenser. 


Fig.  98. — Rau's  Atmospheric  or  Open-air  Evaporative  Surface  Condenser 


164      REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 


The  amount  of  condensing  surface  for  an  open-air  condenser  is, 
according  to  Professor  Siebel,  40  sq.  ft.  per  ton  of  refrigerating 
capacity  (or  for  one-half  ton  ice-making  capacity),  which  amount  is 
equivalent  to  64  running  feet  of  2-in.  pipe  or  to  90  running  feet  of 
1^-in.  pipe. 

The  amount  of  cooling  water  required  for  an  open-air  or  atmos- 
pheric condenser  is  upward  of  50  per  cent,  less  than  that  required  for 
a  submerged  condenser,  and  if  made  of  sufficient  height,  the  same 
water  may  be  used  repeatedly  in  an  open-air  condenser. 

The  following  table,  compiled  by  Mr  Eugene  T.  Skinkle,  gives  the 
dimensions  of  open-air  or  atmospheric  condensers  of  some  plants  in 
actual  operation  in  the  United  States : — 

DIMENSIONS  OF  OPEN-AIR  OR  ATMOSPHERIC  CONDENSERS. 


^ 

fc 

Condenser  Pans. 

c 

..-. 

be 

'i 

i 

1 

I 

£ 

c 

°  «j 

1 

&\ 

1| 

1-9 

|| 

th  of  Pan 
Feet. 

h  of  Pan 
Feet. 

h  of  Pan 
Inches. 

kness  of 
n  Inches. 

mber  of  Pi 
High. 

mber  of  Pi 
Wide. 

c 

I 

PH 

15 

0    (T 

•Sis 

t» 

0   C 

*J  *» 

11 

*U 

g 

O,  M 

SI 

8,1$ 

SS  3 

^^1 
«    w 

8 

(••a 

.s  — 

^ 

^l 

Z 

§ 

C/3 

I 

o 
H 

^ 

12* 

25 

21 

10f 

8 

A 

40 

5 

1 

17 

3,680 

294-4 

147-2 

20 

35 

24* 

10|  i     8 

A 

40 

5 

1 

21 

4,440 

222 

126-8 

30 

50 

24* 

14         8 

A 

50 

7 

1 

21 

7,750 

258-3 

155 

40 

75 

24* 

14         8 

A 

50 

T 

1* 

21 

7,750 

193-75 

103-33 

50 

100 

24* 

14         8 

3 

TiT 

90 

7 

1 

21 

13  950 

279 

139-5 

60 

125 

•24* 

14       12 

TB 

80 

7 

u 

21 

12,400 

206-6 

99-2 

80 

150 

274 

17       12 

A 

80 

7 

M 

24 

14,080 

176 

93-86 

Average  for  1  in.  pipe  per  ton 
Average  for  l|-in.  pipe  per  ton     - 

263-42 
192-12 

142-12 

98-79 

SUPPLEMENTARY  CONDENSERS  OR  FORECOOLERS. 

An  arrangement  intended  to  create  a  saving  of  power  and  of 
cooling  water  is  a  supplementary  condenser  or  forecooler  consisting 
of  one  or  more  coils  of  pipe  through  which  the  hot  compressed  gas  is 
caused  to  pass  before  entering  the  main  condenser.  This  supple- 
mentary condenser  is  cooled  by  the  overflow  water  from  the  main 
condenser.  When  the  supplementary  condenser  consists  of  one  coil 
only  it  should  be  equal  in  size  to  the  discharge  pipe  from  the  com- 
pressor. Should  a  series  or  number  of  coils  be  provided,  however, 


DOUBLE-PIPE   CONDENSERS.  165 

the  manifold  pipe  and  the  aggregate  area  of  the  small  pipe  openings 
should  be  equal  to  that  of  the  discharge  pipe. 

WESTERLIN-CAMPBELL  AND  HASLAM  DOUBLE-PIPE  CONDENSERS. 

The  Westerlin-Campbell  condenser,  which  is  shown  in  side  and  end 
elevation  in  Figs.  99  and  100,  consists  of  a  coil  made  up  with  one  pipe 
inside  another,  the  water  being  on  the  inside  of  the  internal  pipe,  and 
the  hot  compressed  gas  in  the  annular  space  or  clearance  between  the 
pipes.  This  type  of  condenser  is  an  attempt  to  secure  the  best  features 
of  both  the  submerged  and  atmospheric  types  in  one  apparatus,  and  is 
specially  suitable  wherever  the  water  is  to  be  used  over  again  for  some 
other  purpose,  and  where  the  open-air  type  cannot  be  used  by  reason  of 
structural  difficulties.  The  hot  gas  is  arranged  to  travel  in  a  downward 
direction,  and  the  cooling  water  in  an  upward  direction,  so  effecting 
an  interchange  of  temperature  that  results  in  the  warmer  water  meeting 
the  current  of  the  warmest  gas.  The  condenser  is  constructed  in  a 
nest,  comprising  several  sections  or  stands,  so  that  any  one  section 
can  always  be  cut  out  for  repairs,  without  having  for  that  reason  to 
shut  down  the  plant,  and  such  a  cross  connection  of  the  water  con- 
nections is  provided  that  the  water  current  can  be  reversed  wThen  it  is 
desired  to  wash  out  the  internal  pipe. 

Fig.  101  illustrates  the  Haslam  type  of  double-pipe  ammonia  con- 
denser. The  pipes  containing  the  ammonia  gas  to  be  condensed  are 
2-in.  bore,  built  up  in  the  same  manner  as  the  other  Haslam  condensers, 
and  through  the  centre  of  each  a  1 J  in.  bore  pipe  passes.  These  are 
connected  at  the  ends  by  U-shaped  bends  removable  for  cleaning 
purposes,  and  through  this  inner  pipe  the  cooling  water  passes,  being 
thus  brought  into  intimate  contact  with  the  ammonia. 

An  advantage  of  this  type  of  condenser  is  that  the  water  may  be 
maintained  under  pressure,  and  raised  to  a  height  to  be  used  for  other 
purposes  afterwards  without  further  pumping.  No  tray  is  required 
under  condensers  of  this  type. 

An  objection  to  this  type  of  condenser  would  appear  to  be  the 
liability  of  the  deposit  of  scale  in  the  pipes  from  certain  classes  of 
water. 

HENDRICK'S  CONDENSER. 

This  type  of  condenser  differs  from  those  previously  described.  It 
consists  essentially  of  a  vertical  cast-iron  shell,  containing  two  or  more 
spiral  coils  of  IJ-in.  pipe  of  extra  thick  gauge,  the  tail  ends  of 


1 66       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD    STORAGE. 


o 
ab 


167 


1 68   REFRIGERATION  AND  COLD  STORAGE. 

which  project  through  the  heads  or  covers  of  the  shell  and  are  con- 
nected together  by  suitable  manifolds. 

The  hot  compressed  gas  is  delivered  into  the  upper  part  of  this 
shell,  and  the  condensing  water  is  circulated  through  the  spiral  coil  or 
coils  of  pipe  located  therein.  The  hot  compressed  gas  is  liquefied  by 
reason  of  the  pressure  and  by  coming  into  contact  with  the  coil  or  coils, 
and  the  liquid  will  collect  at  the  bottom  of  the  shell,  which  thus  forms 
also  a  storage  tank  or  receiver  for  the  anhydrous  liquid,  from  which  it 
can  be  discharged  into  the  evaporator  or  refrigerator.  The  shell  is 
fitted  with  a  level  and  gauge  to  indicate  the  amount  of  liquid  therein. 


WATER-COOLTNG    APPARATUS. 

In  large  towns  and  cities  where  the  water  from  the  water  com- 
panies' mains  has  to  be  used,  and  paid  heavily  for,  it  is  often  doubtful 
economy  to  attempt  to  reduce  the  temperature  of  the  condensed  gas 
below  a  certain  point,  say  60°  Fahr.  during  the  winter  months,  and 
70°  Fahr.  during  the  summer  months.  It  is  obvious  that  when  a  high 
price  has  to  be  paid  for  the  water  employed  for  cooling  and  other 
purposes,  every  effort  possible  should  be  made  to  utilise  it  to  the  fullest 
extent,  and,  with  this  end  in  view,  it  is  desirable  to  use  the  overflow 
water  from  the  condenser  for  boiler-feeding  purposes,  or  to  employ  some 
means,  such  as  a  cooling  tower,  for  saving  that  which  would  be  other- 
wise run  to  waste  and  be  completely  lost. 

Fig.  102  shows  the  Haslam  type  of  open  water  cooler,  which  is 
a  simple  and  at  the  same  time  efficient  apparatus.  It  consists  of  one 
or  more  nests  of  lap  welded  wrought-irori  pipe,  fitted  with  malleable 
iron  return  bends  and  flanges.  Through  these  pipes  the  liquefied 
ammonia  is  evaporated,  and  the  water  to  be  cooled  is  distributed  in  a 
thin  film  over  the  cooler  by  means  of  a  slotted  pipe  placed  over  same. 
As  the  water  falls  it  is  cooled  to  any  desired  temperature, 

Puplett's  water  saving  and  cooling  apparatus  is  illustrated  in  Fig. 
103.  It  is  claimed  that  the  use  of  this  contrivance  enables  the  con- 
densing water  to  be  used  over  and  over  again  with  comparatively  little 
loss,  the  waste  indeed  being  practically  confined  to  the  quantity  taken 
up  by  evaporation,  which  loss  is,  of  course,  more  considerable  in  hot 
weather,  and  the  consumption  of  condensing  and  circulating  water 
is  thus  minimised  as  much  as  possible.  It  is  stated  to  have  been 
clearly  demonstrated  that  in  regular  working  for  a  considerable  period, 
with  a  temperature  in  the  sun  of  93°  Fahr.,  the  entire  loss  experienced 
did  not  exceed  3  per  cent,  of  the  total  quantity  of  water  circulated. 


WATER-COOLING   TOWERS. 


169 


The  cost  of  the  upkeep  of  the  apparatus,  moreover,  is  trivial,  being 
one  farthing  per  thousand  gallons  cooled,  and  the  power  required  under 
ordinary  conditions  is  1  H.P.  indicated  for  the  same  amount. 


The  scope  of  this  work  does  not  admit  of  entering  into  an  extended 
dissertation  upon  what  are  known  as  cooling  towers,  consequently  space 
can  only  be  found  for  a  few  general  remarks  and  very  brief  descriptions 
of  some  examples  of  water-cooling  towers,  with  which  this  chapter  will 
be  brought  to  a  conclusion. 


i/o       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD    STORAGE. 


First,  as  regards  the  general  efficiency  of  any  apparatus  of  the 
kind  under  consideration,  this  will  be  found  to  depend  upon  the 
following  three  principal  points,  viz.  : — The  extent  of  the  water  surfaces 
exposed.  The  quantity  of  air  that  is  brought  into  contact  with  those 
surfaces.  And,  thirdly,  upon  the  difference  of  pressure  which  exists 
on  the  vapours  at  the  water  surfaces,  and  in  the  surrounding  atmosphere. 
The  first  two  will  be  seen  to  relate  to  the  construction  of  the  apparatus, 
the  third  to  the  general  or  normal  atmospheric  conditions. 

From  the  above  it  will  be  gathered  that  the  chief  features  to  be 
looked  for  in  a  water-cooling  apparatus  are  the  provision  of  the 
maximum  amount  of  cooling  surface,  the  most  even  distribution  of  the 

water  over  this  cooling  sur- 
face possible,  and  an  effective 
air  circulation.  Cooling 
towers  are  extensively  em- 
ployed in  the  United  States 
in  connection  with  refrigerat- 
ing plants,  and  the  following 
very  brief  descriptions  of  a 
few  of  the  best  known  will 
give  an  idea  of  their  con- 
struction. 

The  Worthington  consists 
of  a  steel  tower  enclosing  the 
evaporating  surfaces,  which 
latter  are  formed  of  hard 
glazed  tiles,  supported  upon 
~f~-beam  grating,  or  of  re- 
galvanised  tube  tiling. 

The  Klein  is  constructed 

entirely  of  wood,  a  polygonal  vertical  shaft  forming  the  frame  for  a 
checker- work  of  boards,  which  are  arranged  in  horizontal  layers. 

The  Stocker,  which  consists  essentially  of  a  strong  wooden  casing, 
the  interior  of  which  is  made  up  of  cross-pieces  of  boards  arranged  in 
horizontal  layers  set  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  and  having  between 
their  intersections  upright  oblique  partitions.  The  water  is  distributed 
by  a  system  of  funnel-shaped  troughs  at  the  top  of  the  structure. 

The  Barnard  has  a  steel  casing  within  which  are  hung  a  number  of 
mats  made  of  a  special  galvanised  wire  cloth. 

In  all  these  cooling  towers  except  the  Stocker  one  fan  only  is 
employed,  the  latter  has  two  fans  mounted  upon  one  steel  shaft  at  the 


Fig.  103.— Puplett's  Water  Saving  and 
Cooling  Apparatus. 


WATER-COOLING   TOWERS. 


171 


base  of  the  apparatus,  which  arrangement  is  claimed  to  enable  a  more 
equal  distribution  of  the  air  to  be  effected,  and  a  saving  of  driving 
power,  as  compared  with  the  amount  of  air  discharged. 

The  Zschocke  cooling  tower  is  also  said  to  afford  first-rate  results, 
and  to  be  most  economical  in  working.  This  apparatus  consists  essen- 
tially of  a  main  distributing  water-trough  located  above  the  cooler,  into 
which  the  water  to  be  dealt  with  is  delivered  direct,  or,  where  it  con- 
sists of  injection  water  carrying  a  considerable  amount  of  oil,  after 
passing  it  through  an  oil  filter.  In  the  walls  of  this  main  distributing 
trough,  and  near  its  bottom,  are  fitted  a  number  of  small  iron  pipes, 
through  which  the  water  will 
pass  into  a  series  of  smaller  dis- 
tributing troughs,  the  walls  of 
which  are  serrated  both  top  and 
bottom,  so  as  to  cause  the  water 
to  be  distributed  in  drops  over 
the  top  layer  of  the  wooden 
battens  composing  the  body  of 
the  cooler.  These  battens  are 
evenly  spaced,  and  are  placed  at 
a  slight  inclination,  so  that  each 
drop  of  water  will  be  caught  and 
broken  on  the  rough  surface,  and 
will  spread  itself  out  into  a  thin 
film,  which  will  flow  down  each 
of  the  battens,  and  again  form 
itself  into  drops  on  the  lower 
edge  of  it,  owing  to  its  being 
also  serrated,  and  will  fall  on  to 
the  next  batten  in  the  layer 
below,  and  so  on,  until  the 

bottom  or  lowermost  layer  is  reached.  The  air  has  free  access  to  every 
batten,  and  consequently  as  the  water  parts  with  a  portion  of  its  heat 
at  each,  it  will  fall  into  the  receiving  tank  beneath  in  a  suitably 
cooled  condition.  The  open  type  of  cooling  tower  is  provided  at  the 
sides  with  louvres,  which  serve  to  prevent  the  water  from  being  blown 
away  in  the  case  of  strong  winds,  whilst  at  the  same  time  admitting  air 
to  every  part. 

The  Triumph  Ice  Machine  Co.'s  water-cooling  tower  is  shown 
in  Fig.  104.  This  apparatus  works  on  the  principle  of  exposing  the 
water  to  be  cooled  in  a  thin  sheet  to  the  cooling  effect  of  the  atmo- 


Fig.  104. — Triumph  Water- Uooling 
Tower.      Elevation. 


i;2   REFRIGERATION  AND  COLD  STORAGE. 

sphere,  the  result  being  said  to  be  increased  in  the  above  tower  by 
imparting  to  it  a  rotary  motion  against  the  air  current.     This  rotary 


Fig.  105.— Haslam  Water-Cooling  Tower. 

motion  is  given  by  a  small  water-wheel  in  the  manner  plainly  shown 
in  the  illustration. 

A  cooling  device  made  by  the  Linde  Company  for  use  in  connection 


WATER-COOLING   TOWERS.  173 

with  submerged  condensers  consists  of  the  following  arrangements : — 
The  condenser  pipes  are  placed  in  an  iron  tank,  the  cooling  water 
being  kept  in  motion  by  a  stirrer.  At  the  top  of  the  tank  is  provided 
a  number  of  sheet-iron  cylinders,  so  arranged  that  they  are  immersed  in 
the  wrater  below  to  the  extent  of  about  one-third  of  their  diameter. 
These  cylinders  are  caused  to  rotate  slowly  upon  their  axis,  and  their 
water-covered  surfaces  are  subjected  to  the  action  of  a  current  of  air 
generated  by  a  fan,  the  consequent  evaporation  producing  the  cooling 
effect.  This  apparatus  is  identical  in  principle  to  the  Wetzel  pan  for 
concentrating  the  syrup  or  liquor  in  the  manufacture  of  sugar. 

Fig.  105  illustrates  the  Haslam  water-cooling  tower,  which  consists 
of  a  wrought-iron  casing  containing  galvanised  corrugated  wrought-iron 
plates.  The  overflow  water  from  the  condensers  enters  the  cooler  at 
the  top  and  falling  over  the  plates,  comes  in  contact  with  a  current  of 
air  induced  by  the  fan  shown  in  the  drawing.  The  cooled  water  falls 
into  a  tank  under  the  cooler,  and  is  again  raised  to  the  distributing 
tank  over  the  condensers  by  a  centrifugal  pump. 


CHAPTER  IX 

THE  ABSORPTION  AND  BINARY  ABSORPTION 
PROCESS  OR  SYSTEM 

The  Principle  of  the  Absorption  Process —Early  Machines— Later  Patterns  of 
Machines  —The  Binary  Absorption  Process,  or  Machines  using  a  Compound 
or  Dual  Liquid. 

THE  principle  involved  in  the  operation  of  machines  for  the  abstraction 
of  heat  by  the  evaporation  of  a  separate  refrigerating  agent  of  a  volatile 
nature  under  the  direct  action  of  heat,  and  without  the  use  of  power, 
which  agent  again  enters  into  solution  with  a  liquid,  is,  as  has  been 
previously  observed  of  the  liquefaction  process,  more  a  chemical  or 
physical  action  than  a  mechanical  one.  It  is  founded  upon  the  fact  of 
the  great  capacity  possessed  by  water  for  absorbing  a  number  of 
vapours  having  low  boiling  points,  and  of  their  being  readily  separable 
therefrom  again,  by  heating  the  combined  liquid  ;  hence  it  is  commonly 
known  as  the  absorption  process. 

The  absorption  process  was  invented  by  Ferdinand  Carre  (brother 
to  Edmond  Carre,  whose  sulphuric  acid  freezing  apparatus  has  been 
previously  mentioned)  about  the  year  1850.  This  system  involves  the 
continuous  distillation  of  ammoniacal  liquor,  and  requires  the  use  of 
three  distinct  sets  of  appliances,  viz. : — 

First,  for  distilling,  condensing,  and  liquefying  the  ammonia. 
Second,  for  producing  cold,  by  means  of  a  refrigerator,  and  absorber, 
a  condenser,  a  concentrator,  and  a  rectifier.  Third,  pumps  for  forcing 
the  liquor  from  the  condenser  into  the  generator  for  redistillation. 
The  three  operations  are  each  distinct  from  the  other,  but  when  the 
apparatus  is  in  actual  work  they  must  be  continuous,  and  are  dependent 
upon  one  another,  forming  separate  stages  of  a  closed  cycle. 

An  advantage  of  the  absorption  process  is  that  the  bulk  of  the 
heat  required  for  performing  the  work  is  applied  direct  without  being 
transformed  into  mechanical  power.  The  first  machines,  however, 
constructed  upon  this  principle  were  very  imperfect  in  operation,  by 
reason  of  the  impossibility  of  securing  an  anhydrous  product  of  dis- 

174 


THE   ABSORPTION   PROCESS   OR   SYSTEM.       175 

tillation,  and  as  the  ammonia  distilled  over  contained  as  much  as 
25  per  cent,  of  water,  a  very  large  expenditure  of  heat  was  required 
for  evaporation,  and  the  working  of  the  apparatus,  moreover,  was 
rendered  intermittent.  This  was  owing  to  the  distillation,  which  is 
the  most  important  operation,  and  has  of  necessity  to  be  executed  in 
a  rapid  manner,  being,  in  the  first  machines,  very  imperfectly  effected, 
and  the  liquor  resulting  therefrom  being  naturally  much  diluted  with 
water.  Another  serious  result  of  the  above  defect  was  the  accumula- 
tion of  weak  liquor  in  the  refrigerator,  and  the  consequent  necessity 
for  constant  additions  of  ammonia. 

By  subsequent  improvements,  however,  made  by  Rees  Reece 
in  1867-70;  Mort  in  1870,  who  introduced  an  improved  temperature 
exchanger  or  economiser;  H.  F.  Stanley,  1875;  F.  Carre  (the  original 
inventor),  in  1876;  W.  H.  Beck,  in  1886;  Mackay  and  Christiansen, 
and  E.  H.  Tomkins,  in  1887 ;  and  later  still  in  the  same  year  by 
E.  L.  Pontifex,  the  distillate  has  been  rendered  nearly  anhydrous, 
and  absorption  machines  have  been  brought  to  a  very  considerable 
degree  of  efficiency. 

In  Fig.  106  is  illustrated  F.  Carre's  continuous-acting  absorption 
machine.  As  above  mentioned,  the  agent  employed  in  this  apparatus 
is  ammonia.  In  the  drawing  A  indicates  the  generator,  B  is  the 
liquefier,  c  is  the  refrigerator,  D  is  the  absorber.  Aqua  ammonia  is 
introduced  into  the  generator  A,  the  level  of  the  liquid  being  indicated 
by  a  gauge  glass,  which  is  shown  on  the  left-hand  side  of  the  generator, 
and  which  is  practically  similar  to  that  used  on  steam  boilers,  and  the 
evaporation  is  effected  by  heat  from  the  furnace  shown  beneath.  The 
gas  from  the  generator  A  is  conducted  by  a  suitable  pipe  E  to  the  lique- 
fier B,  wherein  it  passes  through  a  congeries  or  series  of  coils  or  zigzags 
arranged  in  a  bath  of  cold  water,  which  is  kept  constantly  renewed 
from  the  reservoir  F.  By  the  time  the  ammonia  has  reached  a  vessel 
situated  at  the  termination  of  the  coils  or  zigzags  in  the  liquefier  it  is 
in  a  liquid  condition,  and  under  a  pressure  of  about  150  Ibs.  per  square 
inch,  which  pressure  is  constantly  maintained  in  the  generator  A. 

In  the  liquid  state  the  ammonia  flows  through  the  pipe  G  to  the 
regulator  H,  by  which  it  is  admitted  to  the  distributor  I  through  a  pipe 
K,  which  latter  is  wound  spirally  round  the  pipe  or  tube  L,  which  is  of 
larger  bore,  and  through  which  the  vaporised  or  gasified  ammonia 
returns  from  the  refrigerator  c  after  having  performed  its  heat-absorb- 
ing duties  therein.  By  this  arrangement  the  returning  vapour  or  gas 
is  made  to  do  some  further  work  by  absorbing  or  taking  up  heat  from 
the  liquid  ammonia  on  its  way  to  the  refrigerator. 


1 76   REFRIGERATION  AND  COLD  STORAGE. 

The  refrigerator  represented  in  the  drawing  consists  of  a  set  or 
series  of  six  or  other  suitable  number  of  spiral  or  zigzag  tubes  c1,  c1, 
which  return  upon  themselves,  forming  an  equal  number  of  partitions 


§ 

I 
so 

G 


in  the  tank  wherein  they  are  immersed,  which  latter  is  lagged  with 
suitable  non-conducting  material.  Each  of  these  zigzags  receives  an 
equal  supply  of  the  liquid  ammonia  from  the  distributor  I,  and  the 


THE    ABSORPTION    PROCESS    OR   SYSTEM.       177 

space  in  the  insulated  tank  surrounding  them  is  filled  with  some 
uncongealable  liquid,  or  one  that  will  congeal  only  at  very  low  tem- 
peratures, such  as  alcohol,  or  a  solution  of  chloride  of  calcium  or  of 
common  salt,  which  is  usually  known  as  brine. 

The  ice  cans  or  cases  are  immersed  in  the  liquor  between  the  zig- 
zags, and  are  sustained  upon  a  carriage  capable  of  being  moved  by  the 
same  mechanism  that  works  the  pump  M,  by  which  the  re-saturated 
solution  of  ammonia  and  water  is  returned  to  the  generator. 

The  ammonia  gas  or  vapour  from  the  zigzags  in  the  refrigerator 
c  is  collected  in  the  cylindrical  vessel  N,  from  which  it  passes  up  through 
the  tube  L  to  the  absorber  D,  where  it  meets  the  water  that  has  been 
brought  from  the  bottom  of  the  generator  A,  and  which  partially  fills 
the  latter.  This  water  being  nearly  free  from  ammonia,  it  having  been 
exhausted  therefrom  by  evaporation  in  the  generator  A,  greedily  absorbs 
or  takes  up  the  ammonia  gas  or  vapour  injected  into  it  from  the  tube  L. 

The  absorber  D  is  fitted  with  a  worm  D1  which  receives  cooling 
water  from  the  supply  tank  F,  and  the  water  from  the  generator  A, 
which  is  brought  by  the  pipe  o,  is  first  passed  through  the  coolers  P,  P1, 
before  delivery  into  the  absorber  D,  and  is  thereby  cooled  so  as  to  fit 
it  to  absorb  the  ammonia  gas  or  vapour  in  the  absorber  D  more  freely. 

The  transference  of  the  water  from  the  bottom  of  the  generator  A 
to  the  absorber  D  is  effected  by  the  pressure  in  the  former,  whenever 
the  stop- cock  or  valve  o1  in  the  pipe  o  is  opened.  The  pipe  o  is 
carried  in  a  double  coil  through  the  cooler  P,  which  consists  of  two 
concentric  cylinders,  and  in  a  single  coil  through  the  cooler  P1,  dis- 
charging through  a  sieve,  strainer,  or  perforated  tray,  in  a  fine  shower 
into  the  absorber  D.  The  strong  ammoniacal  solution  from  the 
absorber  D,  which  is  considerably  reduced  in  temperature,  is  passed 
through  the  spaces  round  the  coils  of  pipe  o  in  the  cooler  p,  and 
whilst  reducing  the  temperature  of  the  hot  exhausted  solution  or 
water  from  the  bottom  of  the  generator  A  on  its  way  to  the  absorber  D, 
is  itself  raised  several  degrees  before  being  returned  to  the  generator, 
to  the  mutual  advantage  of  both.  The  coil  of  pipe  o,  in  the  second 
cooler  p1,  is  water  cooled  from  the  supply  tank  F. 

The  saturated  solution  from  the  absorber  D  is  drawn  off  by  the 
force  pump  M  (which  is  driven  by  a  steam  engine  or  other  motor), 
through  the  pipe  R,  and  is  delivered  thereby  to  the  space  round  the 
coil  in  the  cooler  p,  passing  from  the  cooler,  through  the  pipe  T,  to 
the  dome  on  the  upper  part  of  the  generator  A,  where  it  falls  upon,  and 
trickles  downward  through,  a  series  of  perforated  strainers  or  trays, 
whilst  the  ascending  ammoniacal  gas  or  vapour,  on  the  other  hand, 
12 


178       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

takes  a  sinuous  upward  course,  alternately  passing  round  the  edge  of 
one  of  the  trays,  and  through  a  central  hole  or  aperture  provided  in 
the  next,  and  so  on  to  the  gas  or  vapour  pipe  E  ;  any  aqueous  vapour, 
which  might  otherwise  be  carried  off  with  the  ammoniacal  gas  or  vapour, 
being  thus  condensed  and  returned  to  the  generator. 

The  constant  pressure  maintained  in  the  generator  A  is,  as  already 
mentioned,  about  150  Ibs.  per  square  inch,  and  to  prevent  this  pressure 
from  being  exceeded  a  safety  valve  is  provided  on  the  dome  of  the 
generator.  And  gas  that  escapes  through  this  safety  valve  is  led 
through  a  suitable  pipe  to  a  small  water  tank,  where  it  is  absorbed. 

As  will  be  seen  from  the  above  description,  the  operation  is, 
shortly,  as  follows  : — 

The  aqua  ammonia  is  first  introduced  into  the  generator  A,  the  gas 
or  vapour  expelled  therefrom  by  heat  into  the  condenser  B;  and  so 
that  the  process  may  be  carried  out  continuously  and  not  be  arrested 
by  the  exhaustion  of  the  solution,  the  exhausted  or  impoverished  liquor 
is  slowly  drawn  off  at  the  bottom  of  the  generator,  an  equal  volume  of 
fresh  strong  solution  being  constantly  inserted  at  the  top  thereof.  The 
united  effects  of  the  cooling  and  pressure  produce  liquefaction  of  the 
ammoniacal  gas  or  vapour  in  the  condenser,  and  the  liquid  ammonia 
passes  to  the  refrigerator.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  ammoniacal  gas 
or  vapour  from  the  tubes  of  the  refrigerator  is  re-absorbed,  and  a 
rich  solution  is  formed  to  feed  the  generator,  the  absorbing  water  used 
being  that  withdrawn  exhausted  from  the  latter.  Thus  the  generator 
and  the  condenser  will  keep  up  a  continuous  supply  of  the  liquid,  and 
the  refrigerator  will  continue  to  freeze  successive  charges  of  water  in 
the  ice  cans  or  cases,  provided,  however,  that  the  requisite  heat  to 
vaporise  or  gasify  the  ammonia  is  supplied  to  the  generator.  If,  there- 
fore, the  entire  apparatus  be  perfectly  fluid-tight,  as  it  is  theoretically 
supposed  to  be,  no  escape  could  take  place  by  leakage  or  otherwise, 
and  the  same  materials  would  go  on  indefinitely  producing  the  same 
uniform  effect. 

In  starting  a  machine  constructed  on  the  absorption  principle  it 
must  be  first  blown  through  to  expel  all  the  air.  In  Carre's  apparatus 
the  air  escaping  from  the  absorber  is  conducted  by  a  suitable  pipe  into 
what  is  known  as  a  purger,  where  it  is  passed  below  the  surface  of 
water  to  absorb  or  retain  any  ammonia  that  would  otherwise  escape 
with  the  air. 

A  large  amount  of  water  is  required  for  cooling  purposes  in  the 
condenser  or  liquefier,  and  absorber,  and  a  considerable  consumption 
of  fuel  is  also  necessary  to  heat  the  generator,  when  this  is  performed 


THE   ABSORPTION    PROCESS   OR   SYSTEM.       179 

directly  by  means  of  a  furnace,  as  above  described ;  when,  however, 
this  is  effected  by  steam-heated  pipes,  as  in  Stanley's  1875  patent,  or, 
as  will  be  described  later  on,  by  coils  of  pipe  heated  by  the  exhaust 
steam  from  an  engine,  or  even  by  direct  or  live  steam  from  a  boiler, 
there  is  a  considerable  saving  on  this  head.  Steam  or  other  motive 
power  is  likewise  required  for  driving  the  force  pump. 

It  is  claimed  by  Mr  Carre  that  for  each  pound  of  coal  consumed 
as  fuel,  from  8  to  12  Ibs.  of  ice  can  be  produced,  in  accordance  with 
the  size  of  the  apparatus.  For  working  the  larger  form  of  machine, 
capable  of  making  500  Ibs.  of  ice  per  hour,  two  men  are  required ;  the 
force  pump  is  capable  of  forcing  220  gals,  of  liquid  per  hour  into 
the  generator,  and  during  the  same  time  100  Ibs.  of  pure  ammonia  is 
liberated  from  solution,  liquefied,  evaporated,  and  re-dissolved  or  re- 
absorbed. 

Rees  Reece's  chief  improvement  is  founded  on  the  fact  that  two 
vapours  having  different  boiling  points,  when  united,  can  be  recovered 
by  fractional  condensation,  and  by  means  of  his  apparatus  a  prac- 
tically anhydrous  distillate  can  be  obtained. 

The  special  feature  in  the  invention  described  in  his  1867  patent 
is  the  method  of  obtaining  nearly  anhydrous  liquid  ammonia  by  means 
of  an  analyser,  a  rectifier,  and  a  condenser,  the  peculiar  construction 
and  arrangement  of  which  enables  a  continuous  distillation  and  rectifi- 
cation of  a  dilute  solution  of  ammonia  to  be  effected  upon  the  separa- 
tive principle.  The  ammoniacal  gas  is  reduced  by  its  own  pressure 
to  a  liquid  condition  in  the  condenser,  from  which  it  passes  into  the 
refrigerator  at  a  very  low  temperature,  quickly  abstracting  the  heat 
from  any  fluid  passed  through  the  latter. 

A  boiler  is  connected  with  an  analyser  consisting  of  a  series  of 
plates  arranged  in  the  usual  manner  within  a  strong  iron  vessel.  The 
analyser  is  connected  with  a  rectifier,  which  is  provided  with  a  series 
of  vertically  arranged  tubes  surrounded  by  cold  water,  through  which 
tubes  the  ammoniacal  fluid  passes  to  the  condenser;  or  in  an  alter- 
native arrangement  the  rectifier  is  provided  with  a  series  of  vessels 
placed  one  above  the  other  with  a  space  between  them,  the  vessels 
being  so  connected  that  a  passage  is  formed  from  end  to  end  thereof 
for  a  continuous  stream  of  cold  water.  The  condenser  is  either  fitted 
with  tubes  and  is  practically  similar  in  construction  to  the  first  arrange- 
ment of  rectifier  above  mentioned,  or  it  consists  simply  of  a  cylindrical 
or  other  suitably  shaped  iron  vessel,  of  sufficient  strength  to  resist  the 
internal  pressure  of  the  gas,  and  immersed  in  cold  water.  From  this 
condenser  the  condensed  ammonia  passes  to  a  refrigerator,  which  may 


i8o       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD    STORAGE. 

be  of  any  convenient  form  and  construction.  The  liquid  cooled  in 
the  refrigerator  parts  with  the  greater  portion  of  its  heat  to  the 
condensed  ammonia,  which  is  again  vaporised,  and  in  this  form  passes 
into  an  absorbing  vessel  which  is  kept  cool  by  water,  and  which  serves 
to  maintain  the  required  vacuum  in  the  refrigerator.  The  ammoniacal 
solution  passes  from  the  absorber  into  a  heating  vessel,  from  which  it 
is  returned  into  the  analyser.  The  latter  may,  however,  on  occasions 
be  dispensed  with,  and  the  boiler  connected  directly  with  the  rectifier. 

In  his  1870  invention  further  improvements  are  introduced,  and 
the  entire  apparatus  comprises  a  generator,  an  analyser,  a  rectifier,  a 
liquefactor,  a  receiver,  a  refrigerator,  an  absorber,  and  a  heater,  an 
engine  placed  between  the  refrigerator  and  the  absorber  being  some- 
times, moreover,  employed. 

The  first  five  of  these  vessels  form  what  may  be  called  the  distillery 
part  of  the  apparatus,  and  the  main  object  of  these  improvements  is 
likewise  to  ensure  the  more  perfect  elimination  of  liquid  ammonia  in 
an  anhydrous  condition,  or  practically  so,  from  its  aqueous  solution,  and 
in  one  continuous  uninterrupted  operation. 

The  analyser  consists  of  a  vessel  fitted  with  a  series  of  perforated 
cups  or  dishes,  a  dividing  plate,  an  overflow  pipe,  and  a  dead  plate  or 
baffle  to  prevent  the  direct  passage  of  the  steam  through  the  cylinder. 
The  absorber  comprises  a  series  of  pipes  arranged  together  within  a 
tank  or  cistern. 

The  ammoniacal  gas  eliminated  from  its  solution  in  water  by  the 
action  of  the  generator,  analyser,  and  rectifier,  passes  onwards  to  the 
liquefactor  or  liquefier,  wherein  by  its  own  pressure  it  is  reduced  to 
a  liquid,  and  is  collected  in  the  receiver;  the  liquid  ammonia  so 
obtained  being  practically  anhydrous.  This  anhydrous  ammonia  is 
then  passed  into  the  refrigerator,  in  which  is  placed  a  coil  of  pipe,  any 
liquid  passing  through  which  will  be  cooled  by  the  evaporation  of 
the  liquid  ammonia  surrounding  it. 

The  refrigerator  is  connected  through  a  stop-cock  or  valve  to 
another  coil  contained  or  enclosed  in  an  iron  pipe,  which  coil  extends 
to  the  absorber  vessel,  the  latter  being  connected  to  the  coil  of  piping 
contained  in  the  refrigerator.  The  object  of  this  second  vessel  and 
coil  is  to  effect  an  interchange  of  temperature  with  the  gas. 

During  its  further  onward  passage  to  the  absorber  the  ammoniacal 
gas  comes  in  contact  with  the  spent  or  exhaust  liquor  of  the  distilling 
apparatus  in  which  it  dissolves,  yielding  back  the  original  quantity 
of  the  ammonia  solution,  to  be  used  over  again  repeatedly  without 
any  appreciable  loss  or  waste.  This  solution  of  ammonia  is  forced  by 


THE   ABSORPTION   PROCESS   OR   SYSTEM.       181 

a  pump  into  the  top  of  the  analyser,  wherein  the  ammonia  is  separated 
from  the  water,  and  passes  to  the  condenser  to  be  liquefied,  whilst,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  exhausted  liquor  goes  to  the  generator,  and  from 
thence  into  the  temperature  exchanger  or  heater,  and  on  to  the  absorber. 

The  tension  or  elastic  force  possessed  by  the  gas  as  it  passes  from 
the  refrigerator  to  the  absorber,  especially  when  employed  for  cooling 
water,  admits  of  its  being  utilised  for  driving  the  pumps  of  the 
apparatus,  or  for  other  purposes. 

The  operation  of  Reece's  improved  apparatus  is  briefly  as  follows  : — 

The  charge  of  liquid  ammonia  (the  ordinary  commercial  quality  of 
a  density  of  26°  Beaume)  is  vaporised  by  the  application  of  heat,  and 
the  mixed  vapour  of  water  and  ammonia  passed  to  the  vessels  called 
the  analyser  and  the  rectifier,  wherein  the  bulk  of  the  water  is  con- 
densed at  a  comparatively  elevated  temperature,  and  is  returned  to  the 
generator.  The  ammoniacal  vapour  or  gas  is  then  passed  to  the  con- 
denser, where  it  is  treated  in  a  substantially  similar  manner  to  that 
in  Carre's  apparatus,  that  is  to  say,  it  is  caused  to  liquefy  under  the 
combined  action  of  the  condensation  effected  by  the  cooling  water 
circulating  round  the  condenser  tubes,  and  of  the  pressure  maintained 
in  the  generator.  The  liquid  ammonia  (in  this  case  practically  anhy- 
drous) is  then  used  in  the  refrigerator,  and  the  vapour  therefrom, 
whilst  still  under  considerable  tension,  is  admitted  from  the  refrigerator 
to  a  cylinder  fitted  with  a  slide  valve,  and  entry  and  exhaust  ports, 
practically  similar  to  those  of  a  high-pressure  steam  engine,  and  is 
thus  utilised  to  drive  the  force  pump  for  returning  the  strong  solution 
to  the  generator,  after  which  it  is  passed  into  the  absorber,  where  it 
meets,  and  is  taken  up  by,  the  weak  liquor  from  the  generator,  and 
the  strong  liquor  so  formed  is  forced  back  into  the  generator  by  means 
of  a  force  pump  as  before  described. 

The  temperature  exchanger  or  economiser  introduced  by  Mort  in* 
1870  provides  for  the  hot  liquor  on  its  way  from  the  generator  to  the 
absorber  giving  up  its  heat  to  the  cooler  liquid  from  the  absorber  on 
its  way  to  the  generator,  thereby  saving  the  abstraction  of  so  much 
heat  from  the  generator,  and  admitting  of  the  liquid  in  the  absorber 
being  kept  at  a  lower  temperature,  which  is  of  great  importance  to  the 
economical  working  of  the  apparatus. 

The  invention  which  Harry  Frank  Stanley  patented  in  1875  com- 
prises several  important  improvements  upon  the  foregoing,  the  chief 
of  which  are  as  follows  : — 

In  place  of  applying  fire  heat  to  the  generator,  as  had  been  hitherto 
customary,  a  coil  of  steam  pipes  is  employed  for  evaporating  the 


182       REFRIGERATION    AND    COLD    STORAGE. 

ammoniacal  vapour.  The  advantages  derived  from  this  are  that  the 
pressure  and  temperature  in  the  generator  can  be  much  more  easily 
regulated,  and,  moreover,  the  ammonia  separates  from  the  water  better 
at  a  low  heat,  and  an  even  temperature  is  found  to  be  most  essential 
to  the  efficient  working  of  the  apparatus.  The  steam-heated  evaporating 
pipes  consist  of  a  number  of  straight  pipes  connected  together  by 
bends,  giving  a  very  large  heating  surface,  and  when  the  exhaust 
steam  from  the  engine  is  employed  therein  for  heating  purposes,  a  very 
great  saving  of  fuel  is  effected. 

The  analyser  is  placed  upon  the  generator  so  as  to  economise  space 
and  save  the  connections  otherwise  necessary.  This  analyser  is  formed 
preferably  cylindrical,  and  is  fitted  with  a  series  of  dishes  or  trays 
having  passages  so  arranged  that  the  vapour  impinges  on  the  under 
sides  thereof,  and  traverses  the  vessel  without  passing  through  the 
liquid.  Each  of  the  dishes  or  trays  is  provided  with  an  overflow  pipe 
which  is  raised  above  the  level  of  the  bottom  of  the  tray,  so  as  to 
keep  some  liquid  in  the  dish,  but  always  below  the  top  of  the 
vapour  outlet.  As  the  ammonia  vapour  is  driven  off  from  the  solution 
of  ammonia  and  water,  by  the  heat  of  the  vapour  rising  from  the  tray 
below,  it  passes  through  the  vapour  outlets  into  the  rectifier  without 
going  through  the  liquor  on  the  tray  or  trays  above. 

By  this  means  a  considerable  saving  of  fuel  is  effected,  as  the 
ammonia  when  once  separated  from  the  water  on  each  tray  or  plate 
is  at  once  delivered  to  the  rectifier.  Otherwise,  were  this  not  so,  water 
has  such  a  strong  affinity  for  ammonia,  that  the  vapour  which  had 
been  separated  from  the  liquor  on  one  plate  would  quickly  become 
absorbed  again  by  the  liquor  it  had  to  pass  through  on  the  next 
plate. 

The  rectifier  is  placed  on  the  condenser,  the  two  forming  in  fact 
one  vessel,  and  the  same  condensing  water  does  duty  for  both,  the 
latter  passing  in  at  the  bottom  of  the  condenser  where  the  coldest 
water  is  wanted,  and  up  the  outside  of  the  coil  into  the  rectifier,  from 
which  it  passes  to  the  absorber.  The  ammoniacal  gas  or  vapour  passes 
from  the  analyser  into  the  top  of  the  coil  in  the  rectifier,  which  coil 
is  fitted  at  intervals  with  pockets  to  carry  off  the  water  resulting  from 
the  condensation  of  the  vapour  coming  from  the  analyser,  so  that 
immediately  any  such  condensation  occurs  the  liquor  passes  at  once 
out  of  the  coil,  and  the  ammoniacal  vapour  does  not  come  in  contact 
with  the  water  after  being  separated  from  it.  By  providing  these 
pockets  with  cocks  or  valves  suitable  adjustments  of  the  apparatus 
can  be  effected. 


THE   ABSORPTION    PROCESS   OR   SYSTEM.       183 

The  ammonia  gas  thus  passes  to  the  condenser  in  a  practically 
anhydrous  condition,  which  is  absolutely  essential  to  the  economical 
working  of  the  apparatus,  and  which  would  not  otherwise  be  the  case, 
as  if  the  gas  comes  into  contact  with  the  water  resulting  from  its 
condensation  it  would  reabsorb  a  portion  of  it. 

The  condenser  coil  is  contained  in  a  cast  or  wrought  iron  cylinder, 
and  to  simplify  the  apparatus  and  to  save  space,  the  condenser  is 
placed  upon  the  receiver,  the  latter  being  a  plain  wrought  or  cast  iron 
vessel  serving,  as  before,  to  store  the  anhydrous  ammonia  before  it 
goes  into  the  cooler  or  refrigerator ;  it  is  fitted  with  a  glass  gauge,  or 
a  float  gauge,  to  indicate  the  level  of  the  liquid  therein.  When  the 
latter  is  employed,  revolving  spindles  or  rods  working  vertically  through 
stuffing  boxes  in  the  usual  way  are  preferably  used,  as  tending  to 
minimise  friction  and  prevent  leakage. 

The  refrigerator  or  cooler  is  substantially  similar  to  that  employed 
in  the  former  arrangements,  but  is  fitted  with  a  self-closing  gauge  in 
case  of  breakage. 

The  absorber  is  constructed  of  smaller  pipes  or  tubes,  so  as  to 
enable  a  greater  number  to  be  used  than  heretofore,  and  thus  for  a 
given  content  to  secure  a  very  much  larger  surface  exposed  to  the 
action  of  the  cold  water  which  surrounds  the  tubes ;  the  latter  are 
preferably  constructed  of  wrought  iron. 

Another  saving  of  condensing  water  is  effected  by  having  a  few 
of  the  top  pipes  above  the  upper  extremity  of  the  water  cistern,  and 
letting  the  warm  water  coming  from  the  rectifier  drip  over  the  out- 
side of  the  pipes.  The  heat  due  to  the  ammoniacal  gas  being  absorbed 
by  the  weak  liquor,  which  is  given  off  from  the  inside,  is  sufficient  to 
vaporise  a  portion  of  the  water,  and  a  large  quantity  of  heat  becomes 
latent  in  the  vapour,  producing  a  refrigerating  effect. 

The  pump  employed  for  drawing  the  strong  solution  of  ammonia 
produced  in  the  absorber,  and  forcing  it  through  the  coil  of  pipe  in 
the  heater  into  the  analyser,  against  the  pressure,  is  so  constructed  that 
there  are  the  very  least  possible  clearances,  and  that  the  whole,  or 
practically  the  whole  contents,  are  discharged  at  each  stroke,  thus 
preventing  expansion  of  gas  on  the  return  stroke,  tending  to  keep  the 
suction  valves  closed.  The  pump  cocks,  valves,  and  gauges  are  pro- 
vided with  water  containers,  so  that  should  any  leakage  of  ammonia 
through  the  stuffing  box  occur,  the  water  will  absorb  it,  the  latter 
being  returned  into  the  apparatus  when  it  becomes  thoroughly  saturated. 
The  stuffing  box  cock  is  constructed  with  a  guard,  and  with  an  adjust- 
able clamp  screw,  which  holds  the  key  to  its  seat,  preventing  leakage 


1 84   REFRIGERATION  AND  COLD  STORAGE. 

from  compression  of  the  packing,  and  admitting  of  the  stuffing  box 
being  repacked  whilst  the  apparatus  is  at  work. 

To  allow  for  the  gradual  weakening  of  the  solution  of  ammonia, 
a  small  vessel  or  still  is  provided  in  connection  with  the  generator, 
wherein  the  weak  solution  from  the  latter  is  evaporated  off  at  a  low 
temperature  into  the  apparatus,  where  the  least  pressure  exists. 

In  the  invention  patented  by  William  Henry  Beck,  in  1886, 
some  still  further  improvements  in  various  details  of  construction  are 
described,  notably  in  the  arrangement  of  the  analyser  and  rectifier, 
and  the  absorber. 

In  the  first-mentioned  vessel  a  series  of  sheet  iron  or  steel  trays, 
with  or  without  perforations,  the  edges  whereof  are  drifted  or  set 
up  so  as  to  form  short  adjutages,  are  provided.  Each  alternate  one 
of  these  trays  has  a  central  opening,  and  each  intermediate  tray  an 
annular  space  left  between  its  circumference  and  the  enclosing  case 
or  cylinder.  An  inner  sheet-metal  casing  is,  moreover,  provided  in 
which  the  water-separating  trays  are  secured,  and  which,  together  with 
such  trays,  can  be  easily  removed  and  replaced  in  position ;  and  the 
mouth  of  the  vapour  outlet  pipe  is  sometimes  surrounded  by  a  finely 
perforated  wire  gauze  chamber  or  guard. 

The  absorber  is  formed  with  a  primary  absorbing  vessel,  wherein 
the  absorption  of  the  ammonia  gas  is  effected  to  an  extent  dependent 
upon  the  temperature  of  the  ordinary  cooling  or  condensing  water, 
combined  with  a  secondary  absorbing  vessel  wherein  a  further  absorp- 
tion of  the  ammonia  gas  is  effected  by  the  cooling  action  of  a  current 
of  cold  brine,  or  of  water,  cooled  to  a  temperature  below  that  of  the 
ordinary  cooling  or  condensing  water  used  in  the  primary  absorber. 

The  weak  liquor  cooler,  the  liquid  ammonia  receiver,  the  condenser, 
aud  the  rectifier  are  contained  in  a  single  open-topped  tank  provided 
with  divisions  or  partitions  so  arranged  as  to  ensure  the  passage  of 
the  cooling  or  condensing  water  successively  through  each  of  the 
compartments. 

Frederick  Noel  Mackay  and  Adolph  Gothard  Christiansen  obtained 
a  patent  for  improvements  in  ammonia  absorption  machines  in  1887,  the 
main  features  of  which  that  are  claimed  as  novel  being  as  follows,  viz. : — 

The  separation  of  the  ammoniacal  gas  from  the  liquor  in  which  it  is 
absorbed,  by  boiling  the  liquor  in  stages  within  the  same  boiler. 

An  analyser  consisting  of  a  chamber  containing  superimposed 
spirally  corrugated  plates  having  perforations  or  openings. 

The  combination  within  one  chamber  of  an  ammoniacal  liquor 
boiler  and  analyser. 


THE   ABSORPTION    PROCESS   OR   SYSTEM.       185 

A  rectifier  consisting  of  such  an  arrangement  of  a  coil  or  coils  that 
the  gas  will  take  an  upward  direction,  and  the  liquid  a  downward 
direction. 

A  condenser  wherein  the  coils  are  so  connected  that  the  gaseous 
ammonia  passes  from  coil  to  coil  in  an  upward  direction,  whilst  the 
liquid  ammonia  flows  in  a  downward  direction. 

A  multiple  coil  condenser  so  constructed  that  it  has  but  one  single 
through  way. 

A  rectifier  and  condenser  consisting  of  chambers  containing  coils, 
all  the  joints  whereof  are  situated  on  the  exterior. 

An  auxiliary  cooler  composed  of  a  chamber  fitted  with  a  coil  and 
regulator,  and  suitable  connections. 

A  vaporiser  and  refrigerator  wherein  the  brine  flows  through  a 
chamber,  whilst  the  liquid  ammonia  expands  through  small  perfora- 
tions or  apertures  into  tubes  contained  in  this  chamber. 

An  absorber  constructed  with  a  concentric  corrugated  chamber. 

Ammonia  pumps  provided  with  a  chamber  through  which  ammonia 
liquor  from  the  absorber  passes. 

An  arrangement  whereby  ammoniacal  liquor  from  the  absorber  is 
caused  to  cool  ammoniacal  liquor  from  the  boiler. 

In  Edward  Henry  Tompkins'  patent,  which  was  granted  in  the 
latter  part  of  1887,  for  improvements  in  refrigerating  apparatus  of 
the  kind  or  class  for  which  previous  letters  patent  were  granted  to 
Rees  Reece  and  William  Henry  Beck,  the  chief  novel  points  claimed 
are : — 

The  placing  of  the  generator  within  the  boiler  so  as  to  secure  the 
full  efficiency  of  the  heat  given  off  by  the  steam  generated  therein. 

The  combination  and  connection  with  the  main  gas  pipe  from  the 
generator  of  a  vessel  doing  the  triple  duty  of  heater,  rectifier,  and 
analyser ;  which  vessel  consists  of  an  iron  tank  with  an  arrangement 
of  tubes,  and  a  sealed  joint  or  joints  at  the  base  through  which  the 
gas  rises. 

An  improved  form  of  condenser,  consisting  of  an  ordinary  condenser 
of  the  multitubular  pattern,  wherein  the  tubes  are  passed  through  a 
tube  plate  and  expanded  in  the  usual  manner,  but  having  in  addition 
horizontal  partition  plates  of  metal  at  the  alternate  ends  of  the  tubes, 
whereby  the  ammonia  is  caused  to  travel  backwards  and  forwards 
along  the  alternate  layers  or  sets  of  tubes,  and  thereby  to  receive  the 
full  benefit  of  the  cold  of  the  condensing  water.  By  the  removal  of 
the  end  covers,  moreover,  each  layer  or  set  of  tubes  is  rendered  readily 
accessible  for  cleaning  or  repairs. 


1 86       REFRIGERATION   AND   COLD    STORAGE. 

A  cooler  or  refrigerator  comprising  a  system  of  horizontal  tubes 
placed  in  a  large  tank,  within  which  latter  a  solution  of  chloride  of 
calcium  is  caused  to  circulate  so  as  to  secure  an  equable  temperature 
throughout  the  entire  length  of  the  tank. 

An  absorber,  wherein  provision  is  made  for  intimately  mixing  the 
ammonia  gas  from  the  refrigerator  or  cooler  with  ammonia  liquor, 
cooled,  firstly,  by  passing  it  through  a  small  cooler,  and  secondly  by 
bringing  it  in  contact  with  a  series  of  tubes  through  which  water  is 
made  to  circulate,  thereby  effecting  a  considerable  gain  in  the  working 
of  the  apparatus. 

An  ammonia  pump  provided  with  a  stuffing  box  wherein  is  inserted 
a  hollow  steel  or  iron  ring  of  suitable  dimensions,  to  which  ring  is 
connected  a  pipe  leading  to  a  receiver  having  a  glass  gauge  to  show 
the  height  or  quantity  of  liquor  ammonia  which  has  escaped  past  the 
first  series  of  packing,  and  is  contained  therein.  From  this  receiver 
a  pipe  fitted  with  suitable  stop-cocks  or  valves  leads  to  a  small  hand- 
force  pump  or  compressor  of  the  ordinary  type,  so  that  by  opening  and 
closing  these  stop-cocks  the  escaped  liquor  can  be  withdrawn  into 
the  pump  or  compressor,  or  forced  back  into  the  generator,  as  may  be 
desired. 

The  provision  of  means  whereby  the  ammonia  liquor  from  the 
absorber  is  passed  through  a  coil  contained  in  the  compound  vessel 
doing  triple  duty  as  heater,  rectifier,  and  analyser,  and  consequently 
enters  the  generator  at  a  high  temperature,  and  the  temperature  of 
the  ammonia  gas  on  its  way  to  the  condenser  is  likewise  reduced. 
The  condensation  from  this  ammonia  gas  which  occurs  in  the  rectifier 
and  analyser  is  conveyed  back  to  the  generator  by  gravitation ;  the 
above-mentioned  compound  or  triple  vessel  being  situated  above 
the  level  of  the  generator,  and  the  pressure  in  both  vessels  being 
equal. 

A  small  cooler  wherein  the  weak  liquor  ammonia  coming  from  the 
generator  in  its  heated  condition  is  reduced  to  a  state  of  comparative 
coolness  by  contact  with  tubes  cooled  by  a  circulation  of  cold  water, 
to  which  water  may  be  added,  if  required,  waste  ice  to  increase  its 
cooling  capacity.  The  advantage  claimed  for  thus  reducing  the 
temperature  of  the  weak  ammonia  solution  is  that  its  power  of 
absorbing  the  ammonia  gas  from  the  cooler  or  refrigerator  is  thereby 
greatly  increased. 

The  patent  granted  to  Edmund  Lionel  Pontifex  in  1887,  subse- 
quently to  both  those  just  mentioned,  for  improvements  in  cooling  and 
refrigerating  machines  of  the  class  described  in  the  specification  of 


THE   ABSORPTION    PROCESS   OR   SYSTEM.       187 

former  letters  patent  granted  to  H.  F.  Stanley  in  1875,  lays  claim 
to  the  following  : — 

The  method  of  mounting  the  condenser  coils  upon  brackets  pro- 
jecting inwards  from  the  side  of  the  cistern,  and  retaining  them  in 
position  by  means  of  uprights  extending  vertically  from  these  brackets  ; 
some  of  which  uprights  are  extended  above  the  tops  of  the  condenser 
coils  for  the  purpose  of  supporting  the  rectifier  coil,  and  also  for 
carrying  a  vertically  arranged  cylinder  occupying  a  space  in  the  centre 
of  the  rectifier  coil,  and  extending  to  above  the  level  of  the  overflow 
from  the  cistern.  The  object  of  this  cylinder  is  to  ensure  that  the 
cooling  water,  that  rises  up  through  the  cistern,  should  flow  only 
through  the  annular  space  or  clearance  situated  between  the  exterior 
surface  of  the  cylinder  and  the  inner  surface  of  the  cistern,  and 
thus  cause  it  to  act  in  a  more  efficient  manner  to  cool  the  rectifier  coil 
which  is  contained  in  this  space  or  clearance. 

An  arrangement  for  ensuring  a  uniform  action  taking  place  in  all 
the  concentric  coils  of  the  condenser,  and  causing  the  liquid  coming 
therefrom  to  be  of  the  same  temperature,  consisting  in  spacing  the 
outer  coils  vertically  further  apart  than  the  inner  coils,  so  that  the 
increased  diameter  of  the  outer  coils  is  compensated  for  by  the  greater 
number  of  the  inner  coils. 

To  provide  for  the  more  perfect  regulation  of  the  admission  of  the 
anhydrous  ammonia  liquid  to  the  cooler,  which  requires  very  fine  or 
minute  adjustment,  a  stop-cock  is  provided  with  a  plug  through  which, 
in  addition  to  the  way  or  passage  which  is  usually  formed  therein, 
there  are,  at  the  sides  of  this  way  or  passage,  other  narrow  passages 
which,  when  the  stop-cock  is  partially  turned  on,  allow  of  a  small 
and  easily  regulated  quantity  of  liquid  or  fluid  being  permitted  to  pass ; 
whilst,  on  the  other  hand,  it  likewise  admits  of  a  large  volume  of  the 
liquid  being  allowed  to  pass  quickly,  whenever  the  cock  is  turned 
full  open,  as  is  sometimes  necessary  for  the  purpose  of  clearing  the 
small  passages  by  blowing  out  any  obstructions  which  may  lodge 
therein  and  tend  to  choke  them. 

The  ensurance  of  a  more  effective  absorption  of  the  gas,  by  so 
arranging  the  absorber  that  the  weak  ammonia  liquor  or  solution  is 
made  to  fall  in  the  form  of  a  shower  on  to  the  surface  of  a  tray, 
which  latter  is  provided  with  small  holes  or  perforations  arranged  in 
concentric  circles.  Through  these  holes  the  weak  ammonia  liquor 
percolates  or  drops  down  on  to  the  tops  of  the  coils  of  cooling  pipes, 
trickling  slowly  from  coil  to  coil  until  it  reaches  the  bottom  of  the 
absorber,  from  which  latter  it  is  sucked  by  the  ammonia  pump  through 


i88       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

a  pipe  fitted  at  its  inlet  end  or  extremity  with  a  perforated  strainer 
or  guard,  in  order  to  prevent  the  ammonia  pump  suction  pipe  from 
becoming  accidentally  choked  or  stopped  up  by  any  foreign  bodies. 

In  order  to  enable  the  interior  of  any  of  the  coils  of  pipe  in  the 
absorber  being  readily  cleared  of  any  deposit,  suitable  means  are 
provided  for  admitting  of  a  pump  cylinder  being  easily  attached  to  the 
outlet  of  each  of  the  coils.  This  cylinder  is  fitted  with  a  piston 
which,  by  means  of  a  piston  rod  extending  therefrom,  can  be  jerked 


Fig.  107.  -Pontifex-Wood  Improved  Continuous-Acting  Ammonia 
Absorption  Machine. 

or  moved  suddenly  and  violently  to  and  fro,  whilst  the  cooling  water 
is  flowing  through  the  coil.  The  shock  thus  caused  liberates  any  scale 
that  may  have  become  deposited  inside  the  coil,  and  this  scale  is 
carried  off  by  the  flow  of  the  condensing  or  cooling  water. 

The  Pontifex  ammonia  absorption  machine  has  been  further 
improved  by  Wood,  and  the  Pontifex-Wood  apparatus,  as  at  present 
constructed,  is  probably  as  near  to  perfection  as  can  be  attained  in 
machines  of  this  class. 


THE    ABSORPTION    PROCESS   OR   SYSTEM.       189 

Fig.  107  is  a  perspective  view,  showing  the  elevation  and  general 
arrangement  of  a  machine  of  the  Pontifex  and  Wood  type,  which  com- 
prises a  generator,  a  separator,  a  condenser,  a  refrigerator,  an  absorber, 
and  an  economiser,  all  of  which  are  fitted  with  the  latest  improvements. 

Referring  to  the  illustration,  A  is  the  generator,  B  is  the  separator, 
c  is  the  condenser,  D  is  the  refrigerator,  E  is  the  absorber,  and  G  is  the 
economiser.  H  are  the  ammonia  pumps,  the  construction  of  which  will 
be  more  clearly  understood  from  the  enlarged  views,  Figs.  108  and  109. 


'  Figs.  108  and  109. — Pontifex- Wood  Improved  Ammonia  Pump. 
Elevation  and  Vertical  Central  Section. 


The  generator  A  consists  of  a  horizontal  cast-iron  cylindrical 
vessel,  containing  a  coil  of  steam  pipe  adapted  to  be  heated  by  direct 
or  live  steam  from  the  ordinary  steam  boilers,  and  into  which  the 
charge  of  commercial  ammonia  is  inserted. 

The  separator  B,  which  is  connected  to  the  top  of  the  generator  by 
suitable  flanges,  and  arranged  vertically,  and  at  right  angles  to  the 
latter,  is  so  constructed  that  any  aqueous  vapour  that  rises  with  the 
vaporised  or  gasified  ammonia  from  the  generator  will  be  arrested  or 


190       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

trapped  by  a  suitable  arrangement  of  baffles  or  checks,  and  is  returned 
into  the  generator ;  the  practically  anhydrous  ammonia  passing 
through  a  pipe  from  the  top  of  the  separator  to  the  condenser  c. 

In  the  condenser  c,  which  consists  of  a  number  oi  coils  of  pipes 
inclosed  in  a  wrought-iron  vertical  cylinder  which  is  constantly  kept 
full  of  cold  water  in  circulation,  the  anhydrous  ammoniacal  gas  or 
vapour  is  condensed  and  liquefied  by  the  pressure  caused  by  its  own 
accumulation. 

The  liquid  ammonia,  which  leaves  the  condenser  at  a  temperature 
of  between  70°  and  80°  Fahr.,  next  passes  into  the  cooler  or  refrigerator 
D,  which  is  a  vertical  cast-iron  vessel  fitted  with  coils  of  wrought- 
iron  pipes,  through  which  a  circulation  of  water  or  brine  is  kept  running. 
In  this  cooler  or  refrigerator  the  liquid  ammonia  instantly  expands, 
and  again  takes  the  form  of  gas  or  vapour.  During  this  expansion 
its  sensible  heat  becoming  latent, "as  already  stated,  its  temperature 
is  reduced  instantly  to  from  10°  to  20°  Fahr.,  or  considerably  lower  if 
required,  and  the  water  or,  where  employed  for  ice-making,  the  brine 
is  reduced  or  cooled  down  to  any  predetermined  temperature. 

After  performing  its  cooling  office  in  the  refrigerator  D  the  ammonia 
gas  or  vapour  is  led  through  another  pipe  into  the  absorber  E,  wherein 
it  comes  into  contact  with,  and  is  taken  up  and  absorbed  by,  the  water 
from  which  it  was  first  eliminated  in  the  generator  A,  the  strong 
solution  thus  formed  being  drawn  off  by  the  ammonia  pumps  H  and 
forced  back  through  the  economise!-  or  heater  G  (wherein  its  tempera- 
ture is  raised  by  the  water  which  is  passing  from  the  generator  into 
the  absorber)  into  the  generator  A  to  be  re-evaporated. 

The  improved  ammonia  pumps,  as  shown  in  Fig.  107,  are  mounted 
in  A-shaped  frames,  and  when  employed  with  a  brine  circulation,  a 
brine  pump  is  also  attached  to  the  outside  of  one  of  the  A  frames,  and 
is  driven  by  means  of  a  disc  crank  fixed  upon  the  shaft  carrying  the 
eccentrics  for  working  the  ammonia  pumps. 

One  of  the  ammonia  pump  cylinders  is  shown  in  side  elevation 
and  vertical  central  section  in  the  enlarged  views,  Figs.  108  and  109. 
As  will  be  clearly  seen  from  the  sectional  view,  Fig.  109,  the  pump  is 
of  the  piston  type  and  double-acting. 

A  great  advantage  in  having  two  ammonia  pumps  is  that  they  can 
be  so  arranged  that,  if  necessary,  one  of  them  can  be  shut  off  for 
repairs  or  overhauling,  whilst  the  other  is  continued  in  work. 

The  method  of  working  the  Pontifex-Wood  improved  ammonia 
absorption  machine  is  as  follows  : — 

All  connections  being  properly  made,  and  the  generator  filled  or 


THE    ABSORPTION    PROCESS    OR   SYSTEM.       191 

charged  with  the  ordinary  ammoniacal  liquor  of  commerce,  up  to  the 
proper  level,  as  indicated  by  the  gauge  attached  thereto,  a  little  steam 
is  admitted  to  the  coil  of  pipes  inside  the  generator,  so  as  to  raise 
just  sufficient  pressure  of  gas  or  vapour  to  expel  all  the  air  from  the 
apparatus  through  an  escape  valve  provided  for  that  purpose  in  the 
absorber.  , 

As  soon  as  all  the  air  is  thus  expelled,  the  full  pressure  of  steam 
is  turned  on  to  the  heating  coils  in  the  generator,  and  the  ammonia 
in  the  solution,  being  extremely  volatile,  is  instantly  driven  off  in  the 
form  of  gas  or  vapour,  and  passes  up  through  the  separator,  where 
any  aqueous  vapour  is  arrested,  and  returned  to  the  top  of  the 
condenser ;  the  aqueous  portion  of  the  ammoniacal  solution  remaining 
behind  in  the  generator. 

The  condensing  water  is  admitted  at  the  bottom  of  the  condenser 
and  is  taken  off  at  the  top,  the  ammoniacal  gas  or  vapour  taking  the 
opposite  course,  and  passing  downwards  through  the  coil  of  pipe 
therein,  the  upper  portion  of  which  coil  is  provided  at  intervals  with 
traps  or  pockets,  and  is  known  as  the  rectifier.  During  its  passage 
through  this  coil  the  gas,  or  vapour,  is  reduced  in  temperature  by  the 
condensing  water,  and  any  watery  particles  that  may  have  escaped 
the  separator,  and  been  carried  over  with  .the  ammonia,  are  caught  in 
the  above-mentioned  traps  or  pockets,  and  are  immediately  passed  out 
of  the  coil  and  returned  into  the  separator,  through  the  connection 
shown  in  the  drawing.  After  passing  the  lowermost  trap  or  pocket 
the  ammoniacal  gas  or  vapour  is  quite  dry  or  anhydrous,  and  it  is  the 
practically  perfect  reduction  thereof  to  this  condition  that  constitutes 
the  chief  advantage  of  the  Pont  if  ex- Wood  improved  machine. 

The  dry  or  anhydrous  ammoniacal  gas  or  vapour  now  continues 
to  descend  the  coil  in  the  condenser,  until,  by  reason  of  its  accumula- 
tion, it  reaches  a  pressure  at  which  it  becomes  liquefiable,  the  lique- 
faction being  greatly  forwarded  by  the  reduction  of  temperature 
effected  in  the  condenser  by  the  constant  circulation  of  the  cooling 
water.  The  apparatus  is  so  constructed  and  regulated  that,  as  the 
gas  or  vapour  becomes  liquefied,  the  product  of  liquid  anhydrous 
ammonia  passes  into  the  refrigerator,  wherein  if  vaporises  at  the 
ordinary  atmospheric  pressure  at  a  temperature  as  low  as  —  28°  Fahr., 
and  at  the  moment  it  thus  changes  its  form  it  absorbs  and  renders 
latent  a  very  large  amount  of  heat,  as  has  been  already  mentioned. 

The  water  or  other  liquid  to  be  cooled  is  passed  direct  through 
the  coil  arranged  in  the  refrigerator ;  or,  where  ice-making  is  carried 
out,  a  strong  solution  of  chloride  of  calcium  or  brine  is  passed  through 


192       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

it,  cooled  to  the  requisite  low  temperature,  and  pumped  into  the  ice- 
making  or  freezing  tanks. 

The  ammonia,  which  has  now  again  assumed  a  gaseous  form,  passes 
from  the  top  of  the  cooler  or  refrigerator  into  the  absorber,  which 
latter  is  connected  to  the  bottom  of  the  generator,  through  a  suitable 
pipe,  the  pressure  in  the  latter  forcing  a  constant  stream  of  the  water 
left  in  it  at  starting  into  the  absorber,  where  this  weak  solution  greedily 
absorbs  or  takes  up  the  gas  coming  from  the  refrigerator,  and  the 
strong  solution  thus  formed,  which  is  similar  to  that  first  placed  in 
the  generator,  is  drawn  off  by  the  ammonia  pumps. 

The  strong  rich  solution  is  then  forced  through  a  coil  of  pipe  in 
the  economiser  or  heater  into  the  top  of  the  separator,  wherein  it 
passes  down  through  a  succession  of  trays,  which  latter  are  heated  by 
the  hot  vapour  or  gas  ascending  from  the  generator,  and  the  ammonia 
is  once  more  separated  from  the  water  in  which  it  is  dissolved,  the 
solution  gradually  becoming  weaker,  until  it  finally  falls  back  into  the 
generator  almost  entirely  exhausted  of  ammonia. 

As  in  Carre's  apparatus,  the  complete  process  forms,  it  will  be 
seen,  a  continuous  closed  cycle,  the  changes  from  liquid  to  gas  and 
vice  versa  being  constantly  repeated. 

Theoretically  the  only  outlay  for  working  the  machine,  outside  the 
small  amount  of  oil  required  for  lubricating  the  moving  parts  and  the 
labour,  is  that  entailed  for  the  coal  or  other  fuel  consumed  in  raising 
steam  for  heating  purposes,  where  exhaust  or  waste  steam  is  not 
employed,  and  for  supplying  the  small  steam  engine  requisite  to  drive 
the  ammonia  pumps  ;  in  cases,  however,  where  water  has  to  be  paid 
for,  there  is  an  additional  outlay  for  the  water  that  is  used  for  con- 
densing and  other  purposes.  The  boiler  power  required,  where  direct 
or  live  steam  is  used,  varies  from  2  H.P.  in  the  smaller  machines, 
which  are  capable  of  performing  work  equal  to  the  reduction  of  225 
gals,  of  water  10°,  or  of  60,000  cub.  ft.  of  air  20°  Fahr.  per  hour, 
or  of  an  ice  equivalent  melted  per  twenty-four  hours  of  1J  tons;  up 
to  15  H.P.  in  the  larger  sizes  adapted  to  so  treat  8,000  gals,  of 
water,  or  1,900,000  cub.  ft.  of  air,  or  of  an  ice  equivalent  in  tons 
melted  per  twenty-four  hours  of  50  tons.  In  like  manner  the  indicated 
horse-power  that  is  necessary  for  driving  the  ammonia  pumps  will  run 
from  one,  in  the  small  machines,  up  to  six  in  the  larger  sizes;  and 
the  amount  of  condensing  water  at  50°  Fahr.  from  100  to  3,000  gals, 
per  hour. 

In  practice  a  certain  amount  of  the  ammonia  is  always  unavoidably 
lost  by  leakage,  even  under  the  most  favourable  circumstances.  The 


THE    ABSORPTION    PROCESS    OR   SYSTEM.       193 

amount  of  ammonia  that  thus  goes  to  waste  and  has  to  be  replaced 
depends  chiefly  upon  the  care  taken  in  packing  the  ammonia  pumps, 
but  under  average  conditions  it  usually  varies  from  240  to  400  Ibs.  per 
annum.  The  price  of  the  ordinary  commercial  liquor  ammonia  used 
in  the  machine  is  from  3d.  to  4d.  per  Ib.  In  some  exceptional  cases, 
however,  machines  have  run  in  a  satisfactory  manner  for  two  or  three 
years  without  any  additions  of  ammonia  having  been  made. 

Other  refrigerating  machines  acting  on  the  above  principle,  of 
which  mention  may  be  made,  are  those  of  Hill,  Seeley,  and  another 
one  of  French  origin. 

A  number  of  British  patents  have  been  obtained  by  Frederick 
Barker  Hill,  both  singly  and  in  combination  with  others,  for  improve- 
ments in  ice-making  and  refrigerating  machinery.  No.  3,427  of  1876, 
Nishigawa  and  Hill;  No.  6,808  of  1885,  Hill  and  Gorman;  and  No. 
15,914  of  1886,  Hill  and  Gorman,  claim  certain  improvements  in 
absorption  machines,  the  latter  patent  comprising  mainly  improved 
means  for  heating  the  ammonia  boiler  and  for  the  formation  of  cold 
stores  for  refrigerating  purposes.  Hill,  No.  13,487  of  1887,  describes 
a  refrigerating  machine  with  mercurial  pump,  wherein  mercury  is 
employed  for  drawing  air  or  other  gas  or  vapour  into  and  discharging 
it  from  one  or  more  chambers.  It  is  stated  that  the  mercury  acts  as  a 
seal  to  close  the  aperture  of  the  suction  pipe,  and  that,  consequently, 
Ihe  use  of  a  suction  valve  can  be  dispensed  with.  This  pump  may  be 
adapted  for  use  with  an  apparatus  such  as  described  in  the  previously 
mentioned  patent. 

No.  17,071  of  1888,  Hill  and  Sinclair,  contains  a  description  of  a 
refrigerator  or  ice-making  machine  mounted  upon  road  or  travelling 
wheels,  and  provided  with  suitable  means  whereby  motion  may  be 
transmitted  to  its  driving  shaft  from  one  of  the  wheels  during  trans- 
port. 

No.  20.811  of  1889,  Hill  and  Sinclair,  contains  certain  improve- 
ments in  the  absorption  machine  described  in  No.  15,914  of  1886. 
The  ammonia  boiler  or  still  is  formed  in  this  case  of  two  horizontal 
tubes  connected  by  suitable  pipes  which  extend  longitudinally  within 
the  tubes.  The  horizontal  parts  of  the  pipes  are  perforated  at  their 
upper  sides  to  ensure  uniformity  in  the  action  of  the  apparatus.  In 
combination  with  the  refrigerating  apparatus  are  employed  two  slabs 
or  tables  formed  of  metal  or  other  suitable  material  of  good  thermal 
conductivity,  beneath  which  circulates  brine  or  other  non-congealable 
liquid  for  conveying  the  cold  from  the  refrigerating  tubes  or  chambers 
to  the  slabs  or  tables.  These  cold  slabs  or  tables  are  adapted  for  facili- 


194       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

tating  and  expediting  the  manufacture  of  chocolate,  confectionery, 
pastry,  and  other  substances  which  are  formed  in  moulds,  and  which 
can  be  manipulated  upon  the  slabs  or  tables. 

Hill,  No.  16,253  of  1889,  describes  an  improved  refrigerating  and 
ice-making  machine,  adapted  to  work  on  the  intermittent  ammonia- 
absorption  process.  The  main  features  of  the  invention  consist  in  the 
production  of  cold  by  this  method,  wherein  impoverished  ammoniacal 
liquor  from  the  ammonia  boiler  is  caused  to  pass  into  one  or  more 
supplementary  or  auxiliary  absorbers,  in  which  the  ammoniacal  gas  is 
subsequently  absorbed,  and  from  which  the  liquor,  together  with  the 
gas  absorbed  thereby,  is  then  returned  to  the  ammonia  boiler. 

In  ammonia-absorption  refrigerating  and  ice-making  machines  as 
constructed  before  the  date  of  this  invention,  it  was  necessary,  after 
the  distillation  of  the  ammonia,  to  reduce  the  temperature  of  the  liquid 
in  the  boiler  until  the  pressure  became  sufficiently  diminished  to  permit 
the  vaporisation  of  the  liquid  ammonia  in  the  refrigerator,  and  until 
the  liquid  in  the  boiler  was  sufficiently  cool  to  permit  the  absorption 
of  the  ammoniacal  gas  thereby.  This  cooling  of  the  liquid  necessarily 
occupied  a  considerable  space  of  time.  Besides,  in  many  of  these  re- 
frigerating and  ice-making  machines  the  absorption  of  the  ammoniacal 
gas  took  place  only  at  the  surface  of  the  liquid  in  the  boiler,  and  was 
necessarily  a  slow  process,  the  liquid  being  of  higher  temperature  at 
the  surface  than  at  any  other  part  thereof,  and  having  its  temperature 
raised  at  the  surface  by  the  condensation  of  the  gas. 

The  inventor  claims  to  have  discovered  that,  by  employing  one  or 
more  separate  or  auxiliary  absorbers,  which  can  be  put  in  communica- 
tion with  the  boiler,  the  cooler  or  condenser,  and  the  refrigerator  as 
required,  and  in  which  the  ammoniacal  gas  can  ascend  through  a  body 
of  liquid,  he  can  very  rapidly  diminish  the  pressure  in  the  ammonia 
boiler  by  absorbing  the  gas  from  the  boiler,  the  rectifier,  and  the  con- 
denser in  the  absorber  or  absorbers ;  and  is  enabled  to  effect  the 
absorption  of  the  ammoniacal  gas  from  the  refrigerator,  either  in  the 
supplementary  or  auxiliary  absorber  or  absorbers  or  in  the  boiler, 
immediately  or  very  soon  after  the  distillation,  thus  greatly  expediting 
the  production  of  cold  by  the  machine. 

Fig.  110  is  a  front  view  partly  in  section,  and  Fig.  Ill  is  an  end 
view  of  Hill's  refrigerating  apparatus  provided  with  a  supplementary 
or  auxiliary  absorber. 

A  indicates  the  ammonia  boiler,  B  the  separator  or  rectifier,  c  the 
cooler^or  condenser,  and  D  the  refrigerator.  E  is  the  supplementary  or 
auxiliary  absorber,  which  is  connected  with  the  boiler  A,  the  condenser 


THE   ABSORPTION    PROCESS   OR   SYSTEM.       195 

c,  and  the  refrigerator  D  by  pipes  p,  r1,  F2,  P3,  fitted  with  stop-cocks  or 
valves  G,  G1,  G2,  G3.  By  the  manipulation  of  these  cocks  as  may  be 
required,  the  impoverished  ammoniacal  liquor  from  the  boiler  may  be 
introduced  into  the  absorber  E  after  the  distillation  of  the  ammonia, 
and  the  liquid  charged  with  gas  by  absorption  may  be  caused  to  return 
from  the  absorber  to  the  boiler.  Thus  when  the  liquid  anhydrous 
ammonia  has  been  collected  in  the  refrigerator  D,  the  cocks  G2,  G3,  are 
closed  and  the  cocks  G,  G1  partly  opened,  so  as  to  admit  of  the  weak  or 
impoverished  solution  from  the  boiler  A,  or  a  sufficient  portion  of  it, 
being  forced  into  the  absorber  E  ;  the  cock  or  valve  G1  is  then  closed, 


I 

r 

t 

a 

Figs.  110  and  111. — Hill's  Ammonia  Absorption  Machine  with  Supplementary  or 
Auxiliary  Absorber.     Diagrams  showing  Front  and  End  Views. 

and  the  cock  G2  is  opened  to  rapidly  relieve  the  pressure  in  the  con- 
denser, rectifier,  and  boiler,  by  allowing  the  gas  therefrom  to  become 
absorbed  by  the  weak  solution  in  the  absorber  E.  As  soon  as  the 
solution  in  the  boiler  is  sufficiently  cooled  to  permit  reabsorption  of 
the  gas  thereby,  the  boiler  is  placed  in  communication  with  the 
refrigerator  by  opening  the  cocks  or  valves  G1,  G3.  The  ammonia 
solution  from  the  absorber  E  will  be  returned  by  gravity  or  in  any 
other  convenient  manner  into  the  ammonia  boiler  A,  through  the 
cocks  G,  G1,  when  required. 

Instead  of  placing  the  refrigerator  D  in  communication  with  the 
boiler  A,  it  may  be  so  connected  with  the  supplementary  or  auxiliary 


196       REFRIGERATION    AND    COLD   STORAGE. 

absorber  E,  thereby  permitting  the  vaporisation  of  liquid  ammonia  in 
the  refrigerator,  and  the  absorption  of  the  ammoniacal  gas  by  the 
impoverished  ammoniacal  liquor  previously  introduced  into  the 
absorber  E  from  the  ammonia  boiler.  While  the  vaporisation  of  the 
ammonia  in  the  refrigerator  is  thus  proceeding,  the  weak  solution  in 
the  ammonia  boiler  may  be  cooled,  after  which  the  refrigerator  may  be 
put  into  communication  with  the  ammonia  boiler. 

In  Fig.  112  is  shown  a  complete  machine  constructed  on  the  fore- 
going principle.  L  is  a  coil  boiler  for  heating  the  solution  in  the 
ammonia  boiler  A,  with  which  the  coil  boiler  is  connected  through 
the  medium  of  a  separator  M. 

The  type  of  absorption  machine  made  by  the  Henry  Vogt  Machine 


Fig.  112. — Hill's  Ammonia  Absorption  Machine,  with  Supplementary  or 
Auxiliary  Absorber.     Diagrammatical  View  of  Complete  Machine. 

Co.,  of  Louisville,  Ky.,  U.S.A.,  has  no  round  coils  and  bent  pipes. 
The  generator  operates  on  the  fractional  distillation  principle,  and  is 
claimed  to  produce  practically  anhydrous  ammonia.  It  consists  of  a 
main  casting  divided  into  four  compartments  communicating  the  one 
with  the  other,  and  four  horizontal  pipes  connected  to  the  main  casting, 
which  contain  the  steam  heating  coils.  The  highest  compartment  of 
the  main  casting  is  connected  to  a  stand-pipe  containing  an  analyser 
and  rectifying  coil  by  which  the  gas  is  dried  before  it  leaves  the  still. 
The  strong  liquor  is  passed  in  at  the  top  of  the  stand-pipe,  and 
descending  through  the  rectifying  coils  and  the  analyser  reaches  the 
upper  compartment  of  the  main  casting,  from  which  it  flows  over  the 
steam  coil  in  the  horizontal  pipes,  passing  from  one  to  the  other  until 


THE   ABSORPTION   PROCESS   OR   SYSTEM.       197 

the  lowermost  compartment  is  reached.  The  gas  that  is  generated  is 
delivered  through  the  aperture  in  each  compartment  to  the  stand- 
pipes,  where  it  deposits  its  moisture,  and  the  dried  gas  goes  on  to  the 
condenser. 

The  heat  exchanger  or  economiser  consists  of  an  arrangement  of 
straight  concentric  tubes,  the  outermost  of  which  are  connected  at  their 
alternate  extremities  by  H -shaped  pieces,  and  the  inner  ones  being 
coupled  together  by  external  bends  also  acting  as  glands  to  the  joint- 
ing. The  strong  ammonia  liquor  enters  the  heat  exchanger  at  the 
bottom  on  its  passage  to  the  still  or  generator,  and  is  delivered  out  at 
the  top.  The  weak  liquor  from  the  still  or  generator  on  the  other 
hand  enters  the  heat  exchanger  at  the  top,  and  leaves  it  at  the  bottom. 

A  double-acting  horizontal  fly-wheel  pattern  pump,  running  at  a 
speed  of  twenty-five  revolutions  per  minute,  is  employed,  the  special 
feature  of  which  is  the  construction  of  the  ammonia  stuffing  box  with  a 
surrounding  water  chamber,  which  acts  as  a  lubricator  to  the  piston 
rod. 

The  absorber  is  constructed  in  the  form  of  an  upright  tubular 
boiler  open  at  the  top,  the  tubes  being  uniformly  distributed,  and  so 
arranged  that  they  can  be  cleaned  whilst  the  machine  is  running.  The 
cooling  water  is  admitted  at  the  bottom,  and  passes  out  at  the  top, 
an  automatic  regulator  controlling  or  governing  the  flow. 

The  type  of  absorption  machine  made  by  the  Ice  and  Cold  Machine 
Co.,  of  St  Louis,  Mo.,  U.S.A.,  is  a  modification  of  the  Carre  apparatus 
by  Mr  Ball.  The  generator  is  constructed  of  steel  and  is  of  a  vertical 
cylindrical  form,  having  a  removable  top  head,  steam  heated,  and  with 
drying  trays  or  pans  arranged  in  the  gas  dome.  An  open-air  or  a 
submerged  type  of  condenser  is  employed  in  accordance  with  the 
water  supply.  The  heat  exchanger  or  equaliser  is  a  cylinder  fitted 
with  removable  heads  containing  tubes.  From  the  shell  of  this  heat 
exchanger  the  poor  liquor  passes  to  the  coils  of  the  poor  liquor  cooler, 
which  is  also  either  of  the  submerged  or  open-air  surface  evaporative 
type,  and  thence  to  the  absorber. 

The  gas  liquefied  in  the  condenser  tubes  passes  through  the  expan- 
sion valves  to  the  expansion  or  evaporating  coils  in  the  freezing  tank, 
and  it  returns  from  thence  to  the  absorber. 

This  latter  apparatus  is  a  cylindrical-shaped  vessel  fitted  with 
vertical  tubes,  up  through  which  the  water  passes,  removing  the  heat 
from  the  ammonia. 

The  ammonia  is  raised  by  two  single-acting  vertical  pumps  driven 
by  a  vertical  steam  engine,  to  which  they  are  directly  coupled.  These 


198       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD    STORAGE. 

pumps  lift  the  enriched  ammonia  from  the  absorber  through  the 
exchanger  tubes  into  the  top  of  the  generator,  and  thus  complete  the 
cycle. 

To  dry  the  gas  and  separate  any  moisture  therefrom  the  air-blast 
is  maintained  at  a  temperature  of  14°  below  zero  Fahr.,  and  the 
temperature  of  the  ice-making  box  or  tank  is  from  zero  to  2°  Fahr. 


Fig.  113. — Tyler  &  Ellis'  (Cracknell's  Patent)  Ammonia  Absorption 
Machine.     Front  View. 

Fig.  113  is  a  front  view,  Fig.  114  is  a  side  view,  and  Fig.  115  is 
a  vertical  longitudinal  central  section  through  either  side  of  Fig.  113, 
showing  Cracknell's  patent  ammonia  absorption  machine,  formerly  made 
by  the  Tyler  &  Ellis  Mfg.  Co.,  Ltd.,  subsequently  by  Ransome  &  Rapier. 
Ipswich,  and  known  as  the  "  Simplex."  The  machine  consists  essen- 
tially of  two  vessels  (A  and  B),  one  of  which  vessels  (say  B)  contains  strong 
anhydrous  ammonia  liquor,  and  is  heated  by  a  steam  coil,  whilst  the 


THE   ABSORPTION    PROCESS   OR   SYSTEM.       199 


Fig.  114.— Tyler  &  Ellis'  (CracknelFs  Patent)  Ammonia  Absorption 
Machine.     Side  Elevation. 

other  vessel  A  is  filled  with  the  spent  liquor  from  the  last  operation, 
and  is  cooled  by  a  water  coil.  Ammonia  is  given  off  in  B  under 
considerable  pressure,  and  passes  through  the  valve  to  the  condenser, 
where,  becoming  cool,  it  condenses  or  liquefies,  and  passes  to  the 
expansion  valve  as  liquid  anhydrous  ammonia.  After  getting  by  the 


Fig.  115. — Tyler  &  Ellis'  (Cracknell's  Patent)  Ammonia  Absorption  Machine. 
Vertical  Longitudinal  Central  Section. 


200      REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

expansion  valve,  which  latter  is  regulated  to  pass  the  liquid  according 
to  the  amount  of  heat  to  be  abstracted,  or  cooling  to  be  performed, 
the  pressure  disappears,  and  the  liquid  ammonia  rapidly  evaporates  as 
it  traverses  the  succeeding  pipes  and  coils,  producing  a  large  volume 
of  gas  of  an  intense  cold.  After  traversing  the  cooling  coils  in  the 
evaporator  or  refrigerator  the  gas  returns  to  the  machine  through 
another  valve,  where  it  meets  the  weak  liquor  in  the  vessel  A,  and  is 
absorbed  by  it.  This  process  continues  until  the  charge  in  B  becomes 
spent,  and  that  in  A  concentrated,  when  the  valves  I  and  N  must  be 
closed,  the  valves  L  and  K  opened,  the  reversing  handle  T  turned 
towards  D,  and  upon  the  equalising  of  the  pressure  on  the  two  gauges 


Fig.  116. — Lyon's  Patent  Ammonia  Absorption  Machine.     Plan. 

the  valves  L  and  K  should  be  closed,  the  valve  J  opened,  and,  as  soon 
as  the  pressure  falls  below  30  Ibs.  on  the  pressure  gauge  on  A,  the  valve 
M  should  be  also  opened.  The  effect 'of  this  will  be  to  exactly  reverse 
the  order  of  things,  A  then  becoming  the  high  pressure  or  hot  side,  and 
B  the  low  pressure  or  cool  side.  Each  of  these  operations  will  average 
about  an  hour. 

Fig.  116  is  a  plan,  Fig.  117  is  front  view,  and  Fig.  118  is  a  vertical 
longitudinal  section  illustrating  a  small  refrigerating  machine,  on  the 
absorption  system,  designed  by  Mr  Lyon,  of  Glasgow.  The  illustra- 
tions, as  well  as  the  following  description,  are  taken  from  his  patent 
specification. 

G  is  the  generator,  and  A  is  the  absorber,  both  of  which  are  hori- 


THE   ABSORPTION    PROCESS   OR   SYSTEM.       201 

zontally  placed  cylindrical  vessels,  the  absorber  being  located  at  a 
higher  level  than  the  generator.  Heat  is  applied  in  the  generator  G, 
through  a  pipe  s,  through  which  steam  is  passed,  or  an  electric  heater 
or  other  known  heating  appliance  may  be  used ;  and  the  vessel  is 
encased  in  a  shell  packed  with  a  material  H  which  is  a  bad  conductor 
of  heat.  The  upper  part  of  the  generator  G  is  connected  by  a  pipe  B 
to  the  lower  part  of  a  vessel  E,  termed  a  rectifier,  which  is  kept  at 


Fig.  117. — Lyon's  Patent  Ammonia  Absorption  Machine.     Front  Elevation. 

a  moderate  temperature  by  a  water  jacket  J,  and  in  which  ammonia 
vapour  entering  it  from  the  generator  G  separates  from  traces  of  water 
which  return  to  the  generator.  From  the  rectifier  R  the  ammonia 
vapour  passes  through  a  pipe  D  to  a  worm  or  other  condenser  c,  in  which 
it  is  acted  on  by  cold  water  so  as  to  become  cooled  and  liquefied. 

The  ammonia  thus  condensed  and  liquefied  is  employed  in  the 
ordinary  way  so  as  by  its  expansion  in  tubing  T,  indicated  by  dotted 
lines,  immersed  in  brine  in  a  tank  u,  to  produce  refrigeration,  the 


202       REFRIGERATION    AND    COLD   STORAGE. 

ammonia  proceeding  from  the  condenser  c  by  a  pipe  v,  having  on  it 
a  regulating  or  expansion  valve  w  to  the  expansion  tubing  T.  From 
the  expansion  tubing  the  ammonia  vapour  passes  by  a  pipe  x  into  the 
absorber  A,  which  is  provided  with  an  internal  pipe  coil  Y,  and  with 
an  external  jacket  z,  through  which  cold  water  is  passed. 

On  starting  the  machine  the  absorber  A  will  be  partly  filled  with 
water  or  with  a  weak  solution  of  ammonia,  there  being  then  in  the 
generator  G  a  strong  solution  of  ammonia.  During  the  operation  the 
solution  in  the  generator  G  becomes  weakened  because  of  the  evapora- 
tion of  the  ammonia,  whilst  that  in  the  absorber  A  becomes  strengthened 
by  absorbing  ammonia  vapour  from  the  expansion  tubes  T  ;  and  when 


Fig.  118. — Lyon's  Patent  Ammonia  Absorption  Machine.     Vertical 
Longitudinal  Section. 

the  operation  has  been  continued  as  long  as  is  desirable,  the  strong 
solution  in  the  absorber  is  run  through  a  stop-cock  E  and  pipe  F  into 
an  intermediate  vessel  I.  Then  there  is  opened  a  stop-cock  K  on  a 
pipe  L,  which  extends  from  the  absorber  A  down  to  the  lower  part  of 
the  generator  G,  whereupon,  owing  to  the  excess  of  the  pressure  in  the 
generator  over  that  in  the  absorber,  the  weak  solution  in  the  former 
is  transferred  to  the  latter.  Finally  a  stop-cock  M  in  a  pipe  N,  con- 
necting the  intermediate  vessel  i  with  the  generator,  is  opened,  and  the 
strong  solution  is  run  into  the  generator  ready  for  a  fresh  operation. 

For  the  purpose  of  equalising  the  pressure,  the  intermediate  vessel 
i  has  connected  to  it  a  pipe  a,  with  branches  b,  c,  connected  to  the 
absorber  A  and  to  the  generator  G,  the  branches  having  stop-valves  d,  e. 


THE   ABSORPTION    PROCESS   OR   SYSTEM.       203 

Thus  when  the  solution  is  being  transferred  from  the  absorber  A  to  the 
intermediate  vessel  i  the  upper  valve  d  is  opened,  the  lower  one  e 
being  closed,  and  when  the  solution  is  being  transferred  from  the 
intermediate  vessel  i  to  the  generator  c,  the  upper  valve  d  is  closed, 
and  the  lower  one  e  opened. 

An  ammonia  absorption  machine  designed  by  Mr  C.  Senssenbrenner, 
a  German  inventor,  and  shown  in  Fig.  119,  has  an  evaporator  a  com- 
municating, with  the  condenser  d  through  an  opening  e.  The  condenser 


Fig.  119.  —  Senssenbrenner 
Patent  Ammonia  Absorption 
Machine. 


Fig.   120. — Diagram  illustrating  Coleman's 
Electrically-heated  Absorption  Machine. 


is  fitted  with  a  cooling  receptacle  </,  which  has  on  its  outer  surface 
upwardly  inclined  ribs  h  for  catching  the  ammonia  which  is  liquefied. 
During  condensation,  water  is  admitted  to  the  receptacle  g  by  an 
inlet  pipe  i,  and  is  led  away  by  the  outlet  k,  but,  when  the  receptacle 
a  is  cooled  by  the  passage  of  the  water  through  the  coil  b  and  the 
pipe  i  is  removed,  water  placed  in  the  receptacle  g  is  frozen  by  the 
evaporation  of  the  ammonia.  The  receptacle  a  may  be  heated  by 
steam  or  fuel. 

Fig.  120  is  a  diagram  illustrating  a  patent  automatic  electrically 


204      REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

heated  absorption  machine  lately  designed  by  Mr  C.  J.  Coleman,  of 
Chicago,  U.S.  In  the  diagram  the  apparatus  is  shown  partly  in  vertical 
central  section,  and  A  represents  a  combined  absorption  and  generating 
chamber ;  B  an  auxiliary  absorption  chamber ;  c  the  rectifier  or  water 
separator ;  D  the  storage  or  condensing  coils  or  chamber  in  which  the 
ammonia  gas  collects  in  a  liquid  or  highly  condensed  state;  E  the 
automatic  expansion  valve  or  cock;  F  the  expansion  chamber,  or 
coils,  wherein  the  condensed  ammonia  gas  from  the  storage  chamber 
is  allowed  to  expand  so  as  to  effect  the  cooling  step  or  operation  of  the 
system. 

As  shown,  the  generator  A  is  connected  by  means  of  a  pipe  G  with 
the  water  separator  or  rectifier  c,  and  this  latter  is  in  its  turn  connected 
by  a  pipe  H  with  the  condensing  or  storage  chamber  D,  a  check  valve  i 
being  provided  in  this  pipe  connection  to  prevent  any  backflow  into 
the  rectifier  and  generator.  The  condensing  chamber  D  is  connected 
to  the  expansion  or  cooling  chamber  F  by  a  pipe  J,  in  which  latter 
is  arranged  the  expansion  valve  or  cock  E,  and  the  expansion  or 
cooling  chamber  is  in  its  turn  connected  to  the  auxiliary  absorption 
chamber  B,  by  means  of  a  pipe  K,  the  auxiliary  absorption  chamber 
being  connected  to  the  main  generator  by  a  pipe  L,  fitted  with  a 
check  valve  M,  to  prevent  any  backflow  from  the  generator  into  the 
former. 

The  rectifying  chamber  c  is  provided  with  a  partition  or  diaphragm 
N,  which  is  constructed  of  some  material  of  a  porous  nature  that  will 
allow  of  the  passage  there-through  of  a  gaseous  body  such  as  ammonia 
gas,  but  will  prevent  the  passage  of  water  or  aqueous  vapour.  For 
this  purpose  the  inventor  finds  unglazed  and  highly  vitrified  porcelain 
to  be  a  good  material,  and  a  similar  material  to  that  employed  in  the 
manufacture  of  the  ordinary  porous  battery  cups  that  has  been  treated 
with  some  antihygroscopic  material,  such  as  paraffin,  is  likewise  found 
to  be  suitable  for  the  purpose.  The  cup  or  pot- shaped  form  shown  in 
the  drawing  is  found  to  be  preferable,  as  affording  the  maximum  amount 
of  working  surface,  in  combination  with  cheapness  and  simplicity  of 
construction. 

Electricity  is  employed  for  heating  purposes,  and  o  represents  an 
electric  heater,  which  is  arranged  within  the  generator  A,  so  as  to 
raise  the  temperature  of  the  latter  to  the  desired  point.  The  operating 
circuit  of  this  electrical  heating  apparatus  includes,  in  addition  to 
a  battery,  or  some  other  source  of  electrical  energy  p,  a  switch 
mechanism  Q,  which  is  adapted  to  open  and  close  the  circuit,  and 
which  is  so  pivoted  that  it  will  have  more  or  less  friction  on  its 


THE   ABSORPTION    PROCESS    OR   SYSTEM.       205 

pivotal  bearing,  and  thus  will  have  a  tendency  to  remain  in  the 
position  to  which  it  may  be  set  or  moved,  until  such  time  as  it  is 
positively  moved  from  such  position ;  R  is  a  pressure  gauge  or  motor, 
located  in  the  pipe  connection  H,  leading  from  the  rectifier  c  to  the 
storage  tank  or  coil  D,  and  the  duty  of  which  is  to  indicate  the  pressure 
within  this  coil  or  tank,  and  also  to  impart  movement  in  unison  with 
the  pressure  in  this  latter  to  a  connecting  rod  or  link  s,  which  latter 
is  in  operative  connection  with  a  pivoted  thermostat  T  of  a  bimetallic 
formation.  These  connections  are  so  arranged  that  with  the  variations 
of  pressure  in  the  storage  tank  or  coil  D,  the  thermostat  T  will  be 
correspondingly  moved  towards  or  away  from  the  contact  point  v. 
This  operating  circuit,  which  is  controlled  by  the  thermostat,  in 
addition  to  a  battery  or  other  source  of  electrical  energy  v,  also 
includes  an  operating  electro-magnet  w,  by  which  the  switch  mechanism 
Q  is  worked,  so  as  to  break  or  open  the  circuit  of  the  heating 
apparatus  o. 

x  is  a  float  arranged  in  the  interior  of  the  generator  A,  which  float 
is  connected  with  a  pivoted  bimetallic  thermostat  Y  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  final  movement  of  the  float  in  an  upward  direction  will  move 
the  thermostat  Y  towards  the  contact  point  Y1,  and  will  thus  complete 
or  close  the  circuit.  In  this  circuit  is  also  included  a  battery  Y2,  and 
an  operating  electro-magnet  Y3,  by  which  the  switch  mechanism  Q  is. 
worked  to  close  or  complete  the  circuit  of  the  heating  apparatus.  The 
electro-magnet  z  is  adapted  to  open  the  expansion  valve  or  cock  E, 
and  the  operating  electrical  circuit  in  this  magnet,  in  addition  to  a 
battery  or  other  source  of.  electrical  energy  z1,  also  includes  a  thermostat 
z2,  which  is  within  the  influence  of  the  expansion  or  cooling  chamber  F 
of  the  system,  and  which  is  adapted  to  maintain  the  temperature 
within  the  expansion  chamber  constant. 

In  Fig.  121  is  shown  diagrammatically  the  general  arrangement  of 
a  leading  type  of  modern  American  absorption  machine.  The  con- 
struction of  this  apparatus  will  be  seen  from  the  particulars  given 
upon  the  drawing,  and  the  operation  of  a  large  modern  plant  will  be 
clearly  understood  from  the  diagram,  Fig.  122,  and  the  following 
concise  description  of  the  paths  taken  by  the  ammonia,  cooling  water, 
and  ammonia  liquor  through  various  members  of  the  system,  abstracted 
from  an  article  in  Power,  of  New  York,  by  Mr  F.  E.  Matthews. 

"  Cycle  Traversed  by  Ammonia. — This  can  be  readily  traced  by 
following  the  course  of  the  heavy  arrows  in  the  diagram.  The  circuits 
of  both  the  gaseous  and  aqueous  components  of  the  aqua  ammonia 
refrigerant,  as  well  as  that  of  the  cooling  water,  can  be  more  readily 


206      REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 


THE   ABSORPTION    PROCESS    OR   SYSTEM.       207 

followed  out  by  means  of  this  diagram,  in  which  all  mechanical  details 
have  been  omitted,  and  the  several  members  of  the  refrigerating  system 
are  represented  by  shaded  areas  occupying  approximately  the  same 
relative  positions  on  the  diagram.  The  path  of  the  ammonia  is  repre- 
sented by  a  heavy  solid  line,  that  of  the  water  component  of  the  aqua 
ammonia  refrigerant  by  a  narrow  solid  line,  and  that  of  the  cooling 
water  by  a  broken  line.  The  direction  of  travel  in  each  case  is 
indicated  by  arrows. 

"  From  this  diagram  it  will  be  seen  that,  as  '  anhydrous  ammonia,' 
the  refrigerant  starting  from  the  'anhydrous  receiver'  passes  to  the 


Strong  Liquor 

Fig.  122. — Diagram  showing  Paths  of  Ammonia,  Cooling  Water,  and  Ammonia 
Liquor  through  Various  Members  of  Absorption  System. 

'brine  cooler,'  where,  in  changing  to  the  gaseous  state,  it  performs 
its  sole  function  of  absorbing  heat  from  the  brine.  As  saturated  low- 
temperature  ammonia  vapour,  the  refrigerant  starting  from  the  brine 
cooler  passes  to  the  absorber,  where  it  enters  into  solution  or  is 
absorbed  by  the  weak  liquor  from  the  generator,  forming  strong  liquor. 
As  hot  strong  liquor  the  refrigerant,  starting  from  the  absorber,  passes 
through  the  exchanger,  where  it  gives  up  some  of  its  heat  to  the  weak 
liquor  on  its  way  to  the  absorber,  then  on  by  way  of  the  analyser 
into  the  generator,  where  the  ammonia  gas  is  driven  out  of  the  strong 
liquor  solution,  under  high  pressure,  by  the  application  of  heat,  and 


2o8       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD    STORAGE. 

passes  through  the  analyser  and  rectifier  into  the  condenser,  leaving 
the  impoverished  aqua  ammonia  or  weak  liquor  behind  in  the  generator. 

"  In  the  condenser  the  heat  originally  absorbed  by  the  anhydrous 
ammonia  in  changing  from  the  liquid  to  the  gaseous  state  in  the  brine 
cooler,  as  well  as  that  added  to  increase  its  temperature  and  drive  it 
out  of  solution  in  the  generator,  is  given  up  to  the  cooling  water, 
circulated  through  the  condenser,  causing  the  ammonia  to  return  to 
the  liquid  state,  after  which  it  flows  to  the  anhydrous  receiver,  and 
the  cycle  is  again  traversed. 

"  The  aqueous  component  of  the  aqua  ammonia  refrigerant,  starting 
from  the  bottom  of  the  absorber  in  company  with  the  ammonia  in  the 
form  of  strong  liquor,  passes  through  the  exchanger  and  analyser  into 
the  generator.  Here  it  is  separated  from  the  greater  part  of  the 
ammonia  and  returns  through  the  exchanger  and  weak-liquor  cooler 
to  the  absorber.  Here  it  again  joins  the  anhydrous  ammonia,  forming 
strong  liquor,  and  retraces  the  path  just  described. 

"Path  of  Cooling  Water. — The  cooling  water  is  admitted  first  to  the 
ammonia  condenser,  where  it  performs  its  most  important  function  of 
removing  heat  from  and  liquefying  the  ammonia  gas.  After  leaving 
the  ammonia  condenser  it  is  still  cool  enough  to  be  capable  of  absorb- 
ing a  considerable  amount  of  heat  from  the  strong  liquor  in  the 
absorber,  more  from  the  weak  liquor  fresh  from  the  generator  in  the 
weak-liquor  cooler,  and  still  more  from  the  hot  ammonia  gas  fresh 
from  the  generator  in  the  rectifier,  after  which  it  usually  passes  to 
waste. 

"Still  another  line  might  have  been  drawn  on  the  diagram  indicating 
the  path  traversed  by  the  heat  from  the  point  of  its  absorption  from 
the  brine  in  the  brine  cooler  to  that  of  its  expulsion  with  the  cooling 
water  from  the  condenser.  Such  a  line,  however,  would  coincide  with 
that  representing  the  ammonia  from  the  point  where  the  heat  and  the 
vapours  of  the  refrigerant  leave  the  brine  cooler,  continuing  to  the 
condenser,  where  it  would  cross  over  and  join  that  representing  the 
cooling  water.  It  would  then  follow  this  line  through  its  circuitous 
passage  to  the  point  where,  together  with  the  water,  the  heat  flows 
away  to  the  sewer. 

"  It  should  be  noted  that  throughout  the  entire  system  a  counter- 
current  effect  is  carried  out  between  the  cooling  and  the  cooled 
substances. 

"By  these  counter  -  current  cooling  effects,  in  which  the  coldest 
cooled  substance  gives  up  its  heat  to  the  coldest  cooling  substance, 
and  the  hottest  cooled  substance  to  the  warmest  cooling  substance, 


THE   ABSORPTION    PROCESS    OR   SYSTEM.       209 

the  outgoing  substance  is  cooled  more  nearly  to  the  temperature  of 
the  incoming  cooling  substance  than  would  otherwise  be  possible,  thus 
effecting  economy  not  only  in  the  amount  of  the  cooling  substance 
required,  but  also  in  the  operation  of  the  system  through  the  reduction 
in  the  amount  of  the  refrigerating  medium  required  for  a  given  amount 
of  cooling." 

The  novel  feature  in  Seeley's  absorption  machine  is  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  generators,  which  can  be  alternately  heated  by  means  of 
steam  coils,  and  which  are  charged  with  dry  pulverised  chloride  of 
calcium.  On  heat  being  applied  to  one  of  these  generators  the  liberated 
gas  rises,  is  passed  through  a  condenser,  expanded  and  evaporated  in  a 
refrigerator,  and  lastly  returned  to  the  second  generator,  wherein  it  is 
taken  up  or  absorbed  by  the  dry  chloride  of  calcium.  Heat  is  then 
applied  in  its  turn  to  the  second  generator,  arid  the  operation  is  reversed, 
and  so  on  ad  infinitum,  the  generators  alternately  becoming  absorbers. 

In  a  French  machine,  the  refrigerating  agent  used  is  amylic  ether, 
which  is  capable  of  dissolution  under  the  action  of  sulphuric  acid. 
The  ether  is  first  extracted  from  the  acid  under  the  action  of  heat,  is 
liquefied  under  a  considerable  pressure,  and  is  passed  into  a  suitable 
receiver  or  container,  from  which  it  can  be  admitted  by  means  of  a 
stop-cock  or  valve  to  spiral  ducts  surrounding  a  cylinder  or  vessel  con- 
taining the  water  to  be  frozen,  wherein  by  its  expansion  into  gas  it 
abstracts  the  heat,  as  already  mentioned  with  respect  to  other  machines 
of  this  class.  The  vapour  is  then  returned  to  a  vessel  containing  sul- 
phuric acid,  by  which  it  is  once  more  absorbed,  to  be  subsequently 
again  expelled  or  driven  off  therefrom  by  heat,  and  to  pass  through  the 
same  cycle  of  operations  as  before. 

Those  machines  wherein  a  refrigerating  agent  is  used,  which  con- 
sists of  a  compound  or  dual  liquid,  one  of  which  is  capable  of  liquefac- 
tion at  a  comparatively  low  pressure,  taking  the  other  or  second  one 
into  solution  by  absorption  ;  or,  in  which  the  refrigerating  agent  is 
liquefied  partly  by  absorption  and  partly  by  mechanical  compression, 
are  said  to  work  on  what  is  usually  known  as  the  binary  or  dual 
absorption  system. 

Johnson  and  Whitelaw's  machine  is  designed  for  use  with  bisul- 
phide of  carbon.  This  refrigerating  agent  is  first  vaporised,  and  with 
the  air  introduced  by  the  force-pump  is  passed  through  chambers 
charged  with  oil,  by  which  the  bulk  of  the  moisture  of  the  gas  is  taken 
up  or  absorbed,  provision  being  made  for  extracting  that  of  the  air 
by  passing  it  through  a  pipe  leading  to  the  air-pump,  which  pipe  is 
partially  filled  with  chloride  of  calcium. 
M 


210       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD    STORAGE. 

Pictet's  refrigerating  agent  consists  in  a  combination  of  carbon 
dioxide  and  sulphur  dioxide,  which  forms  a  liquid  having  a  vapour 
tension  much  less  than  that  of  carbon  dioxide,  or  even  of  sulphur 
dioxide,  at  temperatures  above  78°  Fahr.  A  cooler  or  refrigerator 
patented  by  Pictet  in  1887,  which  can  be  employed  either  with  a 
compression  or  an  absorption  machine,  has  been  already  briefly  described 
on  page  91. 

In  Nicolli  and  Mort's  machine  the  refrigerating  agent  used  is 
ammonia.  The  apparatus  consists  essentially  in  three  main  parts,  viz., 
an  evaporator,  a  pump,  and  an  absorber,  and  the  operation  is  as 
follows  : — 

The  evaporator  or  generator  is  first  charged  with  strong  ammoniacal 
liquor,  vaporisation  being  effected  by  reducing  the  pressure  through  the 
action  of  the  pump,  and  heat  being  abstracted  thereby  from  the  liquor 
to  be  cooled  in  the  usual  manner ;  the  evaporator  or  generator  thus 
performs  a  dual  office  inasmuch  as  it  also  acts  as  the  refrigerator. 

The  weak  or  exhausted  liquor  passes  out  at  the  bottom  of  the 
evaporator  and  is  conducted  through  suitable  pipes  to  the  pump,  where 
it  meets  the  ammonia  gas  or  vapour,  and,  together  with  the  latter,  is 
pumped  into  coolers,  sufficient  pressure  being  applied  to  liquefy  the 
vapour,  and  cause  a  re-dissolution  thereof ;  the  strong  solution  is  then 
returned  to  the  evaporator,  passing  on  its  way  through  an  interchanger 
wherein  its  temperature  is  reduced  by  that  of  the  cold,  exhausted,  or 
weak  liquor  also  passing  there — through  to  the  pump. 

De  Motay  and  Rossi  use  as  a  refrigerating  agent  a  mixture  of 
common  ether  and  sulphur  dioxide  or  sulphurous  acid  (SO2),  which 
compound  is  known  as  ethylo-sulphurous  dioxide.  It  was  found  by 
experiments  that,  at  ordinary  temperatures,  liquid  ether  has  the  power 
of  taking  up  or  absorbing  large  volumes  of  sulphur  dioxide,  amount- 
ing to  as  much  as  three  hundred  times  its  own  bulk,  the  tension  of 
the  vapour  given  off  from  the  dual  liquid  being  below  that  of  the 
atmosphere  at  a  temperature  of  60°  Fahr. 

The  two  liquids  are  evaporated  in  the  refrigerator  by  reducing 
the  pressure  through  the  action  of  the  air-pumps.  The  pressure  in  the 
condenser  is  at  no  time  in  excess  of  that  required  to  cause  a  liquefac- 
tion of  the  ether.  The  capacity  of  the  pump  need  not  be  so  large  as 
that  which  would  be  necessary  were  ether  employed  by  itself,  but  it  is 
necessarily  somewhat  more  than  that  demanded  for  pure  sulphur  dioxide. 

De  Motay  and  Rossi's  apparatus  is  said  to  have  given  very  good 
results  in  the  United  States,  where  it  has  been  used  for  a  number  of 
years. 


CHAPTER   X 
THE   COLD-AIE   SYSTEM 

Principles  of — Early  Machines — Modern  Patterns  of  Machines — The  Allen  Dense- 
Air  Ice  Machine— Maximum  Theoretical  Efficiency  of  Cold- Air  Machines 
— Comparative  Tests  of  Cold- Air  Machines. 

MACHINES  on  the  cold-air  system,  that  is  to  say,  which  abstract  heat 
by  first  compressing  air  or  other  gas,  cooling  same,  and  afterwards 
permitting  it  to  expand,  or  by  first  applying  heat  in  order  ultimately 
to  produce  cold,  operate  on  a  principle  which  is  one  of  the  simplest  in 
physics,  viz.,  that  the  compression  of  air  or  other  gas  generates  heat, 
and  the  subsequent  expansion  thereof  cold. 

Mechanical  work  and  heat  being  respectively  convertible,  it  follows 
that  should  a  gas  be  caused  to  perform  certain  work  on  a  piston  during 
expansion,  its  store  of  caloric  will  be  exhausted  thereby  to  a  degree 
equal  to  the  thermal  equivalent  of  the  work  done,  the  gas  after  expan- 
sion being  at  a  lower  temperature  than  it  was  before  expansion,  that 
is,  provided  always  no  heat  is  supplied  from  any  other  source  to  restore 
that  so  lost. 

Machines  of  this  kind  or  class,  although  they  have  been  used  from 
time  to  time  for  cooling  hydrocarbons  of  a  volatile  nature,  are  more 
generally  employed  with  ordinary  atmospheric  air  only,  hence  they  are 
commonly  known  as  cold-air  machines. 

There  have  been  several  notable  improvements  made  in  cold-air 
machines  during  the  last  few  years,  practically  removing  most  of  the 
old  defects,  and,  in  the  author's  opinion,  putting  them  quite  to  the 
forefront  for  the  refrigeration  of  food-stuffs,  and  the  smaller  sized 
plants  giving  results  which  have  hitherto  been  thought  impossible, 
thus  enabling  them  to  compare  favourably  for  power,  efficiency,  and 
upkeep  with  machines  using  chemical  agents.  Cole's  Patent  "Arctic" 
Cold- Air  Machine,  which  will  be  found  illustrated  and  described  in 
this  chapter,  is  of  the  most  recent  type,  and  embodies  some  important 
improvements ;  the  chief  amongst  these  being  that  all  moisture  is  auto- 
matically extracted  from  the  compressed  air  before  expansion,  thus 


212       REFRIGERATION   AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

obviating  the  difficulties  that  were  experienced  in  earlier  machines 
of  this  class  in  the  valves  becoming  clogged  with  frozen  moisture. 
Figures  are  given  on  page  244  showing  the  results  of  tests  taken  by 
the  author  from  the  "Arctic"  machines  as  against  those  of  earlier 
types;  but  in  addition  to  the  better  results  obtained  in  power  and 
efficiency,  the  freedom  from  snow  and  moisture  is  the  great  considera- 
tion in  the  preservation  of  comestibles. 

The  advantages  of  cold-air  machines  are : — First,  that  no  chemicals 
of  any  description  are  required,  consequently  their  employment  is  not 
attended  by  constant  dangers  from  possible  explosions  and  fires,  or 
loss  of  life  through  the  accidental  escape  of  deadly  gases.  Very  low 
temperatures  can  be  rapidly  obtained  by  their  use.  Their  construction 
is  comparatively  simple,  and  their  application  is  easy.  The  entire 
machine  is  situated  externally  to  the  chamber  or  store  being  refriger- 
ated, and  every  part  thereof  is  consequently  accessible  at  all  times. 

A  matter  of  the  greatest  importance  with  cold-air  machines  was  to 
ascertain  to  what  degree  any  water  that  might  be  present,  either  in 
the  form  of  steam  or  mist,  or  of  actual  liquid,  might  affect  the  heating 
or  cooling  of  air,  and  alter  the  working  of  the  machine,  besides  the 
formation  of  snow  and  ice,  which  unavoidably  resulted  therefrom,  and 
which  was  a  most  objectionable  feature  in  early  machines. 

On  this  head  Mr  Lightfoot  observes  :  *  "  The  important  fact  to  be 
noted  in  this  investigation  is,  that  air  at  constant  pressure,  having  free 
access  to  water,  will  hold  a  different  quantity  of  water  in  solution  or 
steam  at  each  different  temperature ;  or  conversely  the  temperature  of 
the  '  dew  point '  for  any  body  of  air  varies  with  each  quantity  of  water 
held  in  solution  by  it.  The  hotter  the  air,  the  more  water  can  be  held 
without  depositing.  (See  table  on  page  573.) 

"  Thus,  if  air  is  highly  heated  by  compression,  and  water  is  then 
admitted  to  it,  in  the  form  of  spray  or  injection,  it  will  take  up  much 
more  water  before  becoming  saturated  than  it  could  have  held  before 
it  was  thus  heated.  Again,  if  air  under  compression  and  saturated 
with  vapour  is  allowed  to  expand,  a  large  quantity  of  such  vapour  will 
condense  and  freeze  into  snow,  thereby  giving  up  a  large  quantity  of 
heat  to  the  air,  which  air  is,  in  consequence,  cooled  less  than  it  would 
have  been  had  it  been  dry  air  to  start  with.  This  freezing  is  also  a 
serious  practical  evil,  from  the  deposition  of  ice  about  the  valves  and 
in  the  air  passages,  which  necessitates  frequent  stoppages  even  in  small 
machines.  .  .  . 

1  i  Various  means  have  been  devised  for  ridding  the  air  more  or 
*  Proceedings,  Institution  of  Mechanical  Engineers,  1881. 


THE   COLD-AIR   SYSTEM.  213 

less  completely  of  its  contained  moisture  by  employing  some  chemical 
material,  such  as  chloride  of  calcium  or  sulphuric  acid,  which  is  a 
powerful  absorbent  of  water.  But,  in  the  author's  opinion,  the  use  of 
such  chemicals  as  are  known  to  him  is  inadmissible,  except  perhaps 
for  small  machines,  or  for  those  working  under  special  conditions, 
because  of  the  trouble  which  would  be  experienced  in  changing  the 
material  and  evaporating  off  the  water  absorbed,  so  as  to  render  it 
again  fit  for  use." 

In  a  subsequent  paper  *  the  following  particulars  are  given  by  the 
same  authority  as  the  result  of  his  very  extensive  experience  in  the 
working  of  machines  of  this  class  : — "  The  amount  of  aqueous  vapour 
present  in  the  atmosphere  varies  from  that  required  to  produce  satura- 
tion down  to  about  one-fifth  of  that  quantity.  At  any  given  tempera- 
ture a  volume  of  saturated  air  can  contain  only  one  definite  amount 
of  vapour  in  solution ;  and  if  from  any  cause  additional  moisture  be 
present,  it  cannot  exist  as  vapour,  but  appears  as  water  in  the  form 
of  fog  or  mist.  The  temperature  of  saturation,  or  dew  point,  varies 
according  to  the  quantity  of  vapour  in  solution ;  the  smaller  the 
quantity,  the  lower  being  the  dew  point.  The  capacity  of  air  for 
holding  moisture  is  also  affected  by  pressure,  a  diminution  in  volume 
under  constant  temperature  reducing  this  capacity  in  direct  proportion. 

"  In  the  former  paper  reference  was  made  to  various  means  that 
had  been  devised  for  ridding  the  air  more  or  less  completely  of  its 
contained  moisture,  in  order  to  obviate  as  much  as  possible  the 
practical  evils  resulting  from  its  condensation  and  freezing;  this 
being  at  the  time  considered  one  of  the  most  important  points  in  the 
construction  of  cold-air  machinery.  Since  then,  however,  experience 
has  demonstrated  that  these  evils  were  much  exaggerated,  and  that 
the  condensation  of  the  vapour  and  deposition  of  the  moisture  in  the 
ordinary  cooling  process  after  compression,  which  is  common  to  every 
cold-air  machine,  are  amply  sufficient  to  prevent  any  serious  deposition 
of  ice  about  the  valves  and  in  the  air  passages :  provided,  firstly,  that 
these  valves  and  passages  are  well  proportioned ;  and,  secondly,  that 
proper  means  are  adopted  for  obtaining  in  the  coolers  a  deposition 
of  the  condensed  vapour,  which  would  otherwise  pass  with  the  air 
into  the  expansion  cylinder  in  the  form  of  fog,  and  become  converted 
into  ice. 

"  Reference  to  the  table  (page  573)  shows  that,  if  the  compressed 
air  be  thoroughly  deprived  of  its  mechanically  suspended  moisture, 
the  amount  of  vapour  entering  the  expansion  cylinder  is  extremely 
*  Proceedings,  Institute  of  Mechanical  Engineers,  pp.  225,  226  ;  1886. 


2i4       REFRIGERATION    AND    COLD   STORAGE. 

small.  Another  matter  from  which  the  mystery  has  now  been  dis- 
pelled is  the  meaning  of  the  term  'dry'  air,  so  much  used  by  the 
makers  of  cold-air  machinery  ;  this  being  a  point  that  was  just  touched 
upon  towards  the  close  of  the  discussion  upon  the  previous  paper. 
No  doubt  it  is  still  to  a  great  extent  popularly  supposed  that,  unless 
the  air  be  subjected  in  the  machine  to  some  special  drying  process,  it 
will  be  delivered  from  the  expansion  cylinder  in  a  moist  or  damp  state, 
and  in  consequence  be  unfitted  for  use  in  the  preservation  of  perishable 
food  and  for  other  purposes.  But  no  such  state  could  really  exist; 
for  whether  the  air  be  specially  'dried'  or  not,  its  humidity  when 
delivered  from  the  expansion  cylinder  is  precisely  the  same,  so  long 
as  its  temperature  and  pressure  remain  the  same,  inasmuch  as  in 
practice  it  is  always  in  a  saturated  condition  for  that  pressure  and 
temperature.  The  difference  lies  in  the  amount  of  ice  formed,  which 
of  course  is  greater  if  the  amount  of  moisture  entering  the  expansion 
cylinder  is  greater ;  but  this  quantity,  it  has  been  already  stated,  may, 
in  the  author's  opinion,  be  brought  down  within  perfectly  convenient 
limits  by  a  proper  construction  of  the  cooling  vessels.  In  his  latest 
machines,  therefore,  all  special  drying  apparatus  has  been  dispensed 
with,  the  air  being  simply  compressed,  passed  through  a  surface  cooler, 
and  expanded  back  to  atmospheric  pressure." 

The  invention  of  the  cold-air  machine  is  ascribed  to  Gorrie,  who 
is  said  to  have  designed  the  first  machine  of  this  class  in  1849.  In 
Gorrie's  machine  the  cooling  water  is  injected  into  the  compression 
cylinder,  and  brine  to  be  refrigerated  or  cooled  into  a  jacket  surround- 
ing an  expansion  cylinder.  His  apparatus  consists  essentially  of  a 
double-action  pump  or  compressor,  a  cooler  connected  with  a  com- 
pressed air  vessel  or  reservoir,  and  a  jacketed  auxiliary  pump.  The 
operation  of  the  machine  is  as  follows : — Water  is  injected  into  the 
compressor  cylinder  at  each  stroke,  on  the  side  of  the  piston  on  which 
condensation  or  compression  is  taking  place.  The  compressed  air  is 
then  led  through  a  worm  or  coil  in  the  cooler  to  the  compressed  air 
vessel  or  reservoir,  from  whence  it  is  admitted  to  the  auxiliary  pump, 
which  latter  is  driven  by  the  expansion  thereof.  Through  the  jacket  sur- 
rounding this  auxiliary  pump  a  circulation  of  brine  or  other  non-con  - 
gealable  fluid  is  maintained,  which  brine  is  cooled  by  the  expansion  of 
the  air  in  the  pump  cylinder,  and  which  in  turn  reduces  the  temperature 
of  an  ice-making  tank  situated  above  the  latter  to  the  requisite  degree. 

Imperfect  cooling  of  the  air  after  compression,  combined  with  the 
damp  condition  of  the  air,  caused  the  failure  of  this  machine  to  act 
in  a  satisfactory  manner. 


THE   COLD-AIR   SYSTEM.  215 

The  next  advance  was  made  by  Dr  Alexander  Kirk  in  1863.  Dr 
Kirk's  machine  has  three  cylinders,  viz.,  one  for  compressing  the  air 
and  two  for  the  expansion  thereof,  all  three  of  which  have  reciprocal 
ing  motion  imparted  to  their  pistons  by  a  single  crank.  One  of  the 
expansion  cylinders  is  connected  to  each  end  of  the  compressor,  thus 
actually  forming  two  distinct  systems.  The  pistons  of  the  expansion 
cylinders  are  hollow  and  are  perforated  by  a  number  of  small  holes, 
and  fitted  internally  with  filters  consisting  of  several  layers  of  very 
fine  wire  gauze,  the  reciprocating  action  of  the  pistons  alternately 
causing  air  to  pass  through  these  perforations  and  filters,  and  drawing 
back  the  air. 

The  operation  of  the  machine  is  as  follows : — The  air  is  compressed 
between  the  piston  of  the  compressor,  during  its  stroke  in  one  direction, 
and  one  of  the  expansion  cylinder  pistons,  the  heat  of  compression 
being  carried  off  by  a  suitable  water  jacket  provided  round  the  expansion 
cylinder.  On  the  descent  of  the  expansion  piston  the  air  passes  through 
the  perforations,  parting  with  some  more  of  its  heat  whilst  traversing 
the  sheets  or  layers  of  wire  gauze,  and  finally  expanding  in  the  upper 
portion  of  the  cylinder  and  performing  work  upon  the  descending  piston. 
The  cold  air  is  caused  to  abstract  heat  from  brine  which  circulates 
round  the  top  cover  of  the  expansion  cylinder,  and  through  a  number 
of  hollow  corrugations.  The  operation  of  the  second  or  other  expansion 
cylinder  which  is  connected  to  the  opposite  end  of  the  compression 
cylinder  is,  of  course,  identical.  This  machine  can  be  worked  up  to  a 
pressure  of  200  Ibs.  per  square  inch,  and  a  temperature  of  —  39°  Fahr. 
has  been  obtained. 

In  1869  a  cold-air  machine  adapted  to  compress  air  in  stages  was 
invented  by  Marchant.  In  his  apparatus  the  air  passes  first  into  one 
cylinder,  wherein  it  is  compressed,  and  is  then  exhausted  into  another 
cylinder  of  smaller  dimensions  in  which  it  is  still  further  compressed. 

Giffard's  first  (1873)  machine  is  so  arranged  that  the  air  mingles  in 
the  compression  cylinder  with  sprayed  water,  which  becomes  vaporised 
by  the  heat  of  compression,  and  renders  the  heat  latent.  The  discharge 
valve  from  the  expansion  cylinder  is  heated  in  the  piston,  and  is  so  ad- 
justed that  it  will  open  automatically  upon  the  pressure  in  the  cylinder 
falling  below  a  predetermined  point,  the  air  then  passing  through  to 
the  other  side  of  the  piston,  and  afterwards  to  the  refrigerator. 

In  the  same  year  (1873)  Postle  designed  a  machine  which  was 
practically  a  modification  of  Kirk's  cold-air  machine.  As  in  the  latter 
the  compression  cylinder  is  connected  at  each  end  to  an  expansion 
cylinder,  but  the  pistons  of  the  expansion  cylinders,  which  are  each 


216       REFRIGERATION   AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

composed  of  an  upper  part  of  smaller  diameter  and  a  lower  part  of 
larger  diameter,  are  so  arranged  that  when  the  compressor  piston 
starts  upon  its  stroke  in  either  direction  the  valve  connected  with 
that  end  of  the  compressor  is  forced  upon  its  inner  seat,  and  the  air 
pressure  moves  that  particular  expansion  piston  to  the  inner  end  of 
its  cylinder,  the  valve  being  opened  outwardly,  however,  before  the 
end  of  its  stroke  by  its  projecting  spindle  striking  against  the  inner 
cylinder  end,  and  the  latter  part  of  the  compression  taking  place  in 
a  small  space  cooled  by  a  water  jacket,  and  wherein  the  heat  of 
compression  is  carried  off.  Upon  the  reverse  stroke  of  the  piston 
the  valve  is  raised  against  its  outer  seat  by  the  current  of  air  passing 
through  the  circumscribed  passage  around  it,  and  a  partial  vacuum 
having  been  formed  above  the  small  portion  of  the  expansion  piston, 
the  latter  is  moved  outwardly  by  the  unbalanced  pressure  in  the 
expansion  cylinder,  the  cooled  compressed  air  passing  through  the 
piston  to  the  inner  portion  of  the  cylinder. 

Similarly,  however,  to  the  action  on  the  inward,  the  valve  is  opened 
before  the  end  of  the  outward  stroke  of  the  piston  by  the  other 
extremity  of  its  spindle  coming  in  contact  with  the  top  of  the  cylinder, 
but  this  time  outwardly,  and  the  air  in  the  inner  portion  is  thus 
expanded,  and  at  the  same  time  performs  work  on  the  compressor 
piston.  The  air  reduced  in  temperature  during  expansion  cools  brine 
circulating  through  a  jacket  which  also  forms  the  inner  cylinder  head 
of  both  expansion  cylinders,  the  latter  being  placed  end  to  end. 

The  great  improvement  in  this  machine  is  that  the  bulk  of  the 
compression  is  performed  during  the  period  wherein  the  compressor  is 
in  connection  with  the  water-cooled  spaces,  and  most  of  the  expansion 
whilst  the  compressor  is  exhausting  from  the  spaces  in  contact  with 
the  brine  circulation. 

A  very  decided  advance  was  next  made  by  Windhausen,  for  whose 
improved  cold-air  machine  a  German  patent  was  granted  about  this 
time.  The  characteristic  feature  of  his  apparatus  is  the  improved 
method  by  which  the  air  that  had  become  heated  by  compression 
is  first  cooled  in  a  series  of  condensers  or  coolers  by  means  of  a 
circulation  of  cold  water,  and  is  then  passed  into  a  chamber  where 
expansion  or  dilation  takes  place  behind  a  piston.  That  is  to  say, 
in  point  of  fact  expansion  is  effected  by  the  simultaneous  action  of 
the  machine  before  the  air  is  utilised  for  refrigerating  purposes. 

The  original  Windhausen  cold-air  apparatus  is  shown  in  plan  and 
side  elevation,  Figs.  123  and  124,  by  which  the  principle  of  the 
machine  is  sufficiently  clearly  illustrated  to  render  an  extended  descrip- 


THE   COLD-AIR   SYSTEM. 


217 


tion  thereof  unnecessary.  On  the  drawing  A  indicates  the  compression 
cylinder,  B  the  expansion  cylinder,  c  the  steam  engine  or  other  motor 
for  operating  the  machine,  and  D,  D1,  D2,  the  condensers  or  coolers 
through  which  a  constant  current  of  cold  water  is  maintained  for 


PH 

'eS 

C 

'So 
°C 
O 


cooling  purposes.  The  cylinders  A  and  B  are  arranged  tandem  fashion, 
and  are  worked  simultaneously  from  the  engine  crankshaft  E,  through 
the  crank  E1,  and  connecting  rod  P. 

The  air  enters  the  compression  cylinder  A  through  the  inlet  A1,  as 


218       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD    STORAGE. 

indicated  by   the  arrows,   and    after  compression   the  current  passes 
through  the  pipe  A2  to  the  first  condenser  or  cooler  D,  from  which  it  is 


conducted  successively  to  the  coolers  D1,  D2,  and  from  the  latter  to  the 
expansion  cylinder  B,  as  shown  by  the  arrows. 

Within  the  coolers  or  condensers  D,  D1,  D2,  are  arranged  a  series 
of  pipes  through  which  the  blast  passes,  and  around  which  a  constant 


THE   COLD-AIR   SYSTEM.  219 

circulation  of  cold  water  is  kept  up,  the  latter  entering  the  cooler  D2 
at  a  suitable  inlet,  and  flowing  through  the  coolers  in  the  opposite 
direction  to  the  compressed  air.  A  portion  of  the  heat  that  has  been 
imparted  by  compression  is  thus  extracted,  and  the  compressed  air, 
which  is  at  a  temperature  only  a  few  degrees  above  that  of  its  natural 
state,  is  led  into  the  expansion  cylinder  B,  wherein  the  expansion  is 
effected  under  a  gradually  decreasing  pressure,  which  latter  is  auto- 
matically regulated  by  valves  operated  by  the  simple  expansive  force 
of  the  compressed  air  itself. 

Were  the  air  to  be  dilated  to  its  normal  volume  it  is  clear  that  an 
amount  of  heat  equal  to  that  which  has  been  abstracted  or  taken  up 
by  the  cold  water  in  the  coolers  would  be  required ;  as  this,  however, 
can  be  only  partially  returned  by  the  small  volume  of  air  within  the 
expansion  cylinder,  a  low  degree  of  temperature  is  immediately  obtained, 
which  is  more  and  more  reduced  with  each  stroke  of  the  compressor,  as 
the  original  air  in  the  expansion  cylinder  is  replaced  by  the  cooled 
compressed  air. 

From  the  compression  cylinder  B  the  air  is  conducted  to  the  space 
to  be  cooled,  escaping  with  a  velocity  sufficient  to  admit  of  the  current 
being  conducted  for  300  ft.  through  a  channel  2  ft.  in  diameter,  the 
temperature  at  the  orifice  of  the  latter  being  from  -  30°  to  -  35° 
Fahr.,  or  from  62°  to  67°  of  frost.  It  has  not  been  found  advisable, 
however,  in  practice,  to  employ  a  conduit  of  this  excessive  length. 

In  the  apparatus  shown  the  dimensions  of  the  compression  cylinder 
are  such  that  at  each  stroke  of  the  piston  35  cub.  ft.  of  air,  and  at 
every  complete  revolution  of  the  engine  70  cub.  ft.  of  air,  are  com- 
pressed, being  reduced  to  the  extent  of  from  two  and  a  half  volumes  to 
one  volume,  or  to  a  pressure  of  35  Ibs.  per  square  inch;  thus,  at  a 
speed  of  thirty-six  revolutions  per  minute,  over  150,000  cub.  ft.  of 
air  will  be  compressed  per  hour. 

From  actual  experiments  it  was  found  that  with  the  air  entering 
the  compression  cylinder  at  a  temperature  of  80°  Fahr.,  it  rose  after 
compression  to  205°,  thus  giving  a  gain  of  125°,  inasmuch  as  this 
acquired  heat  is  subsequently  got  rid  of  in  the  condensers  or  coolers 
and  expansion  cylinder;  and  an  atmosphere  is  thus  obtained  which, 
whilst  under  a  tension  of  two  and  a  half  atmospheres,  is  almost  at  the 
same  temperature  as  the  air  previous  to  treatment,  the  expansive  force, 
and  effect,  of  a  volume  two  and  a  half  times  larger  being  at  the  same 
time  retained. 

Fig.  125  is  a  vertical  central  section  illustrating  a  modified  arrange- 
ment of  Windhausen's  cold-air  machine,  wherein  a  single  cylinder  is 


220       REFRIGERATION   AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

used  for  compression  and  expansion,  the  air  being  condensed  or  com- 
pressed at  one  side  of  the  piston,  and  expanded  on  the  other.  Two 
coolers  are  provided,  situated  in  the  bed  of  the  machine,  one  of  which 
is  cooled  by  a  circulation  of  cold  water,  and  the  other  by  the  expansion 
of  the  compressed  air.  The  refrigerator  is  situated  above  the  compress- 
ing and  expansion  cylinder,  and  receives  the  expanding  air  from  the 
expansion  side  of  the  cylinder  through  a  temperature  regulator. 

In  the  drawing  A  is  the  compression  side  of  the  cylinder,  and  B  is 
the  expansion  side  thereof ;  c  is  the  piston,  which  is  formed  hollow  and 
filled  with  non-conducting  material  c1 ;  D  is  the  cooler,  through  which 
a  circulation  of  cold  water  is  kept  constantly  flowing,  and  which  is 
connected  to  the  compression  side  A  of  the  cylinder  through  the  pipe 
or  tube  D1  and  valve  D2,  and  E  is  the  second  cooler,  which  is  connected 


Fig.  125. — Modified  Form  of  Windhausen  Cold- Air  Machine. 
Vertical  Central  Section. 

to  the  first  cooler  D,  and  to  which  a  certain  amount  of  the  expanding 
compressed  air  from  the  expansion  side  of  the  pump  is  admitted  for 
cooling  purposes.  The  tubes  in  both  the  coolers  D  and  E,  through 
which  the  compressed  air  passes  from  the  compression  side  A  of  the 
cylinder,  communicate  through  the  pipe  or  tube  E1  and  valve  E2  with 
the  expansion  side  B  thereof. 

F  is  the  ice-making  tank  or  refrigerator,  and  G,  G  are  the  ice  cans  or 
cases.  The  ice- making  tank  F  consists  of  a  double-cased  rectangular 
wooden  box  or  vessel,  the  spaces  between  the  outer  and  inner  cases  of 
which  are  filled  or  packed  with  loose  cotton,  or  other  suitable  non- 
conductor of  heat.  The  cover,  which  is  formed  of  a  single  thickness 
of  wood,  is  pierced  with  holes  in  which  are  fixed  metallic  cases  or 
pockets  for  receiving  the  ice  cans  G.  F1,  F1  are  zigzag  partitions 
arranged  between  the  rows  of  ice  cans,  so  as  to  cause  the  air  to  come 


THE   COLD-AIR   SYSTEM.  221 

fully  into  contact  with  the  metallic  cases  or  pockets  supporting  them. 
H  is  an  india-rubber  bag,  which  acts  to  maintain  a  uniform  pressure 
within  the  ice-making  tank  or  refrigerator  F,  by  admitting  or  giving 
out  air  in  accordance  as  to  whether  the  pressure  happens  to  be  above 
or  below  that  of  the  atmosphere,  i  is  a  valve  which  is  open  during 
the  entire  compressing  stroke  of  the  piston  c,  and  which  communicates 
through  a  suitable  pipe  or  tube  with  the  temperature  regulator,  from 
which  a  portion  of  the  expanding  air  passes  to  the  ice-making  tank 
or  refrigerator  through  a  tube  communicating  therewith  through  the 
aperture  F2,  the  remainder  being  delivered  through  another  pipe  or 
tube  to  the  space  round  the  compressed  air  tubes  in  the  cooler  E, 
through  the  aperture  or  orifice  E3,  with  which  latter  space  the  ice- 
making  tank  or  refrigerator  is  likewise  connected  through  a  suitable 
pipe  or  tube,  and  the  apertures  F3,  E4. 

The  temperature  regulator  and  pipes  or  connections  are  situated  at 
the  rear  of  the  apparatus,  and  are  not  shown  in  the  drawing.  The 
compression  side  A  of  the  cylinder  is  also  connected  with,  and  derives 
its  supply  of  air  from,  the  expanded  air  space  in  the  cooler  E  through 
a  suitable  pipe  opening  into  the  latter  at  E5,  and  communicating  with 
the  former  through  the  valve  K. 

The  operation  of  the  apparatus  is  as  follows,  that  is  to  say :  The 
piston  c,  during  its  forward  or  compression  stroke,  compresses  the 
air  contained  in  the  compression  side  A  of  the  pump  cylinder,  and  under 
the  pressure  of  this  air  the  valve  D2  opens,  and  the  latter  passes 
through  the  pipe  or  tube  D1  to  the  water-cooled  tubes  of  the  first  cooler 
D,  from  which  it  then  passes  to  the  air-cooled  tubes  of  the  second 
cooler  E.  The  cool  compressed  air  next  flows  into  the  pipe  or  tube  E1, 
and  is  admitted  through  the  valve  E2  to  the  expansion  side  B  of  the 
pump  cylinder  during  a  portion  of  the  stroke,  when  the  valve  E2  is  closed, 
and  the  air  expands  in  the  chamber  B  during  the  remainder  of  the  stroke. 
The  cooled  and  expanded  air  flows  out  of  the  expansion  chamber  B 
through  the  valve  i,  during  the  entire  return  or  back-stroke  of  the 
piston  c,  to  the  temperature  regulator,  from  whence  a  portion  of  it 
passes  to  the  ice-making  tank  or  refrigerator  F,  and  the  remainder  to 
the  space  round  the  compressed  air  tubes  in  the  second  cooler  E.  On 
the  return  or  back-stroke  of  the  piston  c,  the  air  in  the  space  round  the 
tubes  in  the  second  cooler  E  is  drawn  or  sucked  into  the  compression 
chamber  A  through  the  inlet  valve  K. 

The  improvements  introduced  into  cold-air  machines  in  1877  by 
Bell-Coleman  added  very  considerably  to  their  practical  value.  This 
invention  comprises  suitable  means  for  cooling  the  air,  both  in  and  as 


222       REFRIGERATION    AND    COLD    STORAGE. 

it  leaves  the  compressor,  by  spray  or  jets  of  water,  and  also  for  drying 
it  again  before  it  is  passed  into  the  expansion  cylinder.  The  latter 
object  is  effected  by  causing  it  to  flow  through  a  set  of  coils,  or  pipes, 
situated  in  the  chamber  cooled  by  the  machine ;  or  by  providing  for 
exposing  these  pipes  to  a  current  of  the  used  or  spent  air  passing  out 
from  the  chamber. 

On  leaving  the  compressor  the  moist  air  is  first  passed  through 
a  chamber  with  perforated  diaphragms,  and  is  then  conducted  to  the 
expansion  cylinder  through  coils  or  pipes  which  have  a  very  extended 
surface,  and  are  cooled  on  the  exterior  to  a  lower  temperature  than 
that  of  the  cooling  water,  thus  still  further  reducing  the  temperature 
of  the  air,  and  inducing  a  deposition  of  moisture. 

A  great  objection  to  this  system  of  cooling  by  internal  injection 
is  the  loss  occasioned  by  the  saturated  condition  in  which  the  air, 
even  when  employed  continuously  over  and  over  again,  is  constantly 
delivered  to  the  machine. 

In  1877  Giffard  also  greatly  improved  his  (1873)  machine,  and 
brought  it  to  the  form  shown  in  Fig.  126.  In  the  drawing  (which 
illustrates  the  apparatus  in  side  elevation,  some  of  the  parts  being 
shown  in  vertical  central  section)  A  indicates  the  compression  cylinder 
and  B  the  expansion  cylinder,  which  are  both  of  the  single-acting  type, 
and  open  at  their  upper  ends ;  c  is  the  condenser  or  cooler.  The  inlet 
and  outlet  valves  to  the  expansion  cylinder  B,  as  also  the  inlet  valve 
to  the  compression  cylinder,  which,  as  shown  in  the  drawing,  are 
situated  in  the  lower  ends  to  these  cylinders,  are  actuated  through 
cams  upon  the  shaft  of  the  machine.  The  outlet  valve  from  the  com- 
pression cylinder  A  governs  the  delivery  of  the  compressed  air  to  the 
lower  end  of  the  condenser  or  cooler  c,  wherein,  after  passing  through 
top  and  bottom  chambers  or  spaces  and  a  central  series  or  set  of 
vertical  water-cooled  tubes,  it  is  delivered  through  a  suitable  pipe  to 
the  inlet  valve  of  the  expansion  cylinder,  from  which  latter,  after 
doing  work  upon  the  expansion  piston,  during  its  upward  stroke,  it  is 
discharged  during  its  return  or  downward  stroke  through  the  outlet 
valve  (shown  on  the  right-hand  side)  and  led  away  through  a  suitable 
pipe  to  perform  its  cooling  office  where  desired.  The  compression 
cylinder  A  is  jacketed,  and  the  heat  generated  during  compression 
removed  as  far  as  possible  by  a  circulation  of  cold  water. 

In  operation  the  air  which  enters  the  compression  cylinder  A 
through  the  inlet  valve  (shown  on  the  right-hand  side)  is  first  com- 
pressed up  to  the  normal  pressure  existing  in  the  condenser  or  cooler 
c,  when  the  outlet  valve  lifts  and  admits  of  its  being  passed  into  the 


THE    COLD-AIR   SYSTEM. 


223 


latter,  wherein  it  is  cooled  and  dried  by  contact  with  the  water-cooled 
tubes.  The  valve  regulating  the  admission  of  compressed  air  to  the 
expansion  cylinder  B  is  so  arranged  that  it  will  admit  to  the  latter  an 


amount  of  air  equal  to  that  which  is  being  forced  into  the  condenser 
or  cooler  c  during  the  downward  or  compression  stroke  of  the  com- 
pressor piston,  thus  tending  to  maintain  an  equality  of  pressure  in  the 
condenser.  The  pistons  are  thus  constantly  moving  in  opposite  direc- 


224      REFRIGERATION   AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

tions,  that  of  the  expansion  cylinder  being,  however,  a  quarter  stroke 
in  advance  of  that  of  the  compressor.  During  the  upward  stroke  of 
the  expansion  piston,  the  inlet  valve  from  the  condenser  or  cooler  c 
(shown  on  the  left-hand  side)  remains  closed,  the  expanding  air  per- 
forming a  portion  of  the  work  of  driving  the  machine ;  whilst  on  the 
down  stroke  the  outlet  or  exhaust  valve  (shown  on  the  right-hand  side) 
opens,  so  as  to  admit  of  the  cooled  air  passing  through  the  discharge 
pipe,  by  which  it  is  led  away,  as  above  mentioned,  to  perform  its  cool- 
ing or  refrigerating  office  where  required. 

A  form  of  cold-air  machine  was  designed  by  Hargreaves  and  Inglis 
in  1878,  wherein  they  dispensed  with  the  use  of  separate  compression 
and  expansion  cylinders,  employing  instead  a  single  cylinder  having 
two  pistons  connected  by  means  of  a  trunk.  The  inlet  and  outlet 
valves,  which  are  of  the  Corliss  pattern,  are  arranged  to  be  operated 
through  suitable  eccentrics  on  the  main  shaft  of  the  machine. 

In  Tuttle  and  Lugo's  machine  the  air  is  forced  after  compression 
through  a  set  or  series  of  tubes  in  a  cylindrical  or  tubular  chamber  or 
vessel,  which  is  cooled  by  a  constant  circulation  of  cold  water,  and 
through  a  similar  set  of  tubes  in  a  chamber  or  vessel,  wherein  the 
latter  are  surrounded  by  a  volatile  liquid.  After  leaving  this  second 
vessel  the  air  is  allowed  to  expand  into  the  refrigerator  or  ice-making 
tank,  rising  through  some  such  volatile  liquid  as  ether  or  bisulphide  of 
carbon,-  which  is  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  latter,  and  the  air  and 
the  vapour  from  the  volatile  liquid  fill  the  interior  of  the  refrigerating 
chamber  surrounding  the  ice  cans  or  cases,  and  freeze  or  congeal  the 
water  therein.  A  by-pass  is  also  provided  through  which  the  com- 
pressed air  can  be  conducted  direct  to  the  ice-making  tank  or  refrigerator. 
Lugo  and  M'Pherson's  apparatus  comprises  a  blower,  the  air  from 
which  is  forced  through  a  cooler  consisting  of  a  chamber  filled  with 
some  suitable  porous  material  kept  saturated  with  water.  The  cooled 
air  is  then  passed  into  a  compressor,  the  upper  part  of  which  is  kept 
full  of  water,  which  serves  to  keep  it  cool  and  also  to  prevent  leakage 
of  the  air  past  the  piston.  From  the  compressor  the  air  is  led  to  a 
cooler,  and  from  this  to  a  compressed  air  reservoir  or  vessel,  from 
which  latter  it  is  in  turn  ^admitted  to,  and  allowed  to  expand  in,  the 
interior  of  a  large  ice-making  tank  or  chamber,  having  non-conducting 
walls  and  rails  for  cars  carrying  the  ice  cans  or  cases.  The  piston  of 
the  compressor  is  worked  by  La  Hire's  epicycloidal  device. 

Hick  Hargreaves'  machine  is  of  the  double-acting  horizontal  type, 
water  being  injected  into  the  compressor  at  each  stroke  for  cooling 
purposes.  After  compression  it  is  passed  through  a  series  of  receivers 


THE    COLD-AIR   SYSTEM.  225 

wherein  the  watery  particles  carried  over  are  deposited,  after  which 
it  flows  into  the  expansion  cylinder,  in  which  it  is  expanded  down 
to  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere.  Corliss  cut-off  gear  is  fitted  to 
the  inlet  valves  of  the  expansion  cylinder.  A  large  snow-box  is  provided 
in  the  air-trunk,  fitted  with  baffle  or  check  plates  for  arresting  the 
snow,  which,  as  the  air  enters  the  expansion  cylinder  fully  saturated 
with  moisture  for  its  temperature  and  pressure,  becomes  rapidly  filled 
with  snow,  and  requires  to  be  frequently  cleared  out. 

Stevenson's  cold-air  machine  is  also  of  the  horizontal  pattern, 
the  compression,  expansion,  and  steam  cylinders  having  their  pistons 
coupled  to  a  single  crankshaft.  The  compression  and  expansion 
cylinders  are  single-acting,  and  are  arranged  to  face  each  other, 
their  pistons  being  coupled  by  means  of  T-headed  rods,  which  form 
vertical  guide  bars,  between  which  is  arranged  to  slide  a  motion 
block  driven  by  the  crankshaft,  and  thus  to  impart  the  requisite 
reciprocating  motion.  The  steam  engine  is  either  single-acting  and 
of  the  trunk  type,  or  of  the  simple  high-pressure,  condensing,  or 
compound  type. 

Sturgeon's  horizontal  pattern  machine  is  so  constructed  that  the 
compressed  air  is  delivered  into  a  cooler  formed  of  sets  of  tubes 
surrounded  by  a  circulation  of  cooling  water,  whereby  its  temperature 
is  partially  reduced,  and  it  is  afterwards  caused  to  pass  through 
some  absorbent  material,  such  as  charcoal,  before  admission  into  the 
expansion  cylinder. 

In  1880  Haslam  (Sir  Alfred  Seale  Haslam)  brought  out  a  cold-air 
machine  of  the  type  usually  known  as  dry  air  refrigerators,  which 
comprises  certain  very  important  improvements  on  the  Bell-Coleman 
type  of  machine,  and  which  had  the  effect  of  rendering  it  one  of,  if 
not  the  most  successful  machines  of  this  class  hitherto  designed. 

Figs.  127,  128,  and  129  are  perspective  views  illustrating  three 
different  cold-air  machines  of  the  Haslam 'type. 

That  shown  in  Fig.  127  is  of  the  horizontal  pattern,  and  is  made 
in  sizes  adapted  to  deliver  from  20,000  to  30,000  ft.  of  air  per  hour. 
Compound  duplicated  horizontal  machines  of  heavier  build  are,  how- 
ever, also  constructed,  in  sizes  adapted  to  deliver  from  35,000  to 
300,000  ft.  of  air  per  hour.  The  apparatus  is  driven  by  a  compound 
condensing  engine,  and  this,  together  with  the  air  compressing  and 
expansion  cylinders,  and  the  requisite  water-pumps,  are  all  mounted 
upon  a  cast-iron  bed  frame,  of  box  section,  cored  out  to  receive  the 
air-cooler,  engine,  surface  condenser,  and  air-pump.  This  combination 
of  the  condenser  casing  with  the  refrigerator  forms  a  foundation  for 


226       REFRIGERATION   AND   COLD   STORAGE. 


THE   COLD-AIR   SYSTEM.  227 

the  bed-plate  of  the  steam  engine.  The  feed-pumps  are  bolted  on  to 
the  side  of  the  bed,  and  are  driven  from  an  overhead  rocking  shaft, 
which  likewise  works  the  air-pump.  Variable  cut-off  gear  is  fitted 
to  both  the  steam  cylinder  and  the  air-expansion  cylinder,  and  the 
pistons  of  both  the  compressor  and  expansion  cylinders  are  directly 
coupled  to  tail  rods  from  the  steam  cylinder  pistons.  By  locating  the 
inlet  and  outlet  valves  in  the  cylinder  covers  they  are  rendered  very 
easy  to  get  at  for  repairs  and  other  purposes.  The  height  of  this 
machine  is  such  as  to  admit  of  its  being  conveniently  placed  "between 
decks  "  of  steamers. 

The  patent  diagonal  pattern  machine  (Fig.  128)  is  made  of  smaller 
sizes,  viz.,  to  deliver  from  10,000  to  12,000  cub.  ft  of  air  per  hour, 
and  where  a  machine  of  still  smaller  capacity  is  required,  one  of  the 
vertical  pattern,  such  as  that  shown  in  Fig.  129,  is  preferably  used, 
the  latter  machines  being  constructed  of  sizes  to  deliver  from  2,000  to 
6,000  cub.  ft.  per  hour.  In  the  diagonal  pattern  machine  the  com- 
pound high  and  low  pressure  steam  cylinders,  and  the  air-compressor 
cylinder,  are  placed  on  the  top  of  the  bed,  the  air-expansion  cylinder 
is  located  at  the  end,  and  the  water,  air,  and  feed  pumps  are  bolted 
to  the  side  thereof. 

The  bed  is,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  illustration,  of  massive  box 
section,  and  is  suitably  cored  out  to  receive  the  water-cooler  tubes,  the 
condenser  tubes,  and  the  patent  drying  pipes,  and  it  likewise  supports 
the  main  crankshaft  bearings.  The  condenser  tubes  are  fixed  in 
position  by  means  of  screwed  ferrules,  and  the  air-cooler  tubes  and 
drying  pipes  are  secured  in  tube  plates  by  expanding  the  ends  in  the 
usual  manner.  The  several  tube  plates  are  provided  with  covers 
having  ribs  arranged  for  the  proper  circulation  of  air  and  water.  As 
will  be  seen,  the  machine  is  peculiarly  compact  and  self-contained,  and 
the  air-pump  is  arranged  vertically,  and  is  worked  through  a  T-bob 
from  an  eccentric  on  the  crankshaft. 

The  type  of  machine  illustrated  in  Fig.  129  occupies  but  little  floor- 
space,  and  its  height  allows  of  its  location  "  between  "  decks  of  small 
steamers  and  yachts.  The  steam  cylinder,  air-compression  cylinder, 
and  expansion  cylinder  are  mounted  vertically  upon  cast-iron  standards, 
which  latter  are  securely  bolted  to  a  cast-iron  bed  of  hollow  box  section, 
supporting  the  crank  shaft  bearings  and  containing  the  air-cooler,  and 
the  water-pump  is  bolted  to  the  base-plate  and  worked  vertically  from 
a  crosshead  pin. 

The  crank  shaft,  valve  rods,  and  connecting  rods,  are  of  mild  forged 
steel,  and  the  slides  are  of  the  open  type  and  easily  accessible.  A 


228       REFRIGERATION   AND   COLD    STORAGE. 


~ 


THE   COLD-AIR   SYSTEM. 


229 


portion  of  one  of  the  cast-iron  standards  is  made  loose  so  as  to  admit 
of  the  crank  being  readily  removed  when  desired. 


Fig.  129. — Haslam  Cold- Air  Machine.     Vertical  Pattern. 

The  above  machines  all  have  double-acting  cylinders.  The  com- 
pressors are  either  of  the  water  injection  type,  or  of  the  dry  type  and 
water-jacketed,  discharging  into  the  surface  coolers  in  the  beds.  When 


230      REFRIGERATION   AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

a  compressor  of  the  first  or  water-injection  type  is  employed,  the  above- 
mentioned  cooler  is  dispensed  with,  and  a  separate  water  tower  is  pro- 
vided. After  being  cooled  in  the  ordinary  way  by  water,  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  compressed  air  is  still  further  reduced  by  passing  it  through 
an  interchange!1,  wherein  it  is  subjected  to  the  cooling  action  of  either 
the  spent  cold  air  leaving  the  enclosed  space  or  chamber  where  it  has 
been  used  for  cooling  purposes,  or  else  of  the  cold  air  as  it  passes  out 
of  the  expansion  cylinder.  In  the  first  instance  separate  boxes  con- 
taining the  drying  pipes  are  provided  inside  the  cold  chamber,  in  the 
second  case  the  device  is  fitted  in  the  forepart  of  the  bed  of  the  machine ; 
the  advantage  derived  from  both  these  arrangements  is  that  a  further 
condensation  and  deposition  of  moisture  are  thereby  effected.  The 
exhaust  valves  of  the  expansion  cylinder  are  separate  from  the  ad- 
mission valves,  and  they  are  so  designed  as  to  afford  as  few  obstacles 
to  the  free  passage  of  the  air  there-through  as  practicable.  Marine 
types  of  cold-air  machines  made  by  this  firm  will  be  found  described 
and  illustrated  in  the  chapter  on  Marine  Refrigeration. 

In  the  same  year  (1880)  Lightfoot  introduced  an  improved  machine, 
wherein  the  expansion  is  performed  in  two  stages.  The  advantage  of 
this  arrangement  is  that  during  the  first  stage  of  expansion  the  air 
can  be  made  to  deposit  most  of  its  moisture,  after  which  the  dry 
air  is  further  expanded  until  it  attains  the  required  temperature  and 
pressure. 

The  operation  of  Lightfoot's  machine  is  as  follows  : — The  compressed, 
air,  which  is  partially  cooled,  and  which  when  direct  atmospheric  air 
is  employed,  is  always  in  a  condition  of  saturation  corresponding  to  its 
temperature  and  pressure,  is  first  passed  into  a  small  primary  expansion 
cylinder,  wherein  it  is  expanded  beneath  a  piston  to  a  pressure  that 
will  give  a  final  temperature  of  about  35°  Fahr.  By  this  means  almost 
the  whole  of  the  vapour  held  in  suspension  in  the  air  is  condensed, 
and  in  the  form  of  mist  is  discharged,  together  with  the  air,  into  a 
separator,  upon  the  surfaces  of  which  the  mist  is  deposited  in  the  form 
of  water,  and,  falling  to  the  bottom,  is  drawn  off.  From  this  separator 
the  dried  air,  which  is  still  at  a  considerable  pressure,  is  conducted  to 
the  second  expansion  cylinder,  in  which  latter  it  is  expanded  down 
to  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  and  passed  out  cold  and  practically 
freed  from  moisture. 

The   following   table*   gives    the   calculated    relative   amounts   of 
vapour  condensed  and  deposited  in  the  various  stages  of  cooling,  with 
a   machine  on   the   Lightfoot   system,    capable   of   delivering    15,000 
*  Proceedings,  Institution  of  Mechanical  Engineers,  1881. 


THE   COLD-AIR   SYSTEM.  231 

cub.  ft.  of  cooled  air  per  hour,  and  dealing  with  air  in  a  tropical 
climate,  having  an  initial  temperature  of  90°  Fahr.,  and  fully  saturated 
with  vapour : — 

Lbs.  Per  hour.  Per  cent. 

Total  amount  of  vapour  entering  with  the  air  -            *       ...  45 '36  100 '00 

Deposited  as  water  in  the  cooler                                      -     33*61  ...  74*10 

Deposited  as  water  after  first  expansion                        -       9*26  ...  20*40 

Discharged  as  ice  in  cooled  air  -                                      -      0*93  ...  2*05 

43*80 

Balance,  being  residual  vapour  still  existing  in 

cooled  air  -  1  *56  3  *45 

Fig.  130  is  a  vertical  central  section  through  the  air  compression 
and  expansion  cylinders  and  the  valves  of  one  of  the  Lightfoot  pattern 
of  cold-air  machines,  which  may  be  classed  amongst  those  which  have 
afforded  satisfactory  results,  as  far  at  least  as  the  cold-air  system  is 
concerned.  A  is  the  compressor,  which  is  of  the  double-acting  type ; 
and  B  is  the  expansion  cylinder,  which  is  of  the  single-acting  type. 

The  cylinders  A  and  B,  which  are  arranged  tandem  style  or  fashion, 
and  have  a  common  piston  rod,  are  placed  close  together,  sufficient 
clearance  being  left,  however,  to  permit  of  the  inspection  or  examina- 
tion of  the  pistons  being  conveniently  effected.  An  advantage  of  this 
arrangement  is  that  the  coldest  portion  of  the  expansion  cylinder  is 
placed  at  a  distance  from  the  hottest  end  of  the  compressor. 

The  air-valves  are  circular  slides  formed  of  phosphor  bronze,  and 
are  operated  by  eccentrics  in  the  ordinary  manner.  The  advantages 
claimed  for  this  type  of  valve  are,  that  they  admit  of  the  parts  being 
formed  very  short  and  direct,  are  perfectly  noiseless  in  action,  and 
allow  of  a  high  piston  speed  being  used  without  any  injurious  results. 
They  are  said  to  have  been  found  to  work  very  satisfactorily,  and  to 
have  given  no  trouble  as  regards  wear,  even  when  in  almost  constant 
use  for  some  years. 

The  coolers  consist  of  a  pair  of  iron  vessels  fitted  with  sets  or 
clusters  of  solid  drawn  Muntz-metal  tubes  f  in.  external  diameter. 
Through  these  tubes  and  the  compressor  jacket  cold  water  is  constantly 
circulated  for  cooling  purposes  in  an  opposite  direction  to  that  taken 
by  the  compressed  air,  by  means  of  a  force-pump  driven  off  the  crank- 
shaft. Any  water  that  may  become  deposited  from  the  air  by  con- 
densation in  the  coolers  is  blown  off  through  suitable  drain  cocks. 

After  passing  through  both  the  coolers  the  compressed  air  is 
reduced  in  temperature  to  within  some  5°  or  6°  of  the  initial  tem- 
perature of  the  cooling  water;  the  amount  of  the  latter  that  is 


232       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

required  being  usually  from  30  to  40  gals,  for  every  thousand  cubic 
feet  of  cold  air  discharged,  or  some  three  or  four  times  the  weight  of 
the  air.  From  the  second  cooler  the  cooled  compressed  air  is  con- 


ducted to  the  expansion  cylinder  B,  where^it  performs  work  upon  the 
piston,  and  so  returns  some  60  per  cent,  of  the  power  that  has  been 
expended  in  its  compression,  and  is  then  exhausted  at  a  temperature 
of  from  -  70°  to  -  90°  Fahr.,  or  102°  to  122°  of  frost. 


THE   COLD-AIR   SYSTEM. 


233 


The  steam  engine  is  either  of  the  high  pressure  or  of  the  condensing 
type ;  in  the  latter  case  the  jet  or  surface  condenser  is  placed  below 
the  cylinder,  which  is  overhung  from  strong  brackets  on  the  bed-plate, 
and  the  air-pump  is  operated  from  a  continuation  of  the  piston  rod. 
It  will  be  seen  that  this  arrangement  admits  of  a  condensing  engine 
being  employed  without  occupying  any  additional  space,  or  it  allows 
of  the  engine  being  compounded  by  the  addition  of  a  second  cylinder 
tandem  fashion,  in  which  case  the  condenser  is  preferably  located 
below  the  high-pressure  cylinder,  and  the  air-pump  is  driven  off  a 
crankpin  in  the  fly-wheel.  When  a  condensing  engine  is  used,  the 
cooling  water,  after  performing  its  work  in  the  coolers,  is  passed  to 
the  condenser. 


Fig.  131.— Lightfoot  Single-Acting  Cold-Air  Machine. 
Sectional  Elevation. 

Fig.  131  is  a  side  elevation  partly  in  vertical  central  section,  showing 
the  air  cylinders  of  a  single-acting  Lightfoot  cold-air  machine. 

Lightfoot  machines  of  the  vertical  pattern,  with  the  exception  that 
the  coolers  are  cast  in  one  piece  with  the  frame,  do  not  differ  in  con- 
struction to  any  material  degree  from  those  of  the  horizontal  type. 

The  Hall  cold-air  machine,  when  driven  by  a  steam  engine,  has 
three  double-acting  cylinders  located  side  by  side  at  the  end  of  a 
suitable  bed-plate,  one  of  which  is  for  steam,  the  second  for  compres- 
sion, and  the  third  for  expansion  of  the  air.  The  cylinders  have  the 
usual  arrangement  of  moving  parts,  that  for  compressing  the  air  being 
water-jacketed,  and  the  connecting-rods  working  on  cranks  on  the  same 
shaft.  The  valves  for  the  compression  and  expansion  cylinders  consist 
of  main  and  expansion  slides  operated  from  two  weigh-bars.  These 
valves  were  in  some  earlier  types  of  machines  situated  on  the  under 


234       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 


side  of  the  cylinders,  but  in  those  of  later  patterns  they  are  located  on 
the  top  side  of  the  cylinders,  where  they  are  very  readily  accessible. 
The  coolers,  which  are  placed  below  the  bed-plate  or  frame,  are 
arranged  for  surface  cooling  and  are  of  the  ordinary  multitubular  type. 
An  interchanger  was  also  sometimes  provided  with  the  older  types  of 
machines,  wherein  the  air  that  had  done  duty  in  the  storage  or  cold 
chambers  was  utilised  for  further  reducing  the  temperature  of  the 
compressed  air.  In  more  recent  machines,  however,  a  patented  form 
of  centrifugal  moisture  separator  has  been  used  for  drying  the  com- 
pressed air. 

An  illustration  of  one  of  the  most  recent 
and  improved  types  of  Hall  cold-air  machines 
will  be  found  in  the  chapter  on  "  Marine 
Refrigeration." 

The  "  Arctic "  cold-air  machine  is  of  an 
improved  type,  brought  out  in  1899  by 
T.  &  W.  Cole,  Ltd.,  London.  Fig.  132  is  a 
sectional  elevation,  showing  one  of  the  first 
patterns  of  machine.  In  this  machine  the 
air,  after  compression  in  the  cylinder  and 
water  spray  cooling,  is  further  cooled  by 
passing  it  through  a  vessel  containing  glass 
balls,  &c.,  on  trays  over  which  water  is 
sprayed.  It  then  passes  through  an  annular 
jacket,  and  the  hollow  head  L  of  the  expan- 
sion cylinder  for  additional  cooling.  The 
jacket  contains  either  a  spiral  partition  H1, 
which  may  be  perforated,  or  spirally-placed 
baffles.  The  head  L  contains  positively- 
worked  inlet  and  exhaust  valves.  The  com- 
pressed air  in  its  passage  to  the  expansion 
cylinder  circulates  through  the  circuitous 

passages  of  the  cylinder  jacket,  and  is  thereby  cooled  to  a  temperature 
of  about  32°  Fahr.  (many  degrees  lower  than  the  cooling  water)  before 
entering  the  expansion  cylinder.  This  low  temperature  having  the  effect 
of  depriving  the  air  of  all  excess  of  moisture,  prevents  the  clogging  of 
ports  and  passages  with  snow,  which  for  many  years  has  been  the  great 
objection  to  the  more  general  use  of  most  cold-air  refrigerating  machines 
(vide  page  241).  In  the  case  of  small  cold-air  machines,  this  difficulty  has 
generally  been  considered  insurmountable,  but  is  claimed  to  have  been 
overcome  in  the  small  machine  of  1,250  cub.  ft.  capacity  illustrated. 


Fig.  132.  —  Cole's 
"Arctic"  Cold- Air  Ma- 
chine, with  Auxiliary 
Cooling  Arrangement. 

First  Pattern.        Sectional 
Elevation. 


THE   COLD-AIR   SYSTEM. 


235 


A  later  type  of  machine  is  shown  in  Figs.  133  and  134,  and  in 
Figs.  135  and  136,  the  first  two  being  general  views  of  a  small  and 
a  large  sized  machine,  and  the  others  respectively  a  side  elevation, 


Fig.  133.— Cole's  "Arctic"  Cold-Air  Machine,  with  Air-drying 
Arrangement.     Small  Size.     Belt-driven  Type. 

partly  in  section,  and  a  transverse  section  of  expansion  cylinder.  In 
this  arrangement  also  the  compressed  air  is  passed  round  the  expansion 
cylinder,  and  cooled  to  some  27°  lower  than  the  available  cooling  water, 


236       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD    STORAGE. 


THE   COLD-AIR   SYSTEM. 


237 


and  thus  deprived  of  most  of  its 
moisture.  This  cylinder  B  is 
jacketed  at  c,  and  provided  with 
ribs  F  and  partitions  G,  H,  which 
is  arranged  to  make  the  air  take 
a  circuitous  course  round  the 
cylinder  and  its  ends  to  the 
valve  boxes  K,  and  the  jacket 
may  be  extended  to  include  the 
pipe  D  leading  the  expanded  air 
to  the  refrigerating  chamber. 
The  base  or  bed  i  for  this  cylin- 
der also  contains  partitions  G1,  H1 
for  circulating  the  air,  and  it  has 
a  sloping  bottom  o  with  a  water 
seal  or  valve  to  remove  the  con- 
densed moisture.  Before  passing 
round  the  expansion  cylinder, 
the  air  from  the  compressor  is 
passed  through  a  chamber  con- 
taining spheres,  &c.,  over  which 
water  trickles,  and  then  through 
a  series  of  tubes  to  remove  some 
of  the  moisture  after  the  pre- 
liminary cooling.  The  illustra- 
tions show  a  double-acting  ex- 
pansion cylinder,  as  described 
above,  but  the  invention  is  ap- 
plicable to  vertical  or  to  single- 
acting  cylinders,  and  the  ar- 
rangements of  the  partitions  and 
ribs,  and  consequently  the  course 
of  the  air,  may  be  varied.  The 
compression  and  expansion  cylin- 
ders may  be  mounted  on  a  bed 
containing  the  cooling  arrange- 
ments. 

Figs.  137  and  138  show  in- 
dicator diagrams  taken  respec- 
tively from  a  double-acting  and 
a  single-acting  expander  of  an 


Figs.  135  and  136.— Cole's  "Arctic  "Cold - 
Air  Machine,  with  Air-drying  Arrange- 
ment. Side  Elevation  partly  in  Section 
and  Transverse  Section. 


238       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

"  Arctic "  cold-air  machine.  The  data  connected  with  this  test  will 
be  found  on  page  244. 

A  cold-air  machine,  or  air  compression  refrigerating  machine,  com- 
prising certain  novel  features,  or,  to  speak  more  correctly,  a  novel 
application,  is  the  Allen  machine,  which  is  known  as  the  "  Allen 
Dense- Air  Ice  Machine,"  made  by  Frank  Allen,  Brooklyn,  New 
York. 

The  Allen  Dense- Air  Ice  Machine  is  illustrated  diagrammatically 
in  Fig.  139,  and  briefly  it  comprises  the  following  parts: — A  steam 


Fig.  137. — Indicator  Diagram  from  Double-Acting  Expander  of  "  Arctio>"  Dry 
Cold- Air  Machine.     (For  Data  of  Test  see  page  244. ) 


Fig.  138. — Indicator  Diagram  from  Single-Acting  Expander  of  "Arctic"  Dry 
Cold- Air  Machine.     (For  Data  of  Test  see  page  244. ) 

cylinder  Q  for  driving  purposes,  a  compression  cylinder  R,  in  which 
the  air  is  compressed  to  about  three  times  its  primary  pressure, 
which  cylinder  is  water-jacketed  to  prevent  injury  to  the  piston 
packings  from  the  heat  engendered  by  this  compression.  A  copper 
coil  s,  immersed  in  a  water  bath,  into  which  coil  the  compressed  air 
is  passed  and  cooled,  or  reduced  to  the  temperature  of  the  cooling 
water.  A  return  air-cooler  T,  by  means  of  which  the  compressed 
air  is  further  cx>oled  by  the  cold  air  returning  from  the  cold  storage 
chamber.  An  expansion  cylinder  v,  wherein  the  cooled  compressed 


THE   COLD-AIR   SYSTEM. 


239 


air  is  allowed  to  expand  to  one-third  of  the  tension  of  compression, 
that  is  to  say,  to  its  original  pressure,  on  entering  the  compressor 
cylinder,  during  which  operation  it  is  cooled  as  much  as  it  was 
previously  heated  by  the  compression,  and  leaves  the  cylinder  at 
a  very  low  temperature.  This  cooled  air  is  then  discharged  into 
a  well-insulated  pipe,  by  means  of  which  it  is  conveyed  to  the 
place  which  it  is  desired  to  cool.  Here  the  pipe  service  is  left 
exposed ;  that  is  to  say,  it  is  not  insulated,  and  the  cold  air,  after 
taking  up  the  heat  from  the  surrounding  matter,  is  again  returned 


RETURN         AIR 


AUCTION 


Fig.  139. — Allen  Dense-Air  Ice  Machine.     Diagrammatical  View. 


to  the  compressor,  where  it  is  again  subjected  to  compression,  cooled, 
and  expanded  as  before. 

A  suitable  trap  or  separator,  as  indicated  at  v,  is  also  provided 
for  eliminating  the  lubricating  oil  used  in  the  cylinder,  as  well  as 
any  snow  that  may  be  former1,  Lorn  the  cold  air.  The  deposits  are 
removed  from  this  separator  by  heating  the  latter  through  a  suitable 
steam  pipe,  and  running  off  the  contents  through  a  drain  pipe  and 
cock,  the  machine  being  so  arranged  that  any  frozen  deposits  from 
the  expansion  cylinder  will  be  at  the  same  time  thawed  and  blown 
out  into  the  separator.  In  operation  the  separator  requires  blowing 
out  once  or  twice  in  every  twenty-four  hours. 


240      REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

Cooling  water  for  the  separator,  the  copper  air-cooling  coil  bath, 
and  the  water  jacket  round  the  compression  cylinder,  is  supplied  by 
an  ordinary  plunger-pump  w,  and  a  small  supplementary  air-pump  x 
is  also  provided  for  charging  the  system  when  starting  with  air  up 
to  the  necessary  pressure,  and  also  for  making  up  any  losses  that 
may  occur  by  reason  of  leakage  through  stuffing  boxes  and  joints 
whilst  the  machine  is  running.  To  extract  the  moisture  from  this 
fresh  supply  of  air  to  the  system  it  is  passed  through  a  drier  or 
separator  Y,  by  means  of  which  it  is  dried  as  far  as  practicable  before 
entering  the  machine,  z  is  a  safety  valve. 

The  operation  of  the  apparatus  is  as  follows  : — The  normal  pressure 
of  the  air  in  the  system  is  60  Ibs.  per  square  inch,  and  this  air  is 
compressed  in  the  compressor  to  210  Ibs.  per  square  inch.  Should 
it  be  found  impossible  to  keep  up  these  relative  pressures  of  60  Ibs. 
on  the  suction  side  and  210  Ibs.  on  the  discharge  side,  it  is  a  sign  of 
leakage.  The  oil  trap  or  separator  being  choked  by  congealed  oil  or 
snow,  or  the  closing  of  valves  will  likewise  cause  a  disturbance  in  the 
pressures. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  air  is  in  this  machine  used  in  a  closed 
cycle.  The  compressed  air  from  the  compression  cylinder  is  cooled, 
expanded  down  to  its  original  pressure  of  60  Ibs.  per  square  inch 
whilst  doing  work,  and  the  resultant  cold  air  at  a  temperature  of 
about  60°  below  zero  Fahr.  is  forced  through  the  refrigerating  or 
cooling  pipes,  where  it  takes  up  the  heat  from  the  surrounding  objects, 
and  is  again  returned  to  the  compression  cylinder  to  be  compressed, 
cooled,  and  expanded,  and  so  on  ad  infinitum. 

It  is  claimed  for  this  machine  that  by  maintaining  the  air  at  a 
constant  pressure  of  five  atmospheres  (60  Ibs.  gauge  pressure)  it 
can  be  conveyed  in  pipes  of  comparatively  small  diameter,  and  the 
rise  of  temperature  will  be  slight.  No  absorbed  water  vapour  has  to 
be  cooled  from  the  vapour  to  the  frozen  condition,  and  the  greater- 
efficiency  of  the  dense  air  or  air  under  pressure  enables  a  very  much 
smaller  machine  to  be  used  than  would  be  the  case  with  an  ordinary 
cold- air  machine  for  the  same  capacity. 

The  only  additional  moving  part  in  the  Allen  dense-air  ice  machine 
is  the  small  auxiliary  or  primer  pump  which  is  a  simple  plunger-pump 
of  ordinary  construction.  There  are  also  the  closed  refrigerating 
pipe  system,  and  the  two  traps  by  means  of  which  the  lubricating 
oil  and  water  are  removed  or  eliminated  from  the  air,  and  the 
latter  is  maintained  in  a  pure  condition  whilst  passing  through  the 
pipes. 


THE   COLD-AIR  SYSTEM.  241 

It  will  be  obvious  that  the  refrigerating  or  cooling  pipes  will  be 
arranged  in  the  cold  storage  room  or  chamber  in  a  similar  manner 
to  those  of  any  direct  expansion  ammonia  plant.  As  no  chemical 
circulating  agent  or  medium  is  employed,  the  items  of  expense  com- 
prise only  the  steam  consumed  in  the  driving  engine  or  motor,  the 
necessary  lubricating  oil,  arid  the  labour  of  attending  to  the  machine, 
which  the  makers  state  are  small. 

The  efficiency  of  dense-air  machines  is  low,  and  as  compared  with 
ammonia  compressors,  they  consume  from  ten  to  fifteen  times  the 
horse-power.  Dense-air  refrigerating  machines  have  been  used  to  some 
extent  on  board  warships  belonging  to  the  United  States  owing  to  the 
immunity  from  danger  in  case  of  leakage. 

In  a  paper*  on  "Refrigerating  Machines,"  by  Arthur  Robert 
Gale,  C.E.,  the  author  makes  the  following  observations  on  refrigerat- 
ing machines  of  the  cold-air  type : — "  One  of  the  chief  difficulties  in 
cold-air  machines  is  the  presence  of  moisture  held  in  suspension  by 
the  atmosphere;  this  applies  especially  to  the  open  cycle  machines. 
Moisture  in  the  air  occasions  loss  of  efficiency  in  two  ways.  If  the 
air  enters  the  expansion  cylinder  in  a  saturated  condition,  when  the 
air  is  cooled  by  expansion  whilst  performing  work,  a  certain  amount 
of  vapour  is  condensed  and  thrown  down — the  point  of  saturation 
being  dependent  on  the  temperature.  The  vapour,  in  changing  to  the 
liquid  state,  gives  its  latent  heat  of  vaporisation  to  the  air  ;  arid  as  the 
expansion  of  the  air  continues,  and  the  temperature  is  still  further 
diminished,  the  liquid  freezes  and  accumulates  in  the  form  of  snow  arid 
ice  in  the  valves  arid  passages,  giving  up  its  heat  of  liquefaction  to  the 
air.  Thus  not  only  does  the  presence  of  moisture  in  the  air  produce 
mechanical  difficulties,  choking  the  air  passages  and  impeding  the 
action  of  the  valves,  but,  for  the  same  expenditure  of  energy,  the  cold 
air  leaves  the  machine  at  a  higher  temperature  than  would  have  been 
the  case  if  there  had  not  been  a  superabundance  of  moisture  in  the 
air  during  expansion. 

"  As  the  cold-air  machine  is  the  direct  reverse  of  the  heat-engine, 
so  also  its  conditions  of  greatest  efficiency  differ  from  those  of  the 
latter.  The  maximum  theoretical  efficiency  of  a  refrigerating  machine 
may  be  expressed  by  the  formula — 

Ha        T 
E  ~Tc-T' 

*  Minute*  of  Proceeding,  Inst.  C.E.,  vol.  cxviii.,  Session  1893-94,  pp.  421 
422. 

16 


242       REFRIGERATION    AND    COLD   STORAGE. 

where  E  is  the  thermal  equivalent  of  the  work  of  compression, 
Ha  denotes  heat-units  abstracted  by  the  system, 
Tc  denotes  absolute   temperature   at   which   rejection    of   heat 

takes  place, 

T  denotes  absolute  temperature  at  which  absorption   of   heat 
takes  place. 

From  the  above  it  follows  that — 

v      T  Tc-T 

^  =  H« rfi— » 

i.e.,  in  any  refrigerating  machine  the  greatest  efficiency  will  be  obtained 
with  a  small  range  of  temperature ;  the  greater  the  range  the  smaller 
the  efficiency  will  be,  other  conditions  being  equal ;  also  the  efficiency 
is  increased  as  the  lowest  limit  of  the  range  of  temperature  is  raised. 
Thus  a  machine  working  between  the  temperatures  of  100°  Fahr.  and 
0°  Fahr.  would,  other  conditions  being  unaltered,  be  more  efficient  than 
when  working  between  60°  Fahr.  and  -  40°  Fahr.  These  remarks 
are  applicable  to  any  system  of  refrigeration,  and  are  not  peculiar  to 
the  cold-air  machine." 

For  some  time  it  was  very  generally  supposed  that  many  kinds  of 
provisions  of  a  perishable  nature  were  liable  to  receive  damage  from 
the  snow  held  in  suspension  in  the  cold  air  from  these  machines,  and 
it  was  this  fear  of  injurious  effects  which  prompted  inventors  to  design 
those  forms  of  special  drying  apparatus  intended  to  remedy  this  defect, 
such  as  the  Bell-Coleman  interchanger,  wherein  the  air  is  dried  by 
passing  it  through  a  series  or  set  of  coils  situated  in  the  chamber 
cooled  by  the  machine ;  of  the  improved  form  of  the  above  designed 
by  Haslam,  wherein  the  interchanger  is  cooled  either  by  the  spent 
cold  air  on  its  leaving  the  chamber  wherein  it  has  been  utilised,  or  by 
the  cold  air  as  it  passes  out  of  the  expansion  cylinder ;  the  Lightfoot 
machine,  wherein  the  expansion  is  performed  in  two  stages ;  or  of 
Hall's  centrifugal  moisture  separator  (or  the  air-d^ing  arrangement  of 
T.  &  W.  Cole).  Hence  the  term  "  dry -air  refrigerator." 

This  objection  to  the  cold-air  machine  arose,  however,  from  a  fault 
the  evil  effects  of  which,  it  has  now  become  evident,  have  been  un- 
doubtedly much  exaggerated,  as  in  practice  no  such  damaging  results 
to  the  contents  of  the  stores  or  chambers  are  experienced  as  it  was 
supposed  and  predicted  would  ensue,  although  of  course  the  snow 
that  is  formed  in  the  manner  above  described  is  an  undeniably  objec- 
tionable product.  If  a  cold-air  machine  be  worked  on  the  principle 
of  exclusion  of  the  aqueous  vapour,  after  a  few  cycles  of  operations 


THE   COLD-AIR   SYSTEM.  243 

the  air  will  have  become  dry,  and  will  thenceforward  work  like  a  true 
gas. 

Owing  to  their  compactness  and  simplicity,  to  the  non-requirement 
of  any  chemicals,  and  to  the  great  facility  of  application,  cold-air 
machines  are  found  to  be  very  suitable  for  marine  installations,  and 
for  this  purpose  they  are  extensively  employed.  They  are  also, 
however,  in  use  to  a  considerable  extent  for  refrigerating  cold 
stores  or  chambers  for  the  preservation  of  provisions  of  a  perishable 
nature. 

An  objection,  however,  to  machines  of  the  Bell-Coleman  type, 
wherein  the  air  is  partially  cooled  during  compression  by  the  injection 
of  cooling  water  into  the  compressor,  is  experienced  at  sea,  by  reason 
of  the  corroding  action  of  the  salt  water,  in  addition  to  the  loss  of 
efficiency  common  to  all  machines  of  this  class.  Considerable  difficulty 
has  been  experienced  in  tropical  climates,  where,  with  the  cooling 
water  at  about  90°  Fahr.,  the  moisture-laden  air  would  be  delivered 
into  the  cooling  pipes  at  a  temperature  of  95°  Fahr.,  or  more,  and 
the  absolute  pressure  would  be  about  65  Ibs.  per  square  inch.  Now,  as 
there  is,  as  Mr  Lightfoot  observes,*  "precisely  the  same  amount  of 
dry  cold  air  circulating  outside  the  cooling  tubes  in  a  given  time 
as  there  is  warm  compressed  air  within,  it  follows  that  by  whatever 
amount  the  temperature  of  the  internal  air  is  reduced,  by  an  equal 
amount  must  that  of  the  external  air  be  raised.  But,  in  addition,  the 
internal  air  has  vapour  mixed  with  it,  which,  as  the  temperature  falls, 
gives  off  heat,  measured  not  only  by  the  reduction  in  its  sensible 
temperature,  but  by  the  latent  heat  of  vaporisation ;  and  this  heat 
also  has  to  be  taken  up  by  the  external  air.  It  will  be  found  that, 
assuming  each  pound  of  internal  air,  with  its  proportion  of  vapour, 
to  be  reduced  to  42°  Fahr.,  the  pound  of  external  cold  air,  which  has 
to  take  up  all  the  heat  due  to  this  reduction,  will  be  raised  in 
temperature  by  84°  Fahr." 

This  defect  is  obviated  in  machines  of  T.  &  W.  Cole's  "Arctic" 
type,  as  the  air  is  cooled  by  their  drying  arrangement  some  25°  lower 
than  the  cooling  water.  Thus  in  tropical  climates,  where  the  cooling 
water  would  be  about  90°,  the  compressed  air  would  be  cooled  down 
to  65°,  and  thus  be  deprived  of  a  great  proportion  of  its  suspended 
moisture  before  being  admitted  to  the  expansion  cylinder. 

Instead  of  using  the  spent  air  for  cooling  purposes,  the  cold  air 
from  the  expansion  cylinder  may  be  applied  direct  to  the  cooling 
apparatus ;  but  in  this  case  difficulty  would  be  experienced  from  the 
*  Proceedings,  Institute  of  Mechanical  Engineers,  1881. 


244       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

deposited  moisture  inside  the  tubes  actually  freezing  from  the  intense 
cold  of  the  external  air,  a  difficulty  which,  it  appears,  has  often 
occurred  with  this  apparatus.  This,  apart  from  the  mere  obstruction 
of  the  pipes,  would  involve  a  further  sacrifice  of  cold,  owing  to  the 
liberation  of  the  heat  of  liquefaction. 

The  following  table  shows  the  results  of  test  experiments  made 
with  modified  Giffard,  Haslam,  Bell-Coleman,  and  Cole's  "  Arctic " 
machines : — 


Cole's 

"  Arctic."  § 

Giffard.* 

Haslam.f 

Bell- 
Coleman.J 

No.  4 

No.  i 

Size. 

Size. 

Diameter  of  compression  cylinder,  in  ins. 

27 

25i(2-cy.) 

28 

ii 

6} 

,,            expansion            ,,              ,, 

22 

IQj 

21 

9 

si 

Stroke  of  each 

18 

^6 

24 

"I  2 

8 

Revolutions  per  minute     .... 
Air  pressure  in  receiver  (absolute),  in  Ibs. 

62 

72 

96 

160 

per  sq.  in  

65 

64 

61 

65 

75 

Temperature  of  air  entering  compression 
cylinder  (containing  vapour  up  to  88  per 

cent,  of  saturation).         .... 

52°  F. 

652  F. 

48 

46 

Temperature  of  air  discharged  from  com- 

pression cylinder     ..... 
Temperature  of  compressed  air  admitted 

267°  F. 

to  expansion  cylinder     .... 

70°  F. 

35 

Temperature  of  air  after  expansion  . 
Work  done  in  compression  cylinder,  from 

-  82°  F. 

-85°F. 

-52° 

-81 

-98 

diagram  

43-12  H.P. 

Work   given   off  in   expansion    cylinder, 

from  diagram  

28  '05  H.P. 

Difference  in  work  done  in  compression 

cylinder,  and  work  given  off  in  expan- 

sion cylinder  ...... 

i5'07 

Diameter  of  steam  cylinders,  in  ins.  . 
.,          .  trunks  in  cylinders,  in  ins.     . 

12 
IO 

Stroke  of  trunks          

15 

Initial  steam  pressure  in  cylinders  (abso- 
lute) per  sq.  in  

55  Ibs. 

Work  given  off  in  steam  cylinders,  from 

diagram  

24-6  H.P. 

Initial  temperature  of  cooling  water. 

57°  F. 

.. 

62 

41 

Final               „                  „ 

i45   F. 

Quantity  of  cooling    water    passing   per 
minute  in  lb^ 

Work  lost  in  heat  taken  off  by  cooling 

9  25 

water       

19  H.P. 

I.  H.P.  in  compression  cylinder 
,,      in  expansion  cylinder 

43'1 
28-0 

?7?2 

124-5 

58-5 

M'5 

3-28 
1-68 

Per  cent,  of  I.  H.P.  of  compression   re- 

turned in  expander         .... 

51 

47 

54 

51 

*  Proceedings,  Institution  of  Mechanical  Engineers,  1881. 
f  Proceedings,  Manchester  Society  of  Engineers,  1894. 

£  Professor  Schroeter,  "  Untersuchungen  an  Kaeltemaschieren  verschiedener 
Systeme,"  1881. 

§  A.  J.  Wallis-Tayler,  1902. 


THE   COLD-AIR   SYSTEM.  245 


FORMULA   FOR   CALCULATING    THE    AMOUNT   OF   AIR   DELIVERED   PER 
HOUR   BY   COLD-AIR   MACHINES,    WHEN   THE    REVOLUTIONS    AND 

THE    SlZE    OF    THE    COMPRESSORS    ARE    KNOWN. 

This  is  given  as  follows  by  Messrs  Ha  slam  in  their  catalogue  of 
ice-making  and  refrigerating  machinery  :  — 

AxNx2RxSx60     n 
Air  discharged  per  hour  =  —  —        —  x  U. 

* 


Where  A  =  Area  of  each  compressor  in  inches, 

N  =  Number  of  compressors, 

2R  =  Strokes  per  minute  (or  twice  the  revolutions), 
60  =  Minutes  per  hour, 

S  =  Stroke  in  inches, 
1,7  28  =  Cubic  inches  in  1  ft., 

C  =  Factor   of   efficiency   which    is   taken   as    *8    for   short 
strokes,  and  '85  for  long  strokes. 


CHAPTER   XI 
COCKS,   VALVES,   AND   PIPE  JOINTS   AND   UNIONS 

Expansion  or  Regulating  Cocks  and  Valves — Stop-Cocks  and  Valves — Suction 
and  Discharge  Valves — Pipe  Joints  and  Unions— Means  for  Increasing  the 
Cooling  Surface  of  Pipes. 

EXPANSION  OR  REGULATING  COCKS  AND  VALVES. 

A  NUMBER  of  cocks  or  valves  are  required  on  every  refrigerating 
machine,  the  most  important  being,  however,  the  expansion  or  regu- 
lating cock  or  valve,  or  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  the  flash-cock  or 
valve,  which  serves  to  control  the  connection  between  the  condenser 
and  the  refrigerator  or  evaporator. 


Fig.  140. — Taper  Spindle  Expansion  or  Regulating  Valve. 

View  partly  in  Vertical  Section. 

246 


COCKS    AND   VALVES. 


247 


Fig.  140  is  a  view  partly  in  vertical  central  section,  and  Fig.  141 
is  a  vertical  central  section  showing  two  patterns  of  a  very  common 
form  of  expansion  valve  of  the  taper  spindle  type  which  are  adapted 
for  use  with  manifolds.  The  construction  of  these  valves  is  obvious 
from  the  drawings,  the  taper  spindles  and  valve  boxes  or  casings  are 
made  of  hardened  steel,  and  whilst  extremely  simple  in  construction 
the  type  is,  perhaps,  all  things  considered,  about  the  most  effective 
arrangement  for  general  purposes. 

Figs.  142  and  143  show  in  vertical  central  section  the  J-in.  angle 


Fig.  141. — Taper  Spindle  Expansion  or  Regulating  Valve. 
Vertical  Central  Section. 

and  globe  expansion  valves  employed  by  the  Triumph  Ice  Machine 
Company.  These  valves  are  made  of  the  best  machinery  steel,  and 
are  so  constructed  that  they  can  be  packed  at  any  time.  The  drawings 
are  self-explanatory,  as  is  also  that  shown  in  Fig.  144,  representing  a 
vertical  central  section  through  the  Frick  expansion  valve,  which  is 
constructed  of  drop  steel  forgings. 

Fig.  145  is  a  plan,  Fig.  146  is  a  vertical  central  section,  and  Fig. 
147  is  a  view  of  the  plug  partly  in  vertical  section  through  the  port  or 
way,  showing  the  De  La  Yergiie  improved  expansion  cock. 


248       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

The  port  or  passage  through  the  plug  (Figs.  146  and  147)  is  so 
formed  as  to  admit  of  the  nicest  regulation  being  effected.  With  this 
object  the  round  hole  is  not  carried  completely  through  the  plug,  but 
only  through  about  three-quarters  the  thickness  thereof,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  147,  and  the  remaining  thin  bridge  of  metal  is  perforated  in  the 
shape  of  a  very  narrow  wedge  as  shown  in  Fig.  146. 

The  plug  is  rotated  by  means  of  a  worm  and  worm-wheel  in  the 
manner  which  can  be  clearly  seen  from  the  drawing,  and  whereby 


Fig.  142.— Triumph  Angle  Ex- 
pansion or  Regulating  Valve. 
Vertical  Central  Section. 


Fig.  143.— Triumph  Globe  Ex- 
pansion or  Regulating  Valve. 
Vertical  Central  Section. 


very  fine  or  delicate  adjustment  can  be  readily  imparted  thereto. 
The  narrow  wedge-shaped  passage  or  aperture  allows  of  the  flow  of 
the  liquid  ammonia  being  regulated  to  the  minutest  possible  amount, 
the  point  or  apex  thereof  being  the  first  to  open. 

The  stop-cocks  or  valves  described  in  a  patent  taken  out  by  Puplett 
and  Rigg  in  1887  for  regulating  or  completely  cutting  off  or  arresting 
the  flow  of  the  gas  or  liquids  to  the  various  parts  of  the  apparatus  have 
metal  seats.  To  prevent  leakage  of  the  gas  or  liquid,  the  stuffing  boxes 
of  these  valves  are  provided  with  screwed  glands,  which  are  likewise 


COCKS    AND   VALVES. 


249 


screwed  on  to  the  valve  spindles,  which  latter  are  screw-threaded  for 
their  entire  length,  and  are  packed  with  some  suitable  yielding  fibrous 
or  metallic  packing,  such,  for  instance,  as  hemp  or  lead.  This  packing 
is  caused  to  enter  into  the  screw  threads  upon  the  spindles  as  the 


Fig.  144. — Frick  Angle  Expansion  or  Regulating  Valve. 
Vertical  Central  Section. 

glands  are  forced  or  screwed  down,  thus  making  gas-tight  joints  round 
the  latter  without  causing  the  valves  to  set  fast.  A  description  of  the 
Pontifex  expansion  or  regulating  valve  will  be  found  on  page  187,  being 
one  of  the  improvements  included  in  his  1887  patent. 


250      REFRIGERATION   AND   COLD   STORAGE. 


Fig.  145. 


Fig.  146. 


Fig.  147. 


Fig.  145.— De  La  Vergne  Expansion  or  Regulating  Cock.     Vertical  Central 

Section. 

Fig.  146.—  Do.  do.  do.  View  of  Plug  partly 

in  Section. 

Fig.  147.—  Do.  do.       ...        do.  Plan, 


COCKS   AND   VALVES. 


251 


A  form  of  expansion  valve  for  use  with  ammonia  or  other  com 
pression  machines  has  been  designed  by  Suppes  and  Dortch  of  Ohio, 
U.S.A.,  which,  it  is  claimed,  obviates  the  formation  of  ice  upon  the 
exterior  of  the  valve  owing  to  the  intense  cold  which  is  produced  at 
this  point  by  the  expansion  of  the  ammonia  or  other  agent.  Briefly, 
the  expansion  valve  now  under  consideration  comprises  a  valve  and 
casing  having  a  pipe  member  connecting  the  expansion  orifice  of  the 
valve  with  the  refrigerating  coil,  which  valve  is  provided  with  an  ice- 
guard  consisting  of  a  member  of  a 
comparatively  large  area  secured  to 
the  exterior  of  the  valve  casing  ad- 
jacent to  the  valve.  This  ice-guard 
or  member  performs  the  double 
office  of,  firstly,  absorbing  heat  from 
the  atmosphere,  and  in  this  manner 
preventing  an  undue  reduction  in 
the  temperature  of  the  valve  casing 
from  taking  place;  and,  secondly, 
of  forming  a  barrier  over  which  the 


.MR 


Fig.  148.— Triumph  Safety  Com- 
bination Expansion  Valve  and 
Stop-Cock.  Vertical  Central  Sec- 
tion. 


Fig.  149.— Haslam  Im- 
proved Type  of  Expansion 
Valve. 


252       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

ice  which  accumulates  on  the  pipe  member  must  creep  before  it  can 
reach  that  portion  of  the  casing  surrounding  the  valve. 

In  Fig.  148  is  illustrated  the  Triumph  safety  combination  expansion 
valve  and  stop-cock.  With  this  valve  there  is  no  necessity  for  pump- 
ing out  or  shutting  down  the  plant,  as  it  can  be  repaired  at  any  time 
by  shutting  off  the  stop-cock,  removing  the  stem  arid  inserting  in  its 
place  a  short  plug  which  is  sent  out  with  each  valve.  Expansion  can 
then  be  effected  with  the  stop-cock,  which  has  a  V-shaped  opening  at 
both  ends,  so  that  no  mistake  can  be  made  as  to  which  direction  it  is 


Fig.  150.  — De  La  Vergne  2^-in.  Stop-Cock.     Vertical  Central  Section. 

turned.  When  the  expansion  valve  is  repaired,  all  that  is  required 
is  to  simply  shut  off  the  stop-cock  again,  remove  the  short  plug,  and 
reinsert  the  valve  stem,  after  which  work  can  be  resumed  as  before. 

Fig.  149  shows  the  Haslam  improved  type  of  expansion  valve  which 
is  especially  adapted  for  fine  adjustment. 

STOP  COCKS  AND  VALVES. 

The  De  La  Vergne  improved  form  of  stop-cock  for  ammonia  gas 
is  illustrated  in  Figs.  150  and  151,  which  show  vertical  central  sections 


COCKS    AND   VALVES.  253 

through  the  shells  or  casings  of  a  2^-in.  and  a  1-in.  cock,  the  plugs 
being  left  in  elevation. 

As  will  be  seen  from  the  drawings,  the  square  for  operating  the 
plug  is,  contrary  to  the  usual  custom,  placed  at  the  small  end  thereof, 
the  latter  being  pressed  to  its  seat  by  a  spiral  spring  inserted  between 
its  large  end  and  a  cap  bolted  up  to  the  shell  or  casing,  and  having  an 
annular  projection  adapted  to  engage  in  a  corresponding  groove  formed 
in  the  latter,  and  wherein  is  provided  a  lead  or  other  washer.  Similar 
means  for  forming  a  gas-tight  joint  are  provided  at  the  small  end  of 
the  plug,  and  in  this  manner  the  escape  of  any  fluid  into  the  chamber 
that  might  chance  to  pass  the  plug  is  prevented.  The  even  and  con- 
stant pressure  of  the  spiral  spring  maintains  the  plug  always  on  its 
seat,  and  prevents  any  grit  or  other  impurities  from  getting  between 


Fig.  151.— De  La  Vergne  1-in.  Stop-Cock.     Vertical  Central  Section. 

the  surfaces  and  cutting  or  abrading  them.  The  shell  of  the  small- 
sized  cock  or  valve  (Fig.  151)  is  of  slightly  modified  form. 

The  Kilbourn  stop-cock  is  provided  with  a  cone,  gland,  nut,  or 
sleeve,  and  collar,  so  constructed  and  combined  that  by  turning  the 
gland  nut  in  the  one  direction  the  cone  will  be  forced  into  and  held 
in  its  seating,  whilst  on  the  other  hand  by  turning  it  in  the  other,  or 
opposite  direction,  the  cone  will  be  started  from  its  seating. 

The  construction  of  the  Triumph  Ice  Machine  Company's  stop- 
valve  is  such  as  to  admit  of  its  being  packed  at  any  time  without 
running  the  risk  of  loss  of  gas.  The  valve  has  double  seats,  and  the 
valves,  when  closed,  clamp  the  seats  so  that  it  s  impossible  to  have 
any  leakage.  The  seats  are  formed  of  lead,  so  that  should  they  at  any 
time  be  injured  by  foreign  matter,  by  simply  removing  the  damaged 


254       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 


seat  and  inserting  a  new  one  a  new  valve  is  secured  at  only  the 
expense  of  a  lead  seat.     Fig.   152  shows  one  pattern  of  shut-off  or 


Fig.  152.— Frick  Shut-off  or  Stop-Valve.     Vertical  Central  Section. 


Fig.  153.— Frick  Stop- Valve. 
Perspective  View. 


Fig.  154.— Frick  Stop- Valve. 
Perspective  View. 


stop- valve  used  by  the  Frick  Company.     Figs.  153  and  154  are  two 
other  patterns  of  stop-valves  made  by  the  same  company. 


COCKS   AND   VALVES. 


255 


Fig.  155. — Haslam  Standard  Type  of 
Ammonia  Valve  for  Connections  over 
1  in.  diameter. 


Fig.  156.— Haslam  Standard  Type  of 
Ammonia  Valve  for  Connections  over 
1  in.  diameter. 


Fig.  157. — Haslam  Small  Steel  Valve  for  Gauge  and  other  Connections 
under  1  in.  diameter. 


256       REFRIGERATION    AND    COLD    STORAGE. 

Figs.  155  and  156  are  sectional  views  of  the  standard  Haslam  type 
of  ammonia  valves  such  as  are  supplied  for  all  sections  over  1  in.  in 
diameter,  and  are  the  outcome  of  many  years'  experience.  The  bodies 
of  the  valves  are  constructed  of  a  special  mixture  of  gun  iron,  the 
valves  and  spindles  being  of  steel.  A  special  feature  of  this  type  of 
valve  is  that  the  gland  can  be  repacked  at  any  time  without  possibility 
of  loss  of  ammonia.  Fig.  157  illustrates  a  small  steel  valve  used  for 
gauge  and  other  connections  under  1  in.  in  diameter. 


Fig.  158.  —Discharge  Valve,  Her- 
cules Compressor.  Vertical  Cen- 
tral Section. 


Fig.  159.— Suction  Valve,  Her- 
cules Compressor.  Vertical  Cen- 
tral Section. 


SUCTION  AND  DISCHARGE  VALVES. 

Compressors  for  ammonia  or  other  volatile  refrigerating  agents  are 
usually  provided,  in  the  case  of  a  vertical  single-acting  machine,'  with 
two  valves  — a  suction  and  a  discharge  valve — at  one  extremity  of  the 
cylinder  only ;  and  a  double-acting  horizontal  machine  has  as  a  general 
rule  four  valves — two,  viz.,  a  suction  and  a  discharge  valve,  being  located 
at  each  end  of  the  cylinder.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  remark  that  these 
valves  must,  like  all  other  valves  in  the  system,  be  maintained  tight,  but, 
in  addition  to  this,  these  particular  valves  are  all  held  against  their  seats 
by  suitable  steel  springs ;  and  it  is  a  matter  of  the  greatest  importance, 
as  regards  the  securing  of  the  utmost  economy  in  working  possible,  to 
see  that  the  proper  amount  of  tension  is  put  upon  these  springs. 


COCKS    AND    VALVES. 


257 


Should  the  spring  governing  the  discharge  valve  of  a  compressor 
be  too  strong,  then  it  is  evident  that  an  undue  amount  of  pressure  will 
have  to  be  exerted  in  order  to  raise  it  from  its  seat,  and  hence  a  loss 
will  be  experienced.  Still  worse  is  it  if  the  spring  on  the  suction  valve 
be  over  powerful,  as  in  this  event  an  excessive  amount  of  suction  will 


Fig.  160.— Triumph  Suction  Valve.     Vertical  Central  Section. 


have  to  be  produced  in  order  to  effect  the  raising  of  the  valve  off  its 
seat,  thereby  creating  a  serious  interference  with  the  flow  of  the  gas 
into  the  cylinder  of  the  compressor.  Very  sensible  losses  in  efficiency 
will  be  experienced  when  the  springs  of  both  valves  are  exerting  an 
over-pressure.  A  very  small  loss  in  the  volume  of  gas  for  each  single 
'7 


258       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

or  double  stroke  of  a  compressor  will  in  twenty-four  hours  amount 
to  a  serious  item. 

The  most  effective  method  for  adjusting  the  tension  of  the  com- 
Dressor  valve  springs  to  a  nicety  is  by  the  use  of  the  indicator.     In 


Fig.  161.  Fig.  162. 

Triumph  Pattern  Suction  Valves  for  Frick  Compressors. 

Vertical  Central  Sections. 


Fig.  163.  Fig.  164. 

Triumph  Pattern  Suction  Valves  for  De  La  Vergne  Compressors. 

Vertical  Central  Sections. 

fact,  without  the  use  of  the  latter  instrument,  it  is  impossible  to 
ensure  any  degree  of  accuracy  of  adjustment,  and  consequently  every 
compressor  should  be  provided  with  proper  pipes  to  admit  of  the 
attachment  of  an  indicator. 


COCKS   AND   VALVES. 


259 


Figs.  158  and  159  show  respectively  the  construction  of  the  dis- 
charge and  suction  valve  of  the  Hercules  compressor.  An  obvious 
objection  to  the  old  form  of  construction  was  that  on  the  removal  of  the 
cap  the  whole  valve  would  fall  into  the  cylinder.  In  the  improved 
pattern  made  by  the  Triumph  Company,  this  objection  is  obviated. 

Fig.  160  shows  the  Triumph  suction  valve.  This  valve  is  fitted 
with  a  guard  so  constructed  as  not  to  reduce  the  port  area,  which 
guard  is  attached  to  the  lower  end  of  the  valve  stem,  which  is  enlarged 
for  this  purpose.  In  case  of  breakage,  or  should  the  stem  come  loose, 


Fig.  165. — Triumph  Pattern  Valve  for  Calahan  Compressor. 
Vertical  Central  Section. 


this  guard  will  prevent  the  valve  from  dropping  into  the  cylinder. 
By  removing  the  hood  or  cap  on  the  top  of  this  valve,  which  may  be 
done  whilst  the  machine  is  in  operation,  the  movement  of  the  stem  may 
be  seen.  This  enables  the  person  in  charge  to  ascertain  whether  or 
not  the  valve  is  working  properly.  Should  the  suction  valve  become 
tight  from  some  cause,  or  the  spring  be  too  tight,  all  that  it  is  necessary 
to  do  is  to  remove  the  cap,  take  off  the  locker  and  turn  the  valve- 
stem  to  the  right.  If,  on  the  contrary,  the  spring  is  too  slack  or  light, 
and  permits  the  valve  to  open  too  much,  the  stem  should  be  turned  to 
the  left.  After  the  required  adjustment  the^locker  and  cap  can  be 


260       REFRIGERATION    AND    COLD    STORAGE. 

replaced  and  the  valve  will  be  found  to  be  working  properly.  The 
whole  of  this  operation  can  be  effected  without  shutting  down  the 
machine. 

Figs.  161  to  164  show  the  patterns  of  safety  suction  valves  con- 
structed by  the  Triumph  Company  for  the  Frick  and  the  De  La 
Vergne  types  of  compressors,  and  Fig.  165  illustrates  the  pattern  of 
valve  made  by  the  same  company  for  the  Calahan  type  of  machine. 

PIPE  JOINTS  AND  UNIONS. 

An  important  part  of  a  compression  plant  is  the  provision  of 
absolutely  gas-tight  pipe  joints,  which,  by  the  way,  is  by  no  means  an 
easy  matter  to  effect,  at  least  with  the  agents  working  at  the  higher 
pressures.  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  observe  that  the  pipes  must  be 
so  put  up  that  they  will  be  capable  of  expanding  and  contracting 
freely,  for  the  range  of  expansion  in  pipes  which  are  liable  to  be 
subjected  to  extremes  of  temperatures  so  widely  differing  as  in  the 
present  case,  is  considerable.  The  pipes  should  likewise  be  fixed  in 
sections,  so  that  any  particular  portion  can  be  removed  for  cleaning 
or  repairs  and  replaced  in  position  without  having  to  interfere  with 
the  other  ones. 

For  various  reasons  it  is  impracticable  to  use  joints  screwed 
together  with  white  or  red  lead  or  varnish,  as  in  the  case  of  steam- 
pipes,  and  consequently  some  other  method  of  forming  a  gas-tight  joint 
has  to  be  resorted  to.  A  joint  which  is  frequently  employed  is  a 
compound  screwed  and  soldered  one,  and  this  kind  of  joint  is  found  in 
practice  to  be  a  very  durable  and  reliable  one,  being  capable  of  with- 
standing the  expansion  and  contraction  to  which  the  pipes  are  con- 
stantly liable,  as  well  as  the  periodical  rapping  to  which  they  are 
subjected  during  cleansing  operations.  The  leading  features  of  all 
joints  of  this  description  is  the  commencement  of  the  female  screw 
thread  in  the  socket  a  short  distance  from  the  extremity  of  the  pipe  or 
fitting,  the  intermediate  portion  being  slightly  enlarged  so  as  to  form 
an  annular  space  or  clearance,  when  the  spigot  end  of  the  pipe  is  in 
position,  adapted  to  receive  the  solder. 

A  method  of  forming  gas-tight  joints,  for  use  wherever  the  end 
of  a  coil  or  of  a  pipe  is  to  be  secured  to  the  sides  or  ends  of  any 
of  the  chambers,  invented  by  Pontifex  in  1887,  is  as  follows: — 
A  nut  is  screwed  on  to  the  pipe  on  either  side  of  the  plate,  and  on 
one  or  both  sides  of  the  plate  a  circular  recess  is  formed  around  the 
pipe.  Into  this  recess,  and  around  the  pipe,  is  inserted  a  packing 


PIPES    AND   JOINTS.  261 

ring  or  insertion  of  india-rubber  or  of  any  other  suitable  material, 
which  ring  is  circular  in  transverse  section.  The  nut  screwing  on  the 
pipe  is  likewise  shaped  circular  at  one  end  so  as  to  enable  it  to  enter 
and  fit  into  the  recess,  or  in  some  instances  a  washer,  so  formed,  or 
dished  or  hollowed  out,  that  when  forced  against  the  packing  ring 
it  will  cause  it  to  press  inwardly  against  the  pipe,  is  interposed 
between  the  nut  and  the  plate.  In  this  manner  a  perfectly  gas-tight 
joint,  capable  of  withstanding  considerable  pressure,  is  formed,  the 
india-rubber  or  other  packing  ring  or  insertion  being  firmly  held  in 
position  so  that  it  cannot  escape  from  the  pressure  that  is  put  upon  it. 


Fig.  166. — De  La  Vergne  Pipe  Joint.     Perspective  View. 

Figs.  166  and  167  illustrate,  in  perspective  and  vertical  central 
section,  the  De  La  Vergne  type  of  pipe  joint.  To  ensure  a  tight  joint 
to  withstand  high  pressure  the  flanges  are  connected  to  the  pipes  both 
by  screw  threads  and  solder,  the  latter  being  run  into  the  annular 
recesses  or  clearances  shown  above  the  threaded  portions,  the  surfaces 
of  which  are  well  tinned.  The  joint  between  the  flanges  is  formed  by 
an  annular  projection  upon  the  one  fitting  into  a  corresponding  groove 
formed  in  the  other,  which,  when  the  nuts  are  screwed  up  upon  the 
bolts  for  connecting  the  flanges,  is  pressed  home  and  bears  upon 
a  suitable  packing  ring  inserted  into  the  bottom  of  the  correspond- 
ing groove  or  recess,  arid  thus  forms  a  perfectly  gas-tight  joint.  Similar 


262       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

screwed  and  soldered  joints  are  likewise  employed  wherever  it  is 
necessary  to  use  a  return  bend,  elbow,  tee,  cross,  or  other  connecting 
piece.  The  fittings  are  either  made  of  malleable  iron  or  steel. 

The  result  of  covering  the  thread  of  the  pipe  with  solder,  and 
running  the  latter  into  the  above-mentioned  annular  recess  or 
clearance,  and  thus  forming  a  compound  screwed  and  soldered  joint, 
is,  that  what  is  otherwise  the  weakest  part  of  a  length  of  piping  becomes 


Fig.  167.— De  La  Vergne  Pipe  Joint.     Vertical  Central  Section. 

the  strongest.  It  is  stated  by  the  company  that  it  has  been  invariably 
found  that  when  the  usually  applied  test  of  1,000  Ibs.  hydrostatic 
pressure  to  the  square  inch  is  overrun,  the  pipe  rips  open  before  the 
joint  gives  out. 

Fig.  168  is  a  vertical  central  section  illustrating  the  Kilbourn  joint, 
which  is  especially  intended  for  use  where  it  is  necessary  to  set  tubes 
or  pipes  in  places  where  an  expander  cannot  be  used,  or  where  sweating 
or  soldering  is  requisite  to  make  a  perfect  gas-tight  joint  adapted  to 


PIPES   AND  JOINTS. 


263 


withstand  very  high  pressures.  As  will  be  seen  from  the  illustration 
the  extremity  of  the  pipe  is  flanged  and  secured  in  a  recess  in  the  plate 
by  means  of  a  nut  or  collar,  after  which  solder  is  run  round  it. 
Where  the  plate  is  of  insufficient  thickness  to  allow  for  a  depression 
being  left  for  the  solder  a  rib  is  formed  thereon,  as  shown.  In  this 
manner  the  inventor  claims  that  the  pipe  or  tube  can  be  so  secured 
to  a  tube  plate  or  its  equivalent  that  it  will  be  perfectly  firm  and  rigid, 
and  that  the  solder  will  retain  its  hold  against  all  ordinary  or  usual 
contingencies,  whilst  at  the  same  time  forming  a  perfectly  gas-tight 
joint.  In  Fig.  169  is  shown  the  Kilbourn  coupling  for  connecting 
together  different  lengths  of  pipe,  or  forming  joints  between  the  latter 
and  their  connections,  where  fluid-tight  joints  to  withstand  very  high 
pressures  are  demanded.  The  usual  internally  screw-threaded  socket 


Fig.  168. — Kilbourn  Joint  for  connecting  Pipes  to  Plates. 
Vertical  Central  Section. 


is  chamfered  or  bevelled  at  its  extremities,  and  caps  having  internally 
chamfered  shoulders  and  bored  to  fit  over  the  pipes,  arid  over  the 
socket,  are  forced  against  the  latter  by  means  of  back-nuts,  so  as 
to  compress  the  packing  rings  or  jointing  materials,  placed  between 
the  chamfers  on  the  socket  and  caps,  as  shown,  and  thus  form  a 
perfectly  gas  or  fluid  tight  joint. 

In  forming  a  screwed  and  soldered  joint  (Figs.  166  and  167)  of 
the  type  above  described,  owing  to  the  comparatively  small  amount 
of  surfaces  in  actual  contact  and  tending  to  prevent  leakage,  it 
is  essential  that  great  care  should  be  taken  in  order  to  ensure  the 
lasting  qualities  of  the  joint,  and  if  these  precautions  be  observed,  and 
the  joint  be  well  made,  it  will  remain  gas-tight  for  a  considerable 
number  of  years.  Those  portions  of  both  the  exterior  and  interior 
surfaces  of  the  pipes  between  which  the  solder  is  poured  should  be 


264      REFRIGERATION   AND   COLD   STORAGE. 


first  carefully  tinned,  this  operation  being  performed  just  before  the 
formation  of  the  joint,  so  as  to  avoid  the  injury  that  might  otherwise 
occur  to  the  thin  layers  of  tin,  and  thus  to  ensure  as  perfect  surfaces 
as  possible  and  admit  of  as  firm  as  practicable  an  adherence  of  solder 

to  both  of  the  surfaces  to  be  united. 

All  grease  having  been  first  care- 
fully removed  by  scraping  and  washing 
over  with  killed  or  prepared  hydro- 
chloric or  muriatic  acid,  the  tinning  of 
the  faces  can  be  easily  performed  by 
means  of  a  soldering  iron  in  the  ordi- 
nary manner.  The  killing  of  the  hydro- 
chloric acid  is  effected  by  placing  in  it 
pieces  of  zinc  until  all  ebullition  ceases, 
and  after  cooling,  diluting  the  acid  with 
water  in  the  proportion  of  two  parts  of 
the  latter  to  one  part  of  the  former. 

It  will,  of  course,  be  understood  that 
to  disconnect  a  screwed  and  soldered 
joint,  a  sufficient  application  of  heat 
must  be  made  to  melt  or  fuse  the  solder. 
Figs.  170  to  183  show  a  few  amongst 
the  numerous  other  joints  that  have 
been  brought  out  and  used.  Fig.  170 
is  a  very  substantial  pattern  of  steel 
flange  union  or  connection,  in  which  a 
blue-lead  gasket  is  used  which  is  cast  to 
fit  into  the  square  groove  in  the  face  of 
one  of  the  flanges,  the  rib  or  projection 
on  the  opposite  flange  also  fitting  into 
this  groove  so  that  when  the  flanges  are 
drawn  together  by  the  four  bolts,  the 
lead  gasket  will  be  pressed  firmly  into 
the  groove,  the  latter  preserving  the 
form  and  thickness  of  the  gasket,  and 
so  forming  a  perfectly  gas-tight  joint. 

Similar  types  of  unions  are  also  shown  in  Figs.  171,  172,  and  173. 
The  flange  union  shown  in  Fig.  174  is  intended  for  a  joint  made  with 
rubber  and  gasket,  or  any  sheet  packing  similar  to  that  used  for  gas, 
water,  and  steam,  and  the  flanges  are  made  of  steel. 

By  reason  of  the  larger  surfaces  that  are  in  contact,  flange  joints 


Fig.  169.— Kilbourn  Joint  for 
connecting  different  lengths  of 
Pipes.  Vertical  Central  Section 
through  Joint. 


PIPES   AND  JOINTS. 


265 


formed  in  the  ordinary  manner  would  remain  gas-tight  for  a  longer 
time  than  would  be  the  case  with  screwed  joints.  Ammonia-tight 
flange  joints  can  he  made  by  the  insertion  of  a  common  gasket,  and 
with  flanges  adapted  for  the  use  of  sheet  packing  of  the  kinds  used 


Fig.  170. — Flange  Coupling  or  Union  for  Lead  Gasket. 
Vertical  Central  Section. 


for  steam  and  hydraulic  joints,  but  in  the  latter  case  it  is  preferable  to 
employ  flanges  having  on  one  of  their  faces  a  circular  raised  rib  or 
fillet  A,  and  in  the  other  face  a  corresponding  groove  or  recess,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  174. 


Figs.  171  and  172. — Frick  Coupling  or  Union  for  Large  Pipes. 
Vertical  Central  Section  and  End  View. 


Fig.  175  shows  a  De  La  Vergne  soldered  pipe  joint-socket  bend  or 
elbow  for  ammonia  pipes.  Fig.  176  is  a  return  socket  bend.  Fig.  177 
is  a  flange  bend  or  elbow  for  gasket  joint.  Figs.  178  and  179  is  a  side 
view,  partly  in  elevation,  and  an  end  view  of  the  Frick  evaporating 


266       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD    STORAGE. 


Fig.  173.— Frick  Coupling  or 
Union  for  Small  Pipes.  Verti- 
cal Central  Section. 


Fig.  174.— Flange  Coupling  or 
Union  for  Sheet  Packing.  Eleva- 
tion partly  in  Central  Section. 


SOLDER 


Fig.  175. — De  La  Vergrie  Soldered  Pipe  Joint,  Bend,  or  Elbow. 
Vertical  Central  Section. 


Fig.  176.—  Return  Socket  Bend. 
Vertical  Central  Section. 


Fig.  177.— Flange  Bend  or  Elbow. 
Vertical  Central  Section. 


PIPES   AND  JOINTS. 


267 


coil  bend.  Fig.  180  is  an  end  view,  and  Fig.  181  is  a  side  view  of  a 
flange^return  bend,  and  Figs.  182  and  183  show,  in  side  elevation 
and  vertical  central  section,  a  form  of  return  bend  or  head  formed  in 


Figs.  178  and  179. — Frick  Evaporating  Coil  Bend.     Side  View  partly  in  Section 

and  End  View. 

halves  for  use  in  places  where  it  is  desired  to  disconnect  any  one  of  the 
coils  of  a  stack.  The  pipes  are,  it  will  be  seen,  connected  to  the 
head  by  screwed  and  soldered  joints,  and  the  two  halves  of  the  head 


Figs.  180  and  181.— Flange  Return  Bend.     End  View  and  Side  View. 

are  arranged  to  form  an  ordinary  flange  union,  a  suitable  insertion 
being  used  to  form  a  gas-tight  joint,  and  two  long  side  bolts  (one  of 
which  only  is  shown  fully  in  the  illustrations)  and  a  shorter  bolt  at  the 


268       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 


bend  serving  to  clamp  them  together.     The  illustrations  are  for  the 
most  part  sufficiently  clear,  and  require  but  little  explanation. 


o 


Fig.  182.—  Return  Bend  formed  in 
halves.     Side  Elevation. 


TLU 


Fig.  183. — Return  Bend  formed  in 
halves.    Vertical  Central  Section. 


By  the  use  of  electric  welding  makers  are  now  enabled  to  provide 
long  continuous  coils  of  pipe  and  so  for  the  most  part  dispense  with 
the  use  of  joints  in  awkward  places. 

MEANS  FOR  INCREASING  COOLING  SURFACES  OF  PIPES. 

Fig.  184  is  a  perspective  view  of  a  disc  or  gill  which  is  formed  in 
halves,  one  of  which  is  shown  removed  in  Fig.  185.  The  two  halves 


Figs.  184  and  185. — Discs  or  Gills  for  Increasing  the  Surface  of 
Refrigerating  Pipes.  View  showing  Gill  fixed  in  position  on  Pipe, 
and  View  showing  one-half  of  Gill  removed. 


PIPES   AND   JOINTS.  269 

or  parts  of  the  disc  are  adapted  to  be  secured  together  upon  the 
pipe  by  means  of  iron  clips  which  press  them  against  the  pipe. 
These  discs  are  fixed  at  regular  intervals  upon  the  cooling  or  re- 
frigerating pipes  in  the  cold  stores  or  chambers,  after  they  are  all  put 
up,  and,  according  to  the  inventors,  their  effect  is  to  increase  the 
cooling  surface  to  such  an  extent  that  only  one  foot  of  pipe  is  found 
requisite  where  four  would  be  necessary  without  them.  These  remov- 
able discs  or  gills  are  made  by  Messrs  De  La  Yergne  &  Co. 

Mr  B.  Lebrun,  of  Nimy,  Belgium,  also  makes  a  pattern  of  cooling 
pipe  with  gills  or  flanges.  These  pipes  are  of  cast  iron,  and  the  gills 
or  flanges  are  formed  therewith.  The  Maquet  gilled  piping  is  made 
by  Mr  H.  R.  Witting,  of  9  Southampton  Street,  London.  Several 
other  arrangements  on  the  same  principle  have  been  devised  for 
increasing  the  surface  of  cooling  or  refrigerating  pipes. 


CHAPTER   XII 
REFRIGERATION   AND   COLD   STORAGE 

Refrigeration  by  means  of  the  Cold- Air  Machine — Refrigeration  by  means  of  Com- 
pression or  Absorption  Machines — The  Brine  Circulation  System — The 
Direct  Expansion  System — The  Cold-Air  Blast  System — Piping  for  Cold 

Stores. 

THE  knowledge  of  the  conservative  action  of  cold  upon  organic  sub- 
stances is  probably  as  old  as  the  existence  of  human  beings,  and  has 
been  constantly  utilised  to  preserve  from  putrefaction  various  alimen- 
tary substances. 

Attempts  have  for  many  years  been  made  to  produce  a  refrigerated 
atmosphere  by  means  of  ice,  but  the  results  obtained  are  far  from  satis- 
factory, the  atmosphere  of  the  stores  or  chambers  so  cooled  being  as 
a  rule  saturated  with  moisture  from  the  melting  ice,  and  the  meat 
preserved  therein  assuming  a  more  or  less  musty  and  disagreeable 
flavour.  The  possibility,  however,  of  successfully  keeping  meat  in 
artificially  cooled  stores  or  chambers  dates  only  from  the  invention  of 
Charles  Tellier's  machine  and  brine  circulating  system  in  1873,  by 
which  he  was  enabled  to  create  a  cold  dry  atmosphere,  wherein  organic 
substances  could  be  maintained  constantly  at  that  temperature  which 
is  found  to  be  preservative.  Mechanical  refrigeration  is  therefore,  it 
will  be  seen,  an  art  of  comparatively  modern  origin. 

For  the  preservation  of  meat,  machines  working  upon  the  com- 
pression system,  the  absorption  system,  and  cold-air  machines  are 
employed. 

In  freezing  carcasses  for  transportation,  the  cold  is  best  applied 
gradually  at  first,  so  as  to  ensure  an  even  freezing  throughout,  and 
prevent  damage  to  the  inner  portions  of  the  meat  by  the  freezing  of 
the  external  surfaces  thereof  before  the  internal  heat  is  sufficiently 
lowered.  When  frozen  or  congealed  a  temperature  of  at  least  as  low 
as  18°  Fahr.  should  be  maintained.  For  cooling  ships'  holds,  cold 
stores  or  chambers,  and  other  similar  purposes,  temperatures  varying 
from  15°  to  55°  Fahr.  are  required,  in  accordance  with  the  material 

270 


REFRIGERATION    BY  COLD-AIR   MACHINES.     271 

being  dealt  with,  an  even  temperature  in  every  part  being  absolutely 
necessary.  When  freezing  carcasses  they  must  be  hung  at  such  dis- 
tance apart  as  to  admit  of  a  ready  circulation  of  the  cold  air  round 
them  taking  place ;  for  storage  for  transportation,  however,  it  is  recom- 
mended to  pack  them  as  tightly  together  as  possible,  provided  no 
injury  through  bruising  be  caused,  and  that  a  sufficient  clearance  or 
free  space  be  left  for  the  circulation  of  the  cold  air  between  the 
carcasses  and  the  inner  lining  of  the  storage  chamber.  The  tempera- 
ture of  cold  land  stores  or  chambers  for  storing  and  preserving  unfrozen 
meat  need  not  be  lower  than  25°  Fahr.,  but  should  not  rise  above  30° 
Fahr.  When  the  meat  is  frozen,  however,  as  it  must  be  when  it  has  to 
be  kept  for  any  length  of  time,  it  may  advantageously  be  maintained 
at  as  low  a  temperature  as  15°  Fahr. 

The  atmosphere  of  cold  stores  in  some  instances  should  be  kept  as 
dry  as  practicable ;  whilst  in  others  a  certain  amount  of  moisture  is 
desirable,  as,  for  instance,  when  used  for  preserving  fish,  eggs,  and 
cheese,  which  are  injured  by  the  air  being  too  dry.  For  preserving 
meat  for  comparatively  short  periods  the  best  temperature  is  from 
30°  to  40°  Fahr.,  as  most  descriptions  are  injured  to  a  greater  or 
less  extent  if  permitted  to  freeze,  by  the  bursting  of  the  vesicles  of 
which  flesh  is  composed.  When,  however,  it  is  required  to  be  pre- 
served for  a  longer  period  than,  say,  three  weeks  it  is  absolutely 
essential  that  the  meat  should  be  frozen,  otherwise  a  slight  decom- 
position will  take  place,  and  it  will  become  greatly  deteriorated. 

When  a  cold-air  machine  is  employed  for  refrigeration,  the  cold 
air  is,  as  a  rule,  admitted  to  the  freezing  room,  cold  storage  chamber, 
or  chill  room  through  ducts  placed  near  the  ceiling,  and  after  it  ha? 
done  its  duty  is  conducted  back  again  to  the  compressor,  wherein, 
after  being  mixed  with  a  sufficient  amount  of  fresh  air,  it  is  again 
compressed. 

The  most  advantageous  method  of  conveying  the  cold  air  from  the 
machine  to  the  chill  room  or  cold  store  or  chamber  is  by  means  of 
wooden  trunks  or  conduits  discharging  into  the  latter  through  an  inlet 
situated  at  or  near  the  ceiling  at  one  extremity  thereof,  the  used  or 
spent  air  being  withdrawn  through  a  similarly  situated  outlet  and  con- 
duit at  the  other  extremity.  All  abrupt  rises  or  falls  or  bends  in  the 
air  trunks  should  be  avoided,  and  their  length  should  not  be  excessive, 
as  the  loss  experienced  through  the  rise  in  temperature  of  the  air  in 
the  latter  case  would  be  very  considerable.  The  extreme  limit  of 
distance  to  which  it  is  advisable  to  convey  the  cold  air  through  these 
conduits  is  200  feet. 


272       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD    STORAGE. 

When  carcasses  are  to  be  congealed,  the  temperature  of  the  freezing 
chamber  or  room  should  be  maintained  at  about  10°  Fahr. ;  as  has 
been  already  stated,  however,  the  cold  should  on  no  account  be  applied 
too  rapidly  at  starting,  but  gradually,  so  that  the  internal  heat  may 
be  first  sufficiently  reduced,  to  avoid  injury  to  that  portion  of  the  meat, 
before  the  outer  surface  becomes  frozen. 

For  after  preservation  of  frozen  meat  it  is  sufficient  to  keep  the 
atmosphere  of  the  chamber  or  store  down  to  a  temperature  of  about 
15°  or  18°  Fahr. ;  it  should  not,  however,  be  allowed  to  rise  above 
20°  Fahr. 


REFRIGERATION  BY  MEANS  OF  COLD-AIR  MACHINES. 

According  to  Colonel  B.  H.  Martindale,  C.B.,  R.E.,  the  general 
manager  of  the  London  and  St  Katherine  Dock  Co.,  in  1886  they 
had  fifty-six  refrigerating  chambers  in  two  vaults,  the  smallest  of 
which  chambers  had  a  cubic  content  of  2,273  ft.,  and  the  largest 
thereof  of  9,280  ft.,  the  total  content  of  the  fifty-six  chambers  being 
something  over  183,000  cub.  ft.  The  carcasses  of  the  sheep  averaged 
in  weight  56,  60,  and  72  Ibs.  each;  and  the  whole  of  the  chambers 
completely  filled  would  contain  about  59,000  sheep  of  the  first  weight, 
56,000  of  the  second,  and  44,000  of  the  third ;  in  practice,  however, 
a  space  or  clearance  had  to  be  left  for  gangways,  and  for  separating 
different  marks,  for  which  a  deduction  had  to  be  made  from  the  total 
storage  capacity,  and  taking  the  shipments  as  they  chanced  to  arrive, 
the  above  space  was  equal  to  the  storing  of  the  carcasses  of  about 
44,000  sheep. 

The  cold-air  machines  employed  in  connection  with  the  fifty-six 
chambers  in  question  comprised  four  Haslam  60,000  cub.  ft.  machines, 
and  three  Hall  30,000  cub.  ft.  machines,  supplied  with  steam  from 
three  multitubular  boilers  of  the  marine  type,  and  four  boilers  of  the 
locomotive  type,  the  former  having  been  found  in  practice  to  be  the 
best.  One  of  the  Haslam  60,000  cub.  ft.  machines  worked  on  fifteen 
chambers,  having  a  total  capacity  of  48,000  cub.  ft.,  and  capable  of 
storing  11,000  carcasses  of  sheep  averaging  in  weight  72  Ibs.  each,  but 
which  storage  capacity  was  reduced  by  gangways,  &c.,  to  between 
8,000  and  9,000.  The  engine  was  kept  running  twenty  hours  out 
of  every  twenty-four,  the  stoppage  including  the  time  required  for 
clearing  the  snow  from  the  valves,  snow  boxes,  and  air-trunks.  The 
average  speed  was  eighty  revolutions  per  minute,  at  an  air  pressure  of 
44  Ibs.  per  square  inch,  giving  a  temperature  of  -  70°  in  the  snow 


REFRIGERATION    BY   COLD-AIR   MACHINES.     273 

boxes,  and  keeping  the  temperature  of  the  chambers  down  to  from 
15°  to  18°  Fahr.,  which  was  found  in  practice  to  be  about  the  best 
temperature  to  keep  the  meat  at.  Better  results  were  obtained  in 
proportion  to  the  fuel  consumed,  by  working  at  an  air  pressure  of 
about  44  Ibs.  per  square  inch,  instead  of  50  Ibs.  and  upwards ;  not 
giving  such  a  low  temperature  in  the  snow  boxes,  but  about  -  50° 
Fahr.  instead  of  -  60°  or  -  70°,  and  delivering  a  larger  volume  of 
cold  air  into  the  chambers.  The  proportionate  rise  in  temperature  was 
then  much  less  between  the  delivery  from  the  expansion  cylinder  and 
the  distant  chambers.  Twenty-four  chambers,  with  a  capacity  of 
90,000  cub.  ft.,  were  worked  by  two  Haslam  60,000  cub.  ft.  machines, 
running  at  an  average  of  seventy  revolutions  per  minute,  with  an  air 
pressure  of  40  Ibs.  per  square  inch,  the  temperature  in  the  snow  box 
being  -  55°  Fahr. 

The  atmosphere  of  the  chamber  next  the  machine  could,  as  a  rule, 
be  kept  at  a  sufficiently  low  temperature  with  but  little  opening  of 
the  delivery  ports  in  the  air-trunks,  and  almost  without  admitting  air 
at  all,  as  the  mere  passage  of  the  air-trunks  through  it  kept  it  nearly 
cool  enough.  The  greatest  care  was  taken  in  regulating  the  delivery  and 
return  air-ports  or  apertures,  gradually  increasing  the  area  of  both  in 
proportion  to  the  increased  distance  from  the  machine;  the  greatest 
distance  to  which  the  cold  air  was  conveyed  being  180  ft. 

The  practical  result  of  the  observations  taken,  which  extended  over 
some  time,  was  that  the  rise  of  temperature  in  travelling  was  1°  Fahr. 
for  every  18  or  20  ft.  travelled;  but  this,  of  course,  must  not  be  taken 
for  more  than  the  result  arrived  at  from  general  working  under 
existing  conditions.  It  was  likewise  found  that  from  1  to  1£  cub.  ft. 
of  cold  air  per  hour  would  keep  cool — say  at  18°  Fahr. — 1  cub.  ft.  of 
storage  at  a  distance  not  exceeding  180  ft.,  or,  say,  at  an  average 
distance  of  90  ft.  from  the  machine.  The  first  amount  named,  viz., 
1  cub.  ft.  of  cold  air  per  hour  to  each  cubic  foot  of  storage,  was  the 
result  arrived  at  during  temperate  weather,  and  this,  it  is  estimated, 
would  most  probably  be  amply  sufficient  were  the  chambers  fully 
stored  with  carcasses,  and  left  entirely  undisturbed;  but  as  this  is 
not  possible  in  practice,  an  allowance  has  to  be  made  for  the  opening 
of  doors  for  the  purpose  of  deliveries  and  so  on;  and  the  second 
amount,  or  1 J  cub.  ft.  of  air  per  hour  for  every  cubic  foot  of  storage  that 
it  was  desired  to  keep  down  to,  say,  18°  Fahr.,  was  found  to  be  about 
correct  for  general  practice. 

The  coal  consumption  was  stated  to  be  for  three  machines,  giving 
out  nominally  120,000  cub.  ft.  of  air  (one  60,000  cub.  ft.  and  two 
18 


274       REFRIGERATION    AND    COLD    STORAGE. 

30,000  cub.  ft.  machines),  4J  tons  of  coal  in  twenty  hours;  and 
two  60,000  cub.  ft.  machines,  working  under  practically  similar  con- 
ditions, had  a  like  consumption.  The  coal  used  was  ordinary  Welsh 
coal,  costing  about  16s.  6d.  per  ton. 

The  London  and  India  Docks  Co.,  when  the  extensions  now  in 
progress  are  completed,  will  have  refrigerated  accommodation  capable 
of  receiving  550,000  sheep.  The  extension  consists  of  twelve  cold 
chambers  on  three  floors. 

REFRIGERATION  BY  MEANS  OF  COMPRESSION  OR  ABSORPTION 
MACHINES. 

When  refrigerating  machines  wherein  the  cooling  is  effected  by 
the  evaporation  of  a  volatile  liquid  are  employed,  the  refrigeration  can 
be  conveniently  effected  in  three  ways,  viz.  : — 

First,  by  cooling  a  non-congealable  salt  brine,  and  then  pumping 
it  through  a  system  of  pipes,  or  of  open  troughs  in  the  chambers. 
Secondly,  by  causing  a  current  of  air,  generated  by  means  of  a  fan 
or  otherwise,  to  impinge  against  surfaces  reduced  to  a  low  tempera- 
ture by  the  expansion  of  the  refrigerating  agent  itself,  or  by  an  internal 
circulation  of  cooled  brine,  and  conducting  the  cold  air  to  the  refri 
gerating  chambers.  And  thirdly,  by  expanding  the  gas  direct  through 
pipes  placed  in  the  chambers. 

The  main  advantage  claimed  for  the  first  of  these  plans  is  that  it 
admits  of  the  machine  being  stopped,  and  when  an  independent  brine 
pump  is  employed,  the  brine,  wherein  a  large  reserve  of  cold  is  stored 
up,  can  be  continued  in  circulation  for  a  considerable  time  before  any 
thawing  from  rise  of  temperature  and  consequently  dripping  will  take 
place  from  the  pipes. 

THE  BRINE  CIRCULATION  SYSTEM. 

The  agent  employed  in  the  brine  circulating  system  consists  of  a 
solution  of  chloride  of  sodium  or  common  salt*  or  of  chloride  of 
calcium,*  chloride  of  magnesium,  or  any  other  suitable  solution  capable 
of  standing  very  low  temperatures  without  congealing.  To  extract  or 
absorb  the  heat  from  the  brine,  the  simplest  and  best  method  is 
undoubtedly  that  most  commonly  employed,  which  consists  in  passing 
it  through  a  tank  of  ample  dimensions  fitted  with  suitable  coils  of  pipes, 
through  which  the  chilled  liquefied  ether,  carbonic  acid,  ammonia,  or 
other  volatile  refrigerating  agent,  circulates,  vaporises  or  gasifies,  ex- 
*  For  proportions,  &c. ,  of  these  solutions,  see  p.  532. 


THE    DIRECT    EXPANSION    SYSTEM.  275 

pands,  and  subsequently  returns  therefrom  in  the  form  of  a  gas  or 
vapour  to  the  compressor,  in  one  system ;  and  in  the  other,  in  the  form 
of  a  strong  solution  to  the  generator.  An  expansion  valve  or  cock, 
such  as  one  of  those  illustrated  in  Figs.  140  to  149  (pages  246  to  252), 
is  fitted  to  the  inlet  ends  of  the  submerged  coils.  The  brine,  being 
thus  deprived  of  a  large  portion  of  its  heat,  is  then  drawn  away  from 
this  refrigerating  or  cooling  tank  or  vessel  by  the  brine  circulating 
pump,  and  is  forced  through  the  system  of  cooling  pipes  in  the 
refrigerating  chamber  or  cold  store. 

The  arrangement  of  the  cooling  pipes  in  cold  stores  for  preserving 
provisions  of  a  perishable  nature  requiring  to  be  kept  at  various  tem- 
peratures between  25°  and  45°  Fahr.,  in  accordance  with  the  descrip- 
tion and  nature  of  the  provisions,  or  of  those  in  chambers  for  freezing 
or  congealing  meat  and  keeping  it  frozen,  which  require  to  be  main- 
tained at  temperatures  of  between  10°  and  18°  Fahr.,  according  to 
the  work  demanded,  only  differ  from  other  installations  in  the  par- 
ticular disposition  and  numbers  of  the  pipes,  the  chambers  intended 
for  the  latter  purpose  being,  of  course,  fitted  with  the  greatest  number. 

THE  DIRECT  EXPANSION  SYSTEM. 

When  the  direct  expansion  system  is  in  use  the  pipes  should 
invariably  be  of  wrought  iron,  and  even  where  the  brine  circulating 
system  is  employed  they  should  preferably  also  be  of  the  latter  material 
in  the  case  of  freezing  chambers,  as  the  heat  from  the  chambers 
passes  more  readily  through  the  thinner  walls  of  the  smaller  wrought- 
iron  pipes.  Besides  which  there  is,  as  has  been  already  mentioned 
elsewhere,  a  considerable  saving  of  space. 

One  advantage  of  this  system  is  that  a  more  economical  and  rapid 
cooling  is  effected  than  with  the  brine  circulation  ;  another  is  the  simpli- 
fication of  the  apparatus  and  the  reduction  in  the  first  cost  thereof. 
To  counterbalance  which  advantages,  however,  there  is  the  danger  to 
human  life,  of  damage  to  the  contents  of  the  refrigerating  chambers, 
and  of  fire,  should  any  leakage  of  the  gas  or  vapour  from  the  cooling 
pipes  take  place,  and  also  the  impossibility  of  shutting  down  the  machine 
even  for  a  few  minutes  without  the  cooling  pipes  commencing  to  drip. 

As  regards  damage  to  the  contents  of  the  rooms  or  chambers  by 
reason  of  an  escape  of  the  refrigerating  agent,  however,  carbonic  acid 
is  known  to  be  non-injurious,  and  as  regards  ammonia  the  fears  of 
any  deterioration  in  the  quality  of  fresh  meat  which  is  being  frozen  or 
preserved,  resulting  from  any  accidental  leakage  of  the  pipes,  would 


276       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

seem  to  be  totally  groundless,  judging  from  the  results  of  recent 
practice,  and  the  opinion  of  experts. 

On  this  head  the  following  extract  from  an  article  published  in 
the  Scientific  American  in  1889  is  of  interest : — 

"Some  years  ago  I)r  B.  W.  Richardson,  in  a  communication  to 
the  Medical  Society,  called  attention  to  the  antiputrescent  properties 
of  ammonia,  and  showed  that  blood,  milk,  and  other  alterable  liquids 
could  be  preserved  for  a  long  time  by  adding  to  them  certain  quantities 
of  solution  of  ammonia ;  and  solid  substances,  such  as  flesh,  by  keeping 
them  in  closed  vessels  filled  with  ammonia  gas.  Some  doubts  that 
would  appear  to  have  been  raised  as  to  the  results  reported,  on  the 
ground  that  ammonia  was  itself  a  product  of  decomposition,  induced 
Dr  Gottbrecht,  of  the  University  of  Greifswald,  to  repeat  the  experi- 
ments with  the  result  of  practically  confirming  all  Dr  Richardson's 
statements.  After  some  preliminary  experiments,  in  which  animal 
matter  placed  in  5  per  cent,  of  ammonia  solution  was  found  free  from 
putrescence  after  nearly  two  years,  ammonium  carbonate  was  used  in  place 
of  the  free  alkali  for  the  sake  of  convenience.  The  first  experiment 
made  with  the  washed  intestines  of  freshly  killed  pigs  showed  the 
power  of  ammonium  carbonate  to  retard  putrefaction  to  be  directly 
dependent  upon  the  concentration  of  the  solution,  a  1  per  cent, 
solution  retarding  it  until  the  third  day,  a  10  per  cent,  solution  until 
about  the  sixtieth  day.  When  added  to  gelatine  in  which  putrefaction 
had  already  been  set  up  by  inoculation,  it  was  found  .that  a  5  per  cent, 
solution  so  modified  the  conditions  that  the  putrescence  ceased,  and 
a  2J  per  cent,  solution  inhibited  the  development  of  bacteria,  so  that 
the  liquefaction  of  the  gelatine  was  practically  stopped.  Other  experi- 
ments showed  that  in  an  atmosphere  impregnated  with  ammonium 
carbonate  meat  could  be  kept  for  six  months,  and  at  the  end  of  that 
time  remain  nearly  unaltered." 

When  chambers  are  refrigerated  on  the  direct  expansion  system 
it  is  nevertheless  essential  that  the  system  of  pipes  employed,  which 
can  be  arranged  on  any  of  the  plans  adopted  in  the  case  of  brine 
circulation,  should  be  such  as  to  reduce  as  far  as  practicable  to  a 
minimum  the  chance  of  leakage  taking  place  at  the  joints,  cocks, 
valves,  &c.,  as,  independently  altogether  of  any  possible  damage  to 
the  contents  of  the  stores  or  chambers,  it  is  highly  desirable,  for 
economical  reasons,  that  as  little  as  possible  of  the  circulating  agent 
be  lost.  Various  gas-tight  joints  have  been  already  briefly  described 
in  a  previous  chapter. 

Ammonia,  both  in  a  liquid  and  gaseous  condition,  has  no  chemical 


THE    DIRECT    EXPANSION    SYSTEM. 


277 


effect  whatever  upon  iron,  consequently  the  cooling  pipes  require  no 
protection  except  upon  the  exterior,  which  should  receive  a  coat  of 
paint  every  year  to  prevent  them  from  rusting. 

So  long,  however,  as  the  pipes  are  coated  with  snow  or  ice  no 
corrosion  will  take  place,  even  externally,  as  they  are  thoroughly  pro- 
tected thereby  from  the  oxidising  effect  of  the  atmosphere  ;  when,  how- 
ever, they  are  subjected  to  alternate  freezing  and  thawing,  as  is  usually 
the  case  during  actual  work,  when  the  chambers  or  stores  are  alternately 
in  and  out  of  use,  then  they  must  be  protected  as  above  mentioned. 


40°     35°     30°      25 
SS      51       '+S      39 


Fig.  186. — Diagram  showing  the  Variation  in  Capacity,  &c.,  of  a 
Refrigerating  Machine. 


There  is  not  the  least  doubt  but  that  the  direct  expansion  system 
is,  as  has  been  before  mentioned,  more  economical  than  the  brine  circu- 
lation system.  This  will  be  obvious  when  it  is  remembered  that  every 
transmission  of  heat  must  of  necessity  entail  a  loss  of  efficiency.  A  far 
higher  evaporating  pressure  can  be  maintained  in  direct  pipes  than  in 
evaporating  coils  in  a  brine  tank,  whilst  at  the  same  time  they  have 
still  within  them  a  far  lower  temperature  than  in  the  latter.  The 
result  of  this  is  that,  in  the  compression  system,  the  gas  is  sucked  into 
the  compressor  at  a  greater  back  pressure  when  direct  expansion  is 


278       REFRIGERATION    AND    COLD    STORAGE. 


employed,  and  a  far  larger  amount  of  efficiency  is  obtained.  The 
cold,  moreover,  being  produced  exactly  where  it  in  required,  there  is 
practically  no  waste. 

The  diagram,  Fig.  186,  and  the  following  table,  show  the  variations 
in  capacity,  &c.,  of  a  refrigerating  machine,  and  the  economy  of  direct 
expansion,  as  drawn  up  by  the  De  La  Yergne  Co. 

In  the  above  diagram  the  line  marked  "capacity  of  machine" 
shows  the  diminished  capacity  as  the  back  pressure  is  reduced.  Tf 
the  machine  has  a  capacity  of  10  tons  at  a  return  pressure  of  28 
Ibs.,  as  shown  by  the  vertical  height  of  the  curve,  it  has  a  capacity 
of  5  tons  only  with  a  return  pressure  of  6  Ibs.  Under  the  same 
circumstances  the  cost  of  fuel  per  ton  is  increased  in  the  ratio  of 
the  vertical  heights  to  the  curve  marked  "  cost  of  fuel,"  namely,  from 
14-5  to  25.  In  other  words  the  cost  per  ton  is  nearly  doubled  while 
the  capacity  is  halved.  The  work  as  seen  by  the  curve  marked  "work 
required  "  diminishes  very  slowly. 

CUBIC  FEET  OF  AMMONIA  GAS  PER  MINUTE  TO  PRODUCE  ONE  TON 
OF  REFRIGERATION  PER  DAY. 

CONDENSER. 


P 

103 

H5 

127 

139 

153 

168 

185 

200 

218 

p 

t 

65° 

70° 

75° 

80° 

8S° 

90° 

95° 

100° 

105° 

4 

-20° 

5-84 

5-9 

5-96 

6-03 

6-06 

6-6 

6"23 

6-30 

6-43 

QJ 

6 

-15° 

5-35 

5-4 

5-46 

5-52 

5-58 

5-64 

5-70 

5-77 

5-83 

1 

9 

-10° 

4-66 

4-73 

4-76 

4-81 

4-86 

4-91 

4-97 

5-05 

5-08 

H 

13 

-   5° 

4-09 

4-12 

4-17 

4-21 

4-25 

4-30 

4-35 

4-40 

4-44 

M 

16 

0° 

3-59 

3-63 

3-66 

3-70 

3-74 

3-78 

3-83 

3-87 

3-91 

1 

20 

5° 

3-20 

3-24 

3-27 

3-30 

3-34 

3-38 

3-41 

3-45 

3-49 

« 

24 

10° 

2-87 

2-9 

2-93 

2-96 

2-99 

3-02 

3-06 

3-09 

3-12 

28 

15° 

2-59 

2-61 

2-65 

2-68 

2-71 

2-73 

2-76 

2-80 

2-82 

33 

20° 

2-31 

2-34 

2-36 

2-38 

2-41 

2-44 

2-46 

2-49 

2-51 

39 

25° 

2-06 

2-08 

2-10 

2-12 

2-15 

2-17 

2-20 

2-22 

2-24 

45 

30° 

1-85 

1-87 

1-89 

1-91 

1-93 

1-95 

1-97 

2-00 

2-01 

51 

35° 

1-70 

1-72 

1-74 

1-76 

1-77 

1-79 

1-81 

1-83 

1-85 

This  shows  very  plainly  the  economy  of  direct  expansion.  The 
ammonia  in  the  coils  of  the  brine  tank  must  be  cooled  below  the  brine 
or  the  directly  expanded  ammonia.  If  the  difference  be  10°,  say  5° 


COLD-AIR    BLAST    SYSTEM.  279 

instead  of  15°,  then  the  capacity  of  the  machine  is  reduced  in  the  ratio 
of  10  to  8  or  20  per  cent.,  and  the  cost  for  fuel  increased  in  the  ratio 
of  from  14-5  to  17 '5  or  20  per  cent. 

These  are  physical  facts  which  cannot  be  explained  away,  and  the 
economy  of  direct  expansion  in  practice  over  both  brine  and  air 
circulation  is  usually  greater  than  the  diagram  and  table  illustrates. 

In  the  brine  system,  on  the  other  hand,  the  large  refrigerating 
or  cooling  tank  is  exposed  to  the  atmosphere,  and  even  when  insulated 
as  perfectly  as  possible,  a  considerable  amount  of  heat  is  unavoidably 
absorbed,  which  is,  of  course,  a  total  loss;  considerable  fuel  con- 
sumption is  moreover  required  in  the  brine  circulation  system,  for 
the  power  consumed  in  pumping  the  large  quantities  of  brine  through 
the  system  of  pipes  in  the  refrigerating  chambers  or  cold  stores,  which 
pipes  sometimes  run  to  many  thousands  of  feet  in  length,  and  thus  give 
rise  to  a  large  amount  of  friction ;  and  besides,  after  being  in  use  for 
some  time,  they  may  become  internally  coated  with  rust,  and  with  a 
slimy  deposit,  which  not  only  produces  a  considerable  increase  in  the 
amount  of  the  friction  to  be  overcome  in  driving  the  brine  through 
them,  but  furthermore  forms  a  sort  of  non-conducting  coating,  and 
lessens,  to  an  appreciable  extent,  the  heat-absorbing  qualities  of  the 
system.  Altogether  it  is  not  improbable  that  the  entire  loss  through 
the  additional  consumption  of  fuel  entailed  from  all  the  above  causes 
does  not,  in  many  instances,  fall  far  below  25  per  cent,  of  the  entire 
amount. 

CoLD-Am  BLAST  SYSTEM. 

Apparatus  is  also  in  use  which  is  so  arranged  that  the  refrigerating 
coils  or  pipes  are  placed  in  a  separate  compartment  connected  with  the 
refrigerating  chambers  or  cold  stores,  and  air,  having  been  cooled  in 
the  first,  is  passed  into  the  latter,  the  circulation  being  kept  up  by 
means  of  a  fan  or  blower.  The  refrigerated  air  is  sometimes  first 
washed  and  freed  from  snow  by  passing  it  through  a  shower  of  cold 
brine,  and  dried  by  exposing  it  to  the  absorbent  action  of  calcium 
chloride  or  other  hygroscopic  material.  This  arrangement  is  possessed 
of  one  of  the  advantages  derived  from  the  use  of  cold-air  machines, 
viz.,  that  every  part  of  the  apparatus  is  situated  externally  to  the 
refrigerating  chamber  or  cold  store,  and  consequently  accessible  at  all 
times.  Dripping  from  the  refrigerating  pipes  when  the  machine  is 
stopped  for  a  short  time,  and  the  temperature  of  the  chamber  or  store 
rises  slightly,  is  also  avoided. 


280       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD    STORAGE. 

On  the  other  hand,  however,  there  is  a  considerable  loss  by  reason 
of  the  absorption  of  heat  by  the  cold  air  on  its  way  from  one  chamber 
to  the  other ;  an  increased  consumption  of  fuel,  owing  to  the  power 
required  to  work  the  fan  or  blower  for  keeping  up  the  air  circulation ; 
and  finally  the  loss  of  possibly  valuable  space  taken  up  by  the  chamber 
required  for  the  purpose  of  cooling  the  air. 

The  plan  wherein  air,  refrigerated  by  contact  with  brine-cooled 
surfaces,  instead  of  by  direct  expansion,  is  passed  into  the  chambers  or 
stores,  is  evidently  still  more  costly  inasmuch  as  there  are  not  only  the 
losses  entailed  from  the  above-mentioned  sources,  but,  furthermore, 
that  caused  by  another  transmission  of  heat. 


PIPING   FOR   COLD   STORES. 
AMOUNT  OF  REFRIGERATION  REQUIRED. 

The  refrigeration  required  will  be  governed  by  the  size  of  the  store, 
the  amount  of  and  frequency  with  which  the  goods  are  brought  into 
the  store  and  removed  from  it,  the  temperature  of  the  goods,  and  their 
specific  heat,  the  mean  external  temperature,  the  greater  or  lesser 
perfection  of  the  insulation,  and  various  other  matters,  which  render  it 
totally  impossible  to  lay  down  any  hard  and  fast  rules. 

A  very  usual  practice  is  to  provide  1  ft.  run  of  2-in.  pipe  for 
every  7  cub.  ft.  of  space  contained  in  the  store,  but  sometimes 
the  proportion  used  is  as  much  as  one  to  five,  whilst  again  it  is  occa- 
sionally reduced  to  one  to  twelve.  For  refrigerating  meat,  in  which 
case  it  is  not  desirable  to  cool  the  exterior  too  rapidly  before  the 
interior  has  had  time  to  cool  to  a  certain  extent,  the  best  proportion 
to  employ  is  one  to  ten. 

AMOUNT  OF  REFRIGERATING  PIPES  NECESSARY  FOR  CHILLING, 
STORAGE,  AND  FREEZING  CHAMBERS. 

Chilling-Rooms  or  Chambers,  refrigerated  on  the  direct  expansion 
system,  1-ft.  run  of  2-in.  piping  for  each  14  cub.  ft.  of  space;  on  the 
brine-circulation  system,  1  ft.  run  of  2-in.  piping  for  each  8  cub.  ft.  of 
space. 

Freezing  Rooms  or  Chambers,  refrigerated  on  the  direct  expansion 
system,  1-ft.  run  of  2-in.  piping  for  each  8  cub.  ft.  of  space ;  on  the 
brine-circulation  system,  1-ft.  run  for  each  3  cub.  ft.  of  space. 

Storage  Rooms  or  Chambers,  refrigerated  on  the  direct  expansion 


PIPING   FOR   COLD   STORES.  281 

system,  1-ft.  run  of  2-in.  piping  for  each  45  cub.  ft.  of  space;  on  the 
brine-circulation  system,  1-ft.  run  of  2-in.  piping  for  each  15  cub.  ft. 
of  space. 


EXTREME  LIMITS  OP  CUBIC  FEET  OF  SPACE  PER  RUNNING  FOOT 
OF  2-iN.  PIPING. 

These  are  given  in  the  following  table  : — 

Breweries. — Medium  insulation — 

Chip  and  stock  rooms  ...             ...             ...  ...  1  to  22 

Fermenting  and  settling  rooms  ...             ...  ...  1  ,,  22 

Packing-rooms                ...             ...             ...  ...  1  ,,  18 

Hop-rooms       ...             ...             ...             ...  ...  1  ,,  25 

Packing  House — 

Chill-rooms  for  beef       ...             ...             ...  ...  1  ,,  12 

Hogs...             ...             ...             ...             ...  ...  1  ,,  10 

Freezing-rooms               ...             ...             ...  ...  1  ,,    6  or  7 

Cold  Storage — 

Cold  storage  rooms        ...             ...             ...  ...  1  ,,  25  or  30 

Cold  storage  house  and  freezing-rooms     ...  ...  1  ,,    8 

For  eggs,  brine  preferred             ...             ...  ...  1  ,,  12 

Cold  storage    ...             ...             ...             ...  ...  1  „  25 

Ice  storage      ...            ...            ...            ...  ...  1  ,,20 

Fish  freezing  (direct  expansion)      ...             ...  ...  1  ,,  2 


CUBIC  FEET  OF  SPACE  PER  RUNNING  FOOT  OF  2-iN.  PIPE 
DIRECT  EXPANSION.* 


Fermenting  and  settling  rooms 

Packing-rooms    ... 

Hop-rooms 

For  packing  house  in  chill-rooms  for  beef    ... 

The  same  room  for  hogs    ... 

The  freezing-rooms 

Cold  storage  rooms 

Under  cold  storage  houses  the  freezing-rooms 

Cold  storage  for  eggs 

General  cold  storage 

Ice  storage 

Fish  freezing,  about 


to  20 
,,18 
,,25 
„  12 
,,10 

„    6  or    7 
,,  25  „  30 
„    8 
,,12 
„  25 
,,20 
.    2 


The  following   five   tables   are  given  by  Professor   Siebel  in  the 
"  Compend  of  Mechanical  Refrigeration." 

*  Otto  Luhr,  American  Brewers'  Review. 


282       REFRIGERATION   AND   COLD    STORAGE. 


LINEAL  FEET  OF  I-IN.  PIPING  REQUIRED  PER  CUBIC  FOOT  OF 
COLD  STORAGE  SPACE. 


Size  of 

TEMPERATURE,  DEGREES  FAHR. 

Building  in 

T             1 

Cubic  Feet, 

Insulation, 

more  or  less. 

0° 

10° 

20° 

30° 

40° 

50° 

100 

Excellent 

3-0 

1-78 

0-48 

0-36 

0-24 

0-15 

Poor 

6-0 

1-50 

0-90 

0-66 

0-48 

0-30 

1,000 

Excellent 

1-0 

0-26 

0-16 

0-12 

0-08 

0-05 

Poor 

2-0 

0-50 

0-30 

0-22 

0-16 

o-io 

10,000 

Excellent 

0-61 

0-16 

o-io 

0-075 

0-055 

0-035 

Poor 

1-2 

0-33 

0-20 

1-15 

0-11 

0-07 

30,000 

Excellent 

0-5 

0-13 

0-08 

0-06 

0-040 

0-025 

Poor 

1-0 

0-25 

0-15 

0-11 

0-03 

0-05 

100,000 

Excellent 

0-38 

o-io 

0-06 

0-045 

0-03 

0-009 

Poor 

0-75 

0-20 

0-12 

0-09 

0-06 

0-018 

NOTE. — The  above  quantities  of  pipe  refer  to  direct  expansion,  and  should  be 
made  one  and  one-half  times  to  twice  the  length  for  brine  circulation.  To  find 
the  corresponding  lengths  of  l£-in.  pipe  divide  by  T25  or  multiply  by  0'8  ;  of 
2-in.  pipe  divide  by  1'08  or  multiply  by  0*55. 


NUMBER  OF  CUBIC  FEET  COVERED  BY  1  FT.  OF  I-IN.  IRON  PIPE. 


Size  of 

TEMPERATURE,  DEGREES  FAHR. 

Building  in 
Cubic  Feet 

Insulation. 

more  or  less. 

0° 

10° 

20° 

30° 

40° 

50° 

100 

Excellent 

0-3 

1-3 

2-1 

2-8 

4-2 

7-0 

Poor 

0-15 

0-7 

1-1 

1-5 

2-1 

3-5 

1,000 

Excellent 

1-0 

4-0 

6-0 

8-4 

12-4 

20-0 

Poor 

0-5 

2-0 

3-2 

4-5 

6-2 

10-0 

10,000 

Excellent 

1-7 

6-0 

10-0 

13-0 

18-0 

28-0 

Poor 

0-85 

3-0 

5-0 

6-5 

9-0 

14-0 

30,000 

Excellent 

2-0 

8-0 

14-0 

18-0 

25-0 

40-0 

Poor 

1-0 

4-0 

7-0 

9-0 

13-0 

20-0 

100,000 

Excellent 

2-6 

10-0 

17-0 

22-0 

33-0 

110-0 

Poor 

1-3 

5-0 

8-5 

11-0 

17-0 

55-0 

i 

NOTE. — The  above  figures  refer  to  direct  expansion :  from  one-half  to  two-thirds 
of  the  spaces  only  would  be  covered  by  the  same  amount  of  pipe  in  case  of  brine 
circulation.  To  find  the  corresponding  amounts  of  cubic  feet  of  space  which  would 
be  covered  by  one  lineal  foot  of  l|-in.  pipe,  multiply  by  1*25  or  divide  by  0'8  ; 
of  2-in.  pipe,  multiply  by  1'08  or  divid  by  0'55. 


PIPING   FOR   COLD   STORES. 


283 


NUMBER  OF  CUBIC  FEET  COVERED  BY  I-TON  REFRIGERATING 
CAPACITY  FOR  TWENTY-FOUR  HOURS. 


Size  of 

TEMPERATURE,  DEGREES  FAHR. 

Building  in 

T 

Cubic  Feet 

Insulation. 

more  or  less. 

0° 

10° 

20° 

30° 

40°             50° 

100 

Excellent    - 

150 

600 

800 

1,000 

1,600      3,000 

Poor    - 

70 

300 

400 

600 

900 

2,000 

1,000 

Excellent    - 

500 

2,500 

3,000 

4,000 

6,000 

12,000 

Poor   - 

250 

1,500 

1,800 

2,500 

5,000 

10,000 

10,000 

Excellent    - 

700 

3,000 

4,000 

6,000 

9,000 

18,000 

1     Poor   - 

300 

1,800 

2,500 

3,500 

7,000 

14,000 

30,000 

Excellent    - 

1,000 

5,000 

6,000 

8,000 

13,000 

25,000 

Poor    - 

500 

3,000 

3,500 

5,000 

11,000 

20,000 

100,000 

Excellent    - 

1,500 

7,500 

9,000 

14,000 

20,000 

40,000 

Poor   - 

800 

4,500 

5,000 

8,000 

16,000 

35,000 

REFRIGERATING  CAPACITY  IN  B.T.U.  REQUIRED  PER  CUBIC  FOOT  OF 
STORAGE  ROOM  IN  TWENTY-FOUR  HOURS. 


Size  of 

TEMPERATURE,  DEGREES  FAHR. 

Building  in 
Cubic  Feet, 

Insulation. 

more  or  less. 

0° 

10' 

20° 

30' 

40° 

50° 

100 

Excellent 

1,800 

480 

360 

284 

180 

95 

Poor 

4,000 

960 

480 

470 

330 

140 

1,000 

Excellent 

550 

110 

95 

70 

47 

24 

Poor 

1,100 

190 

165 

110 

55 

28 

10,000 

Excellent 

400 

95 

70 

47 

30 

16 

Poor 

900 

160 

110 

81 

40 

20 

30,000 

Excellent 

280 

55 

47 

35 

22 

11 

Poor 

550 

95 

81 

55 

26 

14 

100,000 

Excellent 

190 

38 

30 

20 

14 

7 

Poor         -         -         - 

350 

63 

55 

35 

18 

4 

284       REFRIGERATION    AND    COLD    STORAGE. 


!  « 


'  of  co"  CD"  ocT  oT  cT  cT  r-T  c^T  of  co"  ocT  r-4" 


i-T  of  of  o"  IT"-  oT  oT  of  of  cT  o"  i-*  «o~  oo"  cT  co"  rjT  co"i>  t-r 


CCW5l>OSO(NeoeC 


F-T  r-n"  C^  "      " 


f-    CO  -      «o        Ot   0    o 


§1 


.«    5 

>fa    ta 

!^2I 


)  o* 
* 


cc"  •*"  co"  t^1  oT  o"  co"  «cT  orT  of  o"  cT  ^  <xT  of  CD" 


S'S 


J| 

I      " 


xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx 


xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx 


CHAPTER    XIII 
REFRIGERATION   AND    COLD   STORAGE   (continued) 

The  Construction  and  Arrangement  of  Cold  Stores  and  of  Cold  Storage  Rooms  or 
Chambers — Ventilation — Air  Circulation — Insulation — Railway  Vans. 

IT  is  completely  beyond  the  scope  of  this  work  to  deal  with  the 
architectural  aspects  of  the  requisite  buildings,  and,  besides,  these 
latter  have,  as  a  general  rule,  to  be  adapted  to  the  special  requirements 
of  each  particular  case.  All  that  is  here  contemplated,  therefore,  is 
to  make  a  few  observations  upon  the  internal  arrangement,  premising 
that  wherever  possible  it  is  advantageous  to  arrange  for  the  delivery 
to  and  from  the  store  being  made  from  the  uppermost  storey.  The 
reason  for  this  is  obvious,  cold  air,  being  heavier  than  warm  air, 
has  a  tendency  to  sink  to  the  lowest  level,  little  or  no  danger  exists, 
therefore,  of  its  escaping  from  above,  whilst,  on  the  contrary,  by  reason 
of  its  weight,  it  would  naturally  be  forced  out  of  an}-  open  door  or 
window  placed  at  a  lower  level.  The  possible  penetration  of  heat 
from  the  exterior  to  the  interior  of  the  store  is  also  greatly  reduced. 

Failing  this  plan,  all  the  rooms  or  chambers  in  a  cold  store  should 
be  arranged  to  open  into  a  well-insulated  corridor,  or,  in  the  case  of  a 
single  cold  storage  room  or  chamber,  into  a  porch,  lobby,  or  ante- 
chamber, by  which  means  the  penetration  of  heat  from  the  exterior 
into  the  room  or  chamber  when  it  has  to  be  entered  to  place  provisions 
therein,  or  to  remove  them  therefrom,  is  lessened. 

COLD  ROOMS  OR  CHAMBERS. 

A  most  important  feature  in  the  internal  construction  of  a  cold  store 
is  the  insulation,  and  to  this  subject  it  is  intended  to  revert  at  some 
length  later  on  in  a  special  section  of  this  chapter. 

At  the  Southampton  Docks  four  cold  stores  or  chambers,  having  a 
joint  capacity  of  47,000  cub.  ft.,  are  refrigerated  on  the  direct 
expansion  system  by  a  6-in.  by  12-in.  double-acting  De  La  Yergne 
machine  having  two  compressors  driven  by  a  10  H. P.  gas  engine.  The 

285 


286       REFRIGERATION    AND    COLD    STORAGE. 

proper  insulation  of  the  stores  or  chambers  has  been  very  carefully 
attended  to,  and  a  few  hours'  working  out  of  every  twenty-four  is 
stated  to  maintain  the  temperatures  sufficiently  low. 

The  ducts  or  inlets  for  the  admission  of  the  cold  air  into  the  store 
or  chamber  when  the  refrigeration  is  effected  by  means  of  a  cold-air 
machine,  or  by  air  reduced  in  temperature  in  a  separate  chamber  as 
before  described,  are  frequently  placed  as  close  to  the  roof  or  ceiling 
of  the  room,  whether  land  or  marine,  as  can  conveniently  be  done, 
this  having  been  stated  to  have  been  found  in  practice  to  be  the  most 
advantageous  position,  and  the  cold  air  having  performed  its  work  is 
drawn  off  at  outlets  also  situated  in  this  position.  It  is  very  doubtful, 
however^  whether  this  is  the  most  advantageous  arrangement,  and  this 
subject  will  be  further  discussed  later  on. 

In  packing  carcasses  in  a  cold  store  or  chamber,  they  should  be 
placed  as  close  together  as  possible,  taking  care,  however,  to  leave  a 
free  space  or  clearance  between  them  and  the  inner  lining  of  the  room, 
through  which  the  cold  air  can  freely  circulate. 

When  hanging  frozen  mutton  before  cooking,  care  must  be  taken 
that  it  is  so  placed  that  the  juice  will  not  run  out  of  the  cut  end.  For 
example,  hind-quarters,  haunches,  and  legs  must  be  invariably  hung 
with  the  knuckle-end  downwards ;  and  loins  and  saddles  by  the  flaps, 
so  as  to  give  them  a  horizontal  position.  The  cut  end,  moreover, 
should  always  be  presented  to  the  fire  first  when  cooking,  thereby  seal- 
ing it  and  preventing  the  gravy  from  escaping  from  the  joint.  Frozen 
lamb  does  not  need  any  preliminary  hanging,  but  can  be  cooked  as 
soon  as  thawed. 

As  regards  the  capacity  of  a  machine  required  for  the  refrigeration 
of  a  cold  store  or  chamber  of  any  given  dimensions,  it  would  be 
obviously  impossible,  in  view  of  the  constantly  varying  circumstances 
of  each  individual  case,  to  lay  down  any  hard-and-fast  rules.  It  will 
have  to  be  separately  estimated  for  each  particular  installation,  in 
accordance  with  the  amount  of  cooling  work  which  is  necessary,  and 
which  it  is  desired  to  perform  upon  the  material  enclosed  in  the  cold 
store  or  chamber,  and  by  the  amount  of  heat  that  is  calculated  to 
pass  into  the  latter  from  the  outside,  through  the  walls,  floor,  and  roof. 
It  will  consequently  be  thus  seen  that  the  capacity  of  the  apparatus 
will  depend  upon  the  lowest  internal  and  the  highest  external  tem- 
perature, the  area  of  the  walls,  floor,  and  ceiling,  and  also  to  a  great 
extent  upon  their  construction  being  carried  out  in  a  manner  more  or 
less  impervious  to  heat. 

Approximate  allowance  per  ton   of  refrigeration  is  six  beeves  of 


COLD    ROOMS    OR   CHAMBERS. 


287 


from  600  to  700  Ibs.  each ;  ten  to  twenty  hogs.  One  thousand  cubic 
ft.  of  space  per  ton  for  small  machines  up  to  2  tons ;  4,000  cub.  ft. 
of  space  per  ton  for  machines  from  10  to  15  tons;  and  10,000  cub.  ft. 
of  space  per  ton  for  larger  machines  used  for  general  purposes.  One 
thousand  gallons  of  sweet  water  per  ton  from  70°  to  40°.  These 
figures  will  be  of  course  affected  by  climate,  construction  and  exposure 
of  buildings,  insulation,  and  management. 

As  a  general  rule,  however,  it  will  be  found  that,  owing  to  the 
circulation  of  the  air,  and  the  radiation  through  the  floor,  walls,  and 
roof  of  the  chamber,  the  cubical  contents  of  the  air  in  the  latter  will 
require  to  be  cooled  from  eight  to  fifteen  times  in  every  hour,  in  order 
to  ensure  the  temperature  being  assimilated  to  that  of  the  air  or  gas 
passing  out  of  the  machine. 

The  following  particulars  regarding  the  radiation  through  walls,  &c., 
are  given  by  Professor  Siebel :  *  "If  the  number  of  square  feet  con- 
tained in  a  wall,  ceiling,  floor,  or  window  be  /,  the  number  of  units  of 
refrigeration  B  that  must  be  supplied  in  twenty-four  hours  to  offset 
the  radiation  of  such  wall,  ceiling,  or  floor,  may  be  found  by  the 
formula : — 

B  =fn(t  —  tl)  B.T.  units, 

or  expressed  in  tons  of  refrigeration — 


E 


284000 


tons, 


In  these  formulae  t  and  ^  are  the  temperatures  on  each  side  of  the 
wall,  and  n  the  number  of  B.T.  units  of  heat  transmitted  per  square 
foot  of  such  surface  for  a  difference  of  1°  Fahr.  between  temperature 
on  each  side  of  the  wall  in  twenty -four  hours.  The  factor  n  varies 
with  the  construction  of  the  wall,  ceiling,  or  flooring,  from  1  to  5." 

For  single  windows  the  factor  n  may  be  taken  at  12,  and  for 
double  windows  at  7  (Box). 

For  different  materials  one  foot  thick  the  following  values  are 
given  for  n  : — 


For  pine  wood    - 
,,    mineral  wool 
,,    granulated  cork   - 
,,    wood  ashes  - 


2-OB.T.U. 
1-6      ,, 
1-3      ,, 
1-0 


For  sawdust       -        -  1-1  B.T.U. 

,,    charcoal,  powdered  1-3       „ 

,,    cotton  -         -  0-7       ,, 

,,    soft  paper  felt      -  0'5       ,, 


"Compend  of   Mechanical  Refrigeration."     Chicago:  H.  S    Rich  &  Co., 


1899. 


288       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

may  be  taken 


For  brick  walls  of  different  thicknesses  the  factor  n 
as  follows  after  Box  : — 


brick 


1 
H 

2 
3 
4 


4^  in.  thick 

9 
14 
18 
27 
36 


?i=5'5B.T 

„  =4-5 

,,=3-6 

,,-3-0 

,.=2-6 

,,=2-2 


units. 


For  walls  of  masonry  of  different  thicknesses  the  factor  n  may  be 
taken  as  follows  after  Box  : — 


Stone  walls  6  in.  thick 
12 
18 
24 
30 
36 


?t=6'2B.T.  units. 
=5-5 
=  5-0 
=4-5 
=  4-3 
=  4-1 


German  authorities  give  values  for  n  which  are  less  than  one-half 
of  the  values  here  quoted. 

For  air-tight  double  floors  of  wood  properly  filled  underneath  so 
that  the  atmosphere  is  excluded,  and  for  ceilings  of  like  construction, 
n  is  equal  to  about  2  B.T.U.  An  air  space  sealed  off  hermetically  be- 
tween two  walls  has  the  average  temperature  of  the  outside  and  inside 
air,  hence  its  great  additional  insulating  capacity.  If  the  air  space  is 
hermetically  sealed  inside  and  outside,  it  appears  that  its  thickness  is 
immaterial  ;  half-an-inch  is  as  good  as  three  inches. 

If  a  wall  is  constructed  of  different  materials  having  different  known 
values  for  n,  viz.,  nlt  n2,  ny  &c.,  and  the  respective  thicknesses  in  feet 
dv  dy  c?3,  the  value  n  for  such  a  compound  wall  may  be  found  after  the 
formula  of  Wolpert,  viz.  :  — 

~ 


Iii  case  of  an  air  space  perfectly  sealed  off  the  factor  n  may  be  deter- 
mined for  that  portion  of  the  wall  between  the  air  space  and  the 
outside,  which  value  is  then  inserted  into  the  formula  — 


But  in  this  case  while  ^  stands  for  the  maximum  outside  temperature, 
t  stands  for  the  temperature  of  the  air  space,  which  may  be  averaged 


COLD    ROOMS   OR   CHAMBERS. 


289 


from  the  inside  and  outside  temperature,  taking  into  consideration  the 
conductibility  and  thickness  of  the  component  parts  of  the  wall. 

Fig.  187  is  a  vertical  section  through  the  end  of  a  refrigerating 


chamber    as^designed    by    the    Pulsometer    Engineering   Co.,    Ltd., 
showing   an   arrangement   of   cooling  pipes  on  the  brine  circulation 
system.     The  pipes  are  of  galvanised  wrought  iron,  which,  being  very 
19 


29o      REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

much  lighter  and  thinner  than  those  formed  of  cast  iron,  ensure  the 
maximum  amount  of  head  room,  and  thereby  enable  a  considerable 
amount  of  space  to  be  economised. 


Fig.  188. — Arrangement  of  Cooling  Pipes  in  Ceiling  Lofts.     Transverse  Section. 

Fig.   188  is  a  transverse  section   through  cold  storage  rooms  or 
chambers  with  the  cooling  pipes  arranged  in  ceiling  lofts. 

In  the  British  patent  of  F.  B.  Hill,  No.  16,253  of  1889,  is  described 


Fig.  189.— Hill's  Arrangement  for  Refrigerating  Cold  Rooms  or  Chambers. 
Diagrammatical  View. 


COLD   ROOMS   OR   CHAMBERS. 


291 


an  arrangement  in  which  the  refrigerating  apparatus,  shown  in 
Fig.  189,  is  located  on  a  floor  above  the  cooling  chamber.  This 
arrangement,  moreover,  permits  the  circulation  of  the  cooling  medium 
by  gravity,  so  that  the  use  of  pumps  or  other  machinery  for  effecting 
such  circulation  can  be  dispensed  with.  H  is  the  refrigerator  tank ; 
H1  is  another  tank  or  vessel  which  is  preferably  arranged  at  a  lower 


Fig.  190. — Hill's  Arrangement  for  Refrigerating  Cold  Rooms  or  Chambers. 
Elevation  of  Chamber  partly  in  Vertical  Section. 

level  than  the  refrigerator  tank,  and  is  connected  therewith  by  means 
of  pipes  J  in  such  a  manner  that  a  constant  circulation  of  the  brine 
or  other  non-congealable  liquid  from  one  tank  to  the  other  will  be 
maintained  by  gravity  during  the  refrigeration  of  the  liquid. 

It  was  stated  by  the  inventor  that,  by  the  use  of  tanks  connected  in 
this  manner,  the  reservoir  or  store  of  cold  is  greatly  increased.     The 


292       REFRIGERATION    AND    COLD   STORAGE. 

bottom  of.  the  cooling  tank  H  may,  if  desired,  serve  as  the  top  or  ceiling 
of  the  chamber  to  be  cooled,  as  shown  in  Fig.  190. 

The  bottom  of  the  tank  H  is  formed  with  a  series  of  V-shaped 
portions  or  corrugations  n2,  and  suitable  gutters  or  channels  K  are 
arranged  beneath  the  tank,  so  that  any  moisture  collecting  on  the 
underside  will  flow  to  the  lower  edges  of  the  corrugations  or  V-shaped 
portions,  and  will  fall  into  the  gutters  or  channels,  whereby  it  will  be 
conducted  away  to  any  convenient  place.  The  dripping  of  moisture 
from  the  under  surface  of  the  tank  into  the  room  or  chamber  to  be 
cooled  is  thus  avoided.  This  arrangement  also  increases  the  area  of 
cooling  surface  and  the  strength  of  the  bottom  of  the  tank. 

In  a  later  patent,  viz.,  No.  20,509  of  1890,  the  same  inventor 
describes  means  for  removing  snow  or  hoar-frost  from  the  refrigerating 
surfaces  used  for  cooling  air,  which  consists  in  the  employment  of 
rotating  screw-blades  or  conveyors,  or  of  annular  or  other  suitable 
scrapers,  or  brushes  arranged  to  move  to  and  fro,  or  up  or  down,  in 
contact  with  the  surfaces  to  be  cleared.  These  screw  conveyors, 
scrapers,  or  brushes  are  placed  within  or  outside,  or  both  within  and 
outside,  the  refrigerating  tubes  or  chambers. 

F.  N.  Mackay,  No.  16,745  of  1886,  provides  for  the  combined 
utilisation  of  cold  air  from  an  air  expansion  machine  and  brine  cooled 
by  an  absorption  or  compression  machine.  The  rooms  or  chambers 
are  partly  cooled  by  the  cold  air,  and  the  brine  from  the  latter  machine 
is  circulated  through  an  arrangement  of  pipes  in  the  cooling  chamber, 
to  which  brine  pipes  corrugated  metal  sheets  are  attached  to  increase 
the  refrigerating  effect.  Or  the  corrugated  metal  sheets  may  be  formed 
into  narrow  chambers  to  receive  the  brine  directly. 

To  increase  the  effective  surface  of  cooling  pipes  F.  S.  Thomas, 
No.  2,568  of  1888,  forms  them  with  four  concavities,  or  approximately 
star -shaped  in  transverse  section,  and  also  employs  lugs  or  ribs. 

A  plan  of  chilling  and  freezing  by  a  circulation  of  cold  brine  on 
the  wall  system  has  been  patented  by  Hall.  In  this  arrangement  the 
congealing  or  freezing  room  or  chamber  is  fitted  with  parallel  hollow 
or  cellular  walls  constructed  of  steel  or  iron  plates,  and  situated  at 
short  intervals  apart.  The  carcasses  to  be  chilled  or  frozen  are  hung 
in  the  spaces  or  passages  left  between  these  walls,  which  latter  can  be 
maintained  at  a  very  low  temperature  by  the  cold  brine  circulating 
there  through.  An  advantage  possessed  by  this  method  is  that,  owing 
to  the  extensive  surfaces  afforded  by  these  hollow  or  cellular  walls 
or  plates,  an  intense  cold  can  be  rapidly  produced,  and  the  heat  very 
expeditiously  abstracted  from  the  carcasses,  which  are  thus  quickly 


COLD    ROOMS    OR   CHAMBERS. 


293 


frozen  or  congealed.  On  this  account,  as  the  space  taken  up  by  the 
hollow  walls  is  so  trifling  as  not  to  necessitate  any  increase  in  the 
dimensions  of  the  freezing  chamber  for  a  given  number  of  carcasses, 
the  proportion  usually  allotted  to  the  latter  may  be  reduced,  and  a 
saving  of  labour  and  of  depreciation  through  handling  is  also  effected. 
The  carcasses  when  frozen  are  at  once  removed  to  cold  stores  or 
chambers  kept  at  a  proper  temperature  for  preserving  the  contents,  by 
a  circulation  of  brine  through  a  system  of  pipes  arranged  near  the 
ceiling ;  or  air,  cooled  in  the  machine-room,  may  be  circulated  through 
the  chambers  for  a  like  purpose. 

On  the  other  hand,  however,  these 
hollow  or  cellular  walls  are  apparently 
open  to  the  objections  that  they  are 
somewhat  more  difficult  to  maintain 
tight  and  free  from  leakage  than  a 
system  of  pipes.  The  shallow  space 
left  between  the  walls  would  also  seem 
to  be  liable  to  become  choked  by  any 
foreign  matter  in  the  brine,  and  from 
deposits  from  the  latter;  this,  how- 
ever, is  said  not  to  be  found  to  be  the 
case  in  practice  with  brine  circulation, 
and  the  arrangement  is  not  suitable, 
or  intended,  for  the  direct  expansion 
system. 

In  order  to  facilitate  and  hasten 
the  operation  of  chilling  and  freezing, 
and  lessen  the  handling  to  which  it 
is  necessary  to  subject  the  carcasses, 

an  arrangement  for  slowly  traversing  the  latter  through  the  freezing 
or  congealing  chamber  or  room  has  also  been  devised  by  the  same 
inventor,  wherein  an  endless  chain  provided  with  hooks  at  proper 
intervals  for  hanging  the  carcasses,  and  operated  by  suitable  gearing, 
is  provided. 

Fig.  191  shows  a  cold  storage  room  or  chamber  designed  by 
Mr  W.  O.  Williamson,  and  patented  in  1909.  Brine  from  trays 
located  in  the  upper  part  of  the  room  and  containing  ice  and  salt 
in  baskets  flows  successively  through  tanks  arranged  round  the  sides 
and  ends  of  the  room,  and  from  the  last  tank  to  a  space  between  trays 
arranged  on  the  floor,  finally  being  discharged  through  a  suitable  pipe. 
The  pipes  conveying  the  brine  from  the  upper  trays  to  the  tanks 


Fig.  191.— Williamson's  Patent 
Cold  Storage  Chamber. 


294       REFRIGERATION    AND    COLD   STORAGE. 

are  so  arranged  that  a  certain  amount  of  brine  always  remains  in 
the  trays. 

A  patent  was  taken  out  at  the  beginning  of  the  year  1895  by  Sir 
A.  S.  Haslam  for  an  improved  apparatus  for  cooling  air  to  be  circulated 
through  cold  storage  rooms.  The  main  feature  of  this  invention  con- 
sists in  the  provision  of  an  air  cooler  or  chamber,  wherein  the  air  or 
other  gas  to  be  cooled  is  carried  between  a  number  of  fixed  vertical 
metal  plates,  down  which  cold  brine  or  other  uncongealable  liquid 
is  constantly  caused  to  flow.  These  plates  or  diaphragms  are  as 
shown  in  the  plan,  Fig.  192,  which  illustrates  an  arrangement  for  use 
in  connection  with  a  meat  chamber,  preferably  of  a  corrugated  form, 
and  their  lower  extremities  are  placed  either  in  or  above  a  receiver 
for  the  liquid  which  trickles  down  their  surfaces. 

To  maintain  the  plates  or  diaphragms  at  suitable  distances  apart, 
and  parallel  one  with  the  other,  distance-pieces  or  blocks  are  placed 
between  them  at  the  top  and  bottom,  which  distance-pieces  have  lugs 
or  recesses  on  their  sides  to  provide  passages  for  the  liquid.  The 
tops  of  the  upper  distance-pieces  form  the  bottom  of  a  tank  supplied 
with  the  cold  liquid,  and  from  which  it  flows  down  the  plates  in  thin 
streams ;  and  they  have,  moreover,  vertical  projections  at  each  end, 
which  together  form  the  ends  of  the  tank.  Above  this  tank  are  situated 
suitable  numbers  of  troughs  or  pipes,  and  a  shower  of  brine  at  a 
low  temperature,  drawn  or  lifted  from  the  receiver  below,  in  which  it  is 
cooled  by  a  pump  or  otherwise,  is  distributed  over  the  bottom  of  the 
upper  tank,  from  whence  it  trickles  down  the  surfaces  of  the  corru- 
gated or  other  plates,  or  diaphragms.  Through  the  spaces  or  clear- 
ances provided  between  these  plates  a  current  of  air  is  driven  by  means 
of  a  fan  or  blower,  the  blast  being  divided  by  the  corrugated 
plates  into  a  number  of  thin  sinuous  currents,  and  being  reduced  to  a 
very  low  temperature  by  impinging  against  their  surfaces  and  the  cold 
fluid  trickling  down  their  sides.  It  has  been  found  in  practice  to 
be  preferable  to  place  the  above-described  plates  or  diaphragms  as 
close  together  as  can  possibly  be  done  without  injuriously  checking 
the  flow  of  air. 

Flat  plates,  or  plates  with  horizontal  corrugations,  are  not  found 
to  be  so  advantageous,  because  the  air  can  pass  between  them  in  a 
straight  line,  instead  of  being  compelled  to  wind  backwards  and 
forwards  between  the  corrugations  and  impinge  again  and  again  against 
the  cold  liquid  and  the  surfaces  of  the  plates ;  in  the  case  of  flat 
plates,  moreover,  they  have  to  be  much  thicker  in  order  to  ensure  the 
requisite  stiffness. 


COLD    ROOMS   OR   CHAMBERS. 


295 


This  cooling  battery  is  said  to  have  given  very  favourable  results 
under  most  exhaustive  practical  tests. 

Another  arrangement  for  cooling  air  for  circulation  through  cold 


storage  rooms,  which  was  patented  in  the  latter  end  of  the  year  1900 
by  Mr  T.  Douglas,  is  shown  in  vertical  central  section  in  Fig.  193. 
The  construction  of  the  apparatus  is  almost  sufficiently  apparent  from 
It  consists  briefly  of  a  cylindrical  or  other  tower  or 


the  drawing. 


296       REFRIGERATION    AND    COLD    STORAGE. 

receptacle  suitably  insulated  and  having  a  chamber  charged  or  filled 
with  coke  broken  up  into  pieces  of  suitable  dimensions.  Above  this 
charge  of  coke  is  provided  a  rose  spraying  apparatus  by  which  cold 
brine  from  the  evaporator  or  refrigerator  of  the  machine  is  distributed 


Fig.  193. — Douglas'  Patent  Apparatus  for  Cooling  Air  for  use  in  Cold  Storage 
Rooms  or  Chambers.     Vertical  Central  Section. 

over  the  coke  and  trickles  down  over  the  same  to  a  brine  reservoir 
in  the  bottom  of  the  tower,  from  which  it  is  pumped  back  to  the 
evaporator  or  refrigerator.  The  air  to  be  cooled  is  forced  into  the 
bottom  of  the  tower  by  means  of  a  suitable  fan,  and  up  through  the 


COLD  ROOMS  OR  CHAMBERS.       297 

coke  to  a  cold-air  delivery  trunk  through  which  it  is  conducted  to 
the  cold  storage  chamber. 

A  series  of  tests  carried  out  with  an  air-cooling  apparatus  of  this 
description  at. Messrs  Wm.  Douglas  &  Son's,  Ltd.,  works,  Putney, 
showed  a  high  degree  of  efficiency,  and  gave  in  every  case  a  remark- 
able approximation  between  the  temperature  of  the  air  at  the  exit 
from  the  cooler  and  that  of  the  brine  return  to  the  evaporator.  This 
approximation  became  closer,  when  the  refrigerating  machine  was  shut 
down,  as  the  temperatures  of  both  the  brine  and  the  air  rose,  and 
proved  that  the  coke  was  an  excellent  medium  for  bringing  the  air  into 
contact  with  a  very  large  surface  of  cold  brine  and  thus  extracting  the 
maximum  of  heat  from  the  air.  A  suitable  spray  trap  can  be  provided 
in  the  cold-air  delivery  trunk,  or  other  means  adopted  for  drying  the  air. 
The  brine  can  be  kept  up  to  a  proper  density  by  either  periodical  con- 
centration, or  by  running  out  the  surplus  brine  and  strengthening  the 
remainder. 

An  advantage  possessed  by  this  apparatus  is  its  relative  cheapness, 
and  it  can  also  be  readily  modified  in  design  to  suit  different  require- 
ments. For  instance  it  may  be  elevated  above  the  level  of  the  evapo- 
rator or  refrigerator  so  that  the  brine  will  return  to  the  latter  by 
gravitation,  or  where  this  is  not  possible  it  may  be  connected  to 
a  brine  storage  tank,  from  which  the  brine  can  be  pumped  back 
to  the  evaporator,  or  the  foot  of  the  tower  may  be  made  into  a 
brine  storage  tank  as  shown  in  the  illustration.  The  evaporating  coils 
may  be  placed  in  the  lower  part  of  the  tower,  thus  combining  air- 
cooler  and  evaporator  in  one  apparatus.  In  cases  where  height  is  not 
available  two  or  more  towers  may  be  placed  alongside,  or  a  horizontal 
tower  may  be  formed  with  diaphragms  dividing  the  coke. 

Other  arrangements  for  cooling  air  by  direct  contact  with  cold 
brine  are  the  use  of  rotating  discs  dipping  in  the  cold  brine,  sacking 
or  canvas  saturated  with  cold  brine,  &c.  Attempts  have  also  been 
made  to  draw  or  force  air  through  a  body  of  cold  brine,  but  this  latter 
method  does  not  appear  to  have  proved  a  practical  success. 

In  Fig.  194  is  shown  in  vertical  central  section  an  arrangement 
designed  by  Mr  Madison  Cooper  for  washing,  cooling,  and  drying 
air,  more  especially  for  use  in  cold  storage  rooms  for  eggs.  This 
apparatus  consists  of  three  parts,  viz.,  first,  an  air- washing  tank,  in 
which  the  air  is  caused  to  flow  upwards  against  a  rain  of  water 
from  a  perforated  diaphragm  above.  This  not  only  cools  the  air 
to  the  temperature  of  the  water,  say  55°  or  60°  Fahr.,  but  it  also 
takes  out  a  large  portion  of  the  impurities  of  various  kinds.  From 


298       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

this  washing  tank  the  air  is  passed  on  in  a  comparatively  pure  and 
cool  state  to  be  still  further  reduced  in  temperature.  This  latter 
operation  is  performed  in  the  second  part  of  the  apparatus,  which 
consists  of  a  cooling  tank  having  brine-cooled  or  direct  expansion 
pipes  by  contact  with  which  the  air  is  reduced  to  a  temperature 
several  degrees  lower  than  that  of  the  storage  room  or  chamber.  This 
cooling  removes  the  greater  portion  of  the  moisture  which  holds  in 
suspension  the  few  impurities  which  may  have  passed  the  washing 
tank,  the  moisture  being  deposited  on  the  frozen  surfaces  within  the 
cooler.  From  the  cooler  the  cold  purified  air  is  passed  into  the 


PERFORATED 
"DIAPHRA/A. 


COOLING   TAt. 


prim  VINO  TANK 


Fig.  194.— Cooper's  Apparatus  for  Washing,  Cooling,  and  Drying  Air  for  use    in 
Cold  Storage  Rooms  or  Chambers.     Diagrammatical  View. 


third  part  of  the  apparatus  or  drying-box,  which  contains  chloride  of 
calcium.  In  this  dryer  any  moisture  that  may  be  carried  over  from 
the  cooler  is  taken  up  or  absorbed  by  the  chloride  of  calcium,  which  is 
a  well-known  hygroscopic  or  deliquescent  substance. 

Fig.  195  shows  in  transverse  section  a  beef  chill-room  fitted  with 
the  De  La  Yergne  patent  pipe  system,  a  description  of  which  has  been 
already  given  in  a  previous  chapter.  The  pipes  are,  it  will  be  seen, 
in  this  instance  arranged  at  the  sides  and  at  the  centre  of  the  chill- 
room,  and  drip-trays  or  troughs  are  provided  to  catch  and  carry  off  any 


COLD    ROOMS   OR   CHAMBERS. 


299 


Fig.  195. — Arrangement  of  Cooling  Pipes  in  a  Beef  Chill-room,  fitted  with  the 
De  La  Vergne  Patent  Pipe  System.     Transverse  Section. 


Fig.   19(3 — Beef  Chill-rooms  in  Cold  Store,  fitted  with  Haslam  Patent  Brine- 
Cooling  Battery.     Transverse  Section. 


300       REFRIGERATION    AND    COLD    STORAGE. 

water  falling  from  the'cooling  pipes,  upon  the  exterior  surfaces  of  which 
the  moisture  "present  in  the  atmosphere  of  the  room  or  chamber  be- 


1 


I 

K   ee 

0>    .SP 

5  P3 

fl  b 

°5 

fl  •*» 


1^ 

11 


g>g 

•5^ 


J8> 

1 


'00 

s 


comes  condensed,  either  in  the  form  of  water  or  of  hoar  frost.     In  the 
latter  case  dripping  is  liable  to  commence  on  any  rise  of  temperature 


COLD    ROOMS   OR   CHAMBERS. 


301 


in  the  room  or  chamber  by  reason  of  the  shutting  down  of  the  machine 
or  from  other  cause.     This  dripping  is,  as  has  been  already  mentioned, 


more   especially  liable  to  occur   in  cases  where  the  direct  expansion 
system  of  cooling  is  in  use. 


302       REFRIGERATION    AND    COLD    STORAGE. 


0  DO  0    D       D      0       0    D 

0    JOO  10        000000 


000       U       0      0     D 

000000 


o  o 


D    D 


Figs.  199,  200,  and  201.— Refrigerating  Installation  on  the  Humboldt  System, 
erected  at  Abattoir,  Riga.     Transverse  Sections. 


COLD   ROOMS   OR   CHAMBERS.  303 

Fig.  196  is  a  sectional  view  showing  the  arrangement  of  a  cold  store 
with  beef  chill-rooms  cooled  or  refrigerated  by  means  of  a  Haslam 
patent  brine  air-cooling  battery. 

The  open  trough  system  has  been  already  alluded  to,  and  it  is  one 
of  great  simplicity,  and  is  frequently  used  for  the  hog-cooling  rooms  in 
bacon  factories.  Two,  three,  or  other  suitable  number  of  troughs  are 
usually  placed  in  line,  vertically,  one  above  the  other,  over  each  hook 
or  hanging  rail,  and  the  flow  of  brine  can  be  regulated  by  any  well- 
known  and  convenient  means.  A  large  surface  of  cold  brine  is  in 
this  system  advantageously  exposed  for  absorbing  heat ;  on  the  other 
hand,  however,  the  open  troughs  have  the  disadvantage  of  taking  up 
a  very  considerable  amount  of  valuable  space. 

Figs.  197  to  201  show  a  meat  cooling  plant  on  the  Humboldt 
system  erected  by  them  at  the  municipal  abattoir,  Riga,  Russia.  This 
plant  is  arranged  with  dry-air  coolers  for  direct  evaporation,  the  type 
of  cooler  employed  being  the  Fixary  improved  by  Humboldt  in  accord- 
ance with  the  dictation  of  their  experience  in  the  requirements  of 
plants  for  this  purpose. 

The  cooling  pipes  are  arranged  in  the  chilling,  cooling,  and  curing 
rooms  of  bacon  factories  in  a  number  of  other  different  ways,  the 
system  having  frequently  to  be  specially  adapted  to  the  existing 
buildings.  Sometimes  the  pipes  are  placed  in  the  form  of  coils  in  a 
separate  chamber  or  loft  provided  in  the  ceiling  of  the  main  room  or 
chamber  (as  shown  in  Fig.  202,  which  shows  an  installation  on  the 
direct  expansion  system),  and  air,  admitted  through  suitable  apertures 
from  the  room  beneath,  or  by  means  of  ventilators,  and  cooled  by  pas- 
sing over  the  surface  of  these  coils,  is  allowed  to  circulate  by  gravity, 
or  is  rapidly  circulated  by  means  of  fans  through  the  room  below.  A 
somewhat  similar  arrangement  of  brine  or  cooling  pipes  is  also  often  em- 
ployed in  beef  and  other  meat  rooms.  An  advantage  of  this  plan  is 
that  it  effectually  prevents  any  dripping  and  moisture  in  the  chill-room. 

In  an  arrangement  designed  by  Mr  Puplett,  the  refrigerating  pipes 
or  coils  and  circulating  fan  are  fixed  in  a  separate  compartment  quite 
distinct  from  the  cold  rooms,  but  connected  therewith  by  trunks  or 
ducts.  The  cooling  is  effected  by  the  constant  circulation  through  the 
chill  or  meat  rooms  of  a  current  of  air  that  has  first  been  cooled  by 
passing  it  over  the  refrigerator.  The  air  is  washed  and  purified  by 
being  passed  through  a  series  of  sprays  of  cold  brine,  and  then  over 
the  refrigerator,  by  which  it  is  dried  and  reduced  to  any  desired 
temperature.  The  fan  draws  the  air  from  the  rooms  through  the 
suction  trunk,  and  returns  it  by  the  delivery  trunk  after  it  has  passed 


304      REFRIGERATION   AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

through  the  refrigerating  chamber  and  been  washed,  cooled,  and 
dried ;  the  air  thus  becomes  colder,  and  is  purified  each  time  it  passes 
over  the  refrigerator. 


o 

60 


Another  method  of  arranging  the  cooling  pipes  is  to  provide  coils 
on  the  sides  of  the  chill-room,  or  where  the  chamber  is  of  considerable 
dimensions,  in  rows  placed  vertically  at  suitable  intervals  lengthways  of 


COLD    ROOMS    OR   CHAMBERS. 


305 


the  latter,  the  carcasses  being  suspended  by  hooks  in  the  usual  manner 
from  meat  or  hanging  rails,  situated  overhead,  between  the  coils. 

When  the  refrigerating  pipes  are  placed  directly  in  the  cold  store, 
suitable  drip-trays  (as  shown  in  Fig.  195)  can  be  provided  if  required. 

Refrigerating  machines  are  likewise  very  advantageously  employed 
in  bacon-curing  factories  or  works,  for  enabling  mildly-cured  bacon  to 
be  produced  in  summer,  by  artificially  reducing  the  temperature  of  the 
chill-rooms  and  curing-cellars. 

A  usual  arrangement  is  shown  in  Fig.  203,  which  comprises  rows 


^*^wSB^x«^ 


Fig.  203. — Arrangement  of  Cooling  Pipes  in  Chill-room  and  Curing-cellar 
in  Bacon  Factory.     Transverse  Section. 

of  cast-iron  flanged  pipes  which  are  fixed  overhead,  preferably  sus- 
pended from  the  ceiling,  over  the  whole  area  of  the  chill-rooms  and 
curing-cellars,  and  through  which  system  of  pipes  brine  cooled  in  the 
usual  manner  is  circulated  so  as  to  lower  the  temperature  of  the  rooms 
to  about  40°  Fahr.  By  means  of  cocks  provided  on  the  different 
branch  mains  the  speed  of  the  flow  of  brine  through  the  various 
circulations,  and  consequently  the  temperature  of  the  rooms,  can  be 
regulated,  and  reduced,  or  increased  at  pleasure.  In  factories  of 
moderate  size  the  machine  may  usually  be  stopped  at  night  and  on 
Sundays,  the  cold  stored  up  in  the  brine  in  the  pipes  being  enough  to 
20 


306       REFRIGERATION    AND    COLD   STORAGE. 

keep  the  temperature  of  the  room  sufficiently  low ;  in  very  hot  weather, 
and  in  very  large  establishments,  however,  the  machine  will  have  to  be 
run  continuously  night  and  day. 

Both  the  chill  or  cooling  rooms  and  the  curing-cellars  are  fitted 
up  in  practically  the  same  manner ;  the  work  in  the  chill  or  cooling 
rooms  where  the  hot  meat  is  cooled  down  is  much  greater  in  proportion 
to  their  size,  however,  and  is  moreover  intermittent,  consequently  a 
proportionately  larger  number  of  brine  pipes  are  placed  therein,  and 
the  brine  is  turned  on  or  off  as  the  rooms  are  full  or  empty ;  on  the 
other  hand  the  work  in  the  curing-cellars  is  less  and  regular,  and, 
therefore,  a  much  smaller  number  of  brine  pipes  are  required,  the 
circulation  of  brine  being  kept  up  all  the  time  the  machine  is  running, 
and  a  perfectly  steady  and  even  temperature  maintained. 

The  reason  that  artificial  refrigeration  is  now  imperatively  required 
in  bacon-curing  works  is  on  account  of  the  demand  that  has  arisen  for 
mild-cured  bacon,  Formerly'  the  pigs,  after  being  killed,  were  cooled 
simply  by  exposure  to  the  .atmospheric  air,  being  subsequently  cured 
in  underground  cellars  at  the  temperature  of  the  earth,  or  from  52°  to 
55°  Fahr.  In  order  to  prevent  the  rapid  decomposition,  and  con- 
sequent taint  of  the  bacon  which  would  otherwise  inevitably  occur  at 
these  comparatively  high  temperatures,  the  latter  was  charged  with  an 
excessive  amount  of  salt  as  a  preventative.  This  excessive  salting  was 
indispensable  in  summer  especially,  when,  indeed,  curing  was  almost 
prevented,  although  bacon  at  that  season  is  in  the  greatest  demand, 
and  the  highest  prices  are  obtainable.  The  modern  requirement, 
however,  for  more  and  more  mild-cured  bacon  has  ^rendered  absol- 
utely necessary  an  artificial  reduction  of  the  temperature  of  the  chill- 
rooms  and  curing-cellars. 

The  first  attempts  in  this  direction  were  made  by  constructing  the 
cellars  with  iron  ceilings,  on  the  tops  of  which  were  stored  large 
quantities  of  ice,  a  system  which  is  found  to  be,  when  properly  carried 
out,  sufficiently  effective,  but  is  very  expensive,  not  only  by  reason  of 
the  first  cost  of  the  iron  ceilings  and  the  necessary  supports,  but  also 
by  reason  of  the  space  occupied  by  the  ceilings  and  ice  chambers, 
and  furthermore  on  account  of  the  large  outlay  entailed  for  the  ice 
itself,  and  the  labour  of  handling  it.  There  is,  besides  this,  the  risk 
of  the  supply  of  ice  running  short  in  the  hot  weather,  with,  of  course, 
disastrous  results. 

Fig.  204  is  a  horizontal  section  showing  a  plan  of  a  small  cold 
storage  chamber  of  1,000  cub.  ft.  capacity,  adapted  for  the  use  of 
butchers,  &c.  The  refrigeration  is  effected  by  a  Haslam  cold-air 


COLD   ROOMS   OR   CHAMBERS. 


307 


machine,  of  6,000  cub.  ft.  per  hour  capacity,  arranged  to  be  driven 
direct  by  means  of  a  gas  engine.  A  is  the  gas-engine  cylinder,  B  the 
air-compression  cylinder,  and  c  the  expansion  cylinder.  The  air-com- 
pression cylinder  B  is  arranged  horizontally  in  front  of,  and  in  line 


with,  the  cylinder  A  of  the  gas  motor,  and  the  expansion  cylinder  c  is 
placed  vertically,  and  works  a  disc  secured  upon  the  opposite  end  of 
the  crankshaft  from  the  fly-wheel. 

The   advantages   of    a   gas  motor   for   driving    the    small  cold-air 


308       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD    STORAGE. 

machine  required  for  an  installation  of  this  description  are  obvious, 
and  comprise :  non-increase  of  fire  insurance  premium,  and  ability  to 
start  the  machine  at  any  time,  without  having  to  wait  to  get  up  the 
necessary  steam  pressure  in  a  boiler,  as  must  be  done  in  the  case  of  a 
steam-driven  cold-air  machine,  and,  moreover,  except  where  gas  is  at 
an  abnormally  high  price,  a  considerable  economy  in  cost  of  running. 

Fig.  205  is  a  perspective  view,  the  end  wall  and  a  portion  of  the 
front  wall  being  removed,  showing  a  small  cold  store  or  chamber, 
refrigerated  by  means  of  a  Puplett  patent  ammonia  compression 
machine,  which  chamber  is  especially  designed  for  butchers,  bacon- 
curers,  dairymen,  fish  and  game  dealers,  &c.  Chambers  of  this 


Fig.  205. — Small  Cold  (Store  for  Butchers,  &c.,  Cooled  by  an  Ammonia 
Compression  Machine. 

description  are  constructed  with  an  outer  and  an  inner  skin,  each  of 
which  is  composed  of  two  layers,  of  1-in.  tongued  and  grooved  boards, 
put  together  perfectly  air-tight,  and  having  an  intervening  space  or 
clearance  of  about  8  in.,  filled  with  charcoal,  cork,  or  other  good  non- 
conducting material.  The  dimensions  of  the  chambers,  as  usually 
constructed,  vary  from  a  storage  capacity  for  frozen  meat  of  6  to  50 
tons  or  more,  and  their  daily  meat-cooling  capacity  to  32°  Fahr.  runs 
from  20  cwt.  up  to  200  cwt.  or  more. 

In  Fig.  206  is  shown  in  vertical  section  a  small  cold  storage  room 
cooled  by  a  Triumph  ammonia  compression  machine,  which  would  be 
suitable  for  an  hotel  or  private  residence.  A  plant  of  this  description 


COLD    ROOMS   OR   CHAMBERS. 


309 


can  be  readily  operated  by  an  ordinary  man  without  the  help  of  a 
skilled  attendant,  and  would  only  require  about  an  hour's  attention 
during  the  day.  The  brine  tank  shown  in  the  drawing  keeps  the  refri- 
gerator or  cold  storage  chamber  cold  during  the  night.  The  com- 
pressor, which  is  of  the  double-acting  horizontal  type,  is  mounted  upon 
a  strong  tank  forming  the  condenser,  and  can  be  operated  by  any 
available  source  of  power.  A  description  of  the  Triumph  compressor 
will  be  found  in  the  chapter  upon  "  Ammonia  Compression  Machines." 
Fig.  207  depicts  the  arrangement  of  a  one-ton  ice-making  and 
refrigerating  plant  in  an  hotel,  in  which,  it  will  be  seen,  a  number  of 
separate  cold  storage  rooms  or  chambers  for  different  classes  of  pro- 


Fig.  206.— Small  Cold  Storage  Room  for  Hotel  or  Private  Residence. 
Vertical  Section. 

visions  are  provided.  This  installation  is  cooled  by  an  ammonia  com- 
pression machine  made  by  the  A.  H.  Barber  Manufacturing  Co., 
Chicago,  which  type  is  also  described  in  the  chapter  mentioned  above. 

It  is  usually  advisable  to  provide  in  the  kitchen  of  an  hotel,  or 
adjacent  thereto,  a  short  order  box,  which  enables  the  too  frequent 
opening  of  the  main  cold  storage  room  or  chamber  to  be  avoided. 
This  box  may  be  cooled  by  a  set  of  pipes,  through  which  the  cold 
brine,  or,  when  direct  expansion  is  employed,  the  refrigerating  gas  or 
medium,  passes  on  its  return  to  the  machine  after  doing  duty  in  the 
main  cold  store  or  chamber. 

Arrangements  can  also  be  made  for  cooling  carafes,  freezing  ice 
creams,  and  cooling  the  bar  box. 


3io       REFRIGERATION   AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

The  cold  storage  room  in  an  hotel  does  not,  of  course,  differ  mate- 
rially in  any  respect  from  any  other,  but  the  peculiar  requirements  of 
an  hotel,  and  the  great  difficulty  experienced  in  getting  the  servants 
to  understand  the  necessity  for  judicious  and  careful  management,  are 
frequently  very  great. 

To  avoid  the  undue  admission  of  heat  to  such  cold  storage  rooms 
or  chambers  .by  careless  persons  leaving  the  doors  open,  and  to  render 
it  impossible  for  anyone  using  the  cold  storage  room  to  do  this  under 
any  circumstances,  the  author  has  devised  the  door  shown  in  horizontal 
section  in  Fig.  208,  and  in  vertical  section  in  Fig.  209.  This  door  is, 
it  will  be  seen,  of  a  crescent  or  semi-cylindrical  form,  in  horizontal  sec- 


Fig.  207.— Cold  Storage  Rooms  and  Ice-Making  Plant  in  Hotel. 
Perspective  View. 

tion,  and  is  mounted  upon  a  central  axis,  so  as  to  be  free  to  turn 
or  rotate  easily  thereon  in  a  suitable  casing  having  two  apertures, 
the  one  opening  into  the  cold  storage  chamber  and  the  other  to  the 
exterior,  and  between  the  inner  surface  of  which  casing  and  the  outer 
surface  of  the  door  an  air-tight  joint  is  made  by  means  of  strips  of 
india-rubber,  felt,  or  the  like,  or  by  spring-actuated  rubber  or  felt- 
faced  strips,  &c. 

To  use  this  door  the  aperture  or  opening  admitting  to  the  interior 
of  the  same  is  brought  opposite  to  the  one  or  other  of  the  apertures 
or  openings  in  the  casing  by  revolving  the  door  upon  its  axis,  sunk 
handles  admitting  of  its  ready  manipulation.  The  person  desiring 


COLD    ROOMS   OR   CHAMBERS. 


COLD     ROOM 


Figs.  208  and  209. —Rotating  Air-Lock  Door  for  Cold  Storage  Rooms  in 
Hotels,  &c.     Sectional  Elevation  and  Horizontal  Section. 


312       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

to  pass  through  then  steps  inside  the  hollow  semi-cylindrical  door 
and  rotates  it  until  the  aperture  or  opening  thereof  coincides  with 
the  other  or  second  aperture  in  the  casing,  when  he  can  pass  out 
through  the  latter. 

Shelves  in  the  interior  of  the  door  admit  of  a  number  of  dishes 
being  placed  thereon  and  moved  into  the  cold  storage  chamber  at  one 
operation,  or  of  being  turned  so  as  to  communicate  with  the  cold 
storage  chamber,  and  brought  back  again  when  required. 

It  will  be  seen  that  it  is  impossible  to  turn  this  door  so  as  to  open 
a  through  communication  between  the  interior  of  the  room  and  the 
exterior,  and  the  interchange  of  air  at  each  opening  of  the  door  is 
consequently  limited  to  the  cubical  contents  of  the  hollow  or  semi- 
cylindrical  door  itself. 

VENTILATION  OP  COLD  STORAGE  CHAMBERS. 

The  ventilation  of  cold  storage  rooms  can  be  effected  in  a  number 
of  different  ways,  but  as  a  general  rule  no  provision  whatever  of  a 
special  nature  is  made  for  the  removal  of  the  vitiated  air,  it  being 
considered  that  sufficient  change  of  air  is  brought  about  by  the  opening 
of  doors,  &c.  In  fact,  as  removing  any  of  the  cold  air  entails  the 
necessity  of  replacing  same  by  more  air  at  the  same  low  temperature, 
and  thereby  necessitates  additional  refrigeration,  there  is  the  same  dis- 
like to  ventilation  as  exists  in  the  case  of  a  warm  room  where  ventila- 
tion demands  the  admission  of  the  cold  external  air,  and  the  expendi- 
ture of  more  fuel  to  heat  it. 

The  various  expedients  resorted  to  for  the  ventilation  of  cold 
storage  rooms  comprise,  in  addition  to  the  opening  of  doors  above 
alluded  to,  the  occasional  opening  of  windows,  where  such  exist,  the 
provision  of  ventilating  shafts  in  the  ceilings,  and,  what  is  perhaps 
the  most  efficient,  by  artificial  means,  through  an  exhaust  fan  connected 
through  suitable  pipes — fitted  with  doors  or  valves — with  the  cold 
storage  room. 

When  ventilating  shafts  are  provided,  and  there  are  a  number  of 
cold  storage  rooms  contained  in  the  same  store,  the  ducts  or  pipes 
may  be  placed  in  the  corridors,  each  room  being  connected  thereto 
through  a  pipe  with  a  valve  or  damper  so  as  to  enable  the  amount  of 
ventilation  to  be  properly  regulated,  and  the  various  ducts  or  pipes 
from  the  corridors  having  a  common  termination  in  the  chimney  stack, 
which  latter  provides  a  means  for  efficiently  ventilating  the  rooms  at 
all  times. 


CIRCULATION    OF   AIR.  313 

It  must  be  remembered  that  in  cold  storage  rooms  or  chambers  the 
air,  being  cold,  sinks  to  the  bottom,  and  that  the  tendency  is  therefore 
for  it  to  escape  through  the  crevices  about  the  doors,  or  when  the 
latter  are  opened,  and  thereby  create  a  down-draught  so  as  to  render 
any  attempt  to  ventilate  by  means  of  a  short  shaft  without  artificial 
means  to  produce  an  air  current  abortive. 

Moisture  has  the  property  of  absorbing  gases  and  impurities,  and 
consequently  the  moisture  in  the  air  of  a  cold  storage  room  will  take 
up  all  the  emanations  from  the  stored  products.  It  follows,  therefore, 
that  if  the  air  be  subsequently  relieved  of  its  moisture  it  will  be  prac- 
tically purified,  as  most  of  these  gases  can  be  removed. 

All  atmospheric  air  contains  the  germs  of  fungus  or  mould,  which 
germs  are  very  rapidly  developed  under  such  favourable  conditions  as 
the  presence  of  a  large  amount  of  moisture  in  the  air,  and  high  tem- 
peratures, but  are  destroyed  and  removed  from  air  in  a  dry  and  cold 
condition.  This  moisture  can  only  be  removed  by  ensuring  a  proper 
circulation  of  the  air  of  a  cold  storage  room  relatively  to  the  articles 
stored  therein  and  the  refrigerating  pipes  or  other  cooling  surfaces. 

CIRCULATION  OF  AIR  IN  COLD  STORAGE  CHAMBERS. 

The  circulation  of  air  in  cold  storage  rooms  or  chambers  is  a 
matter  of  primary  importance,  and  one  which  in  too  many  cases  does 
not  receive  the  attention  which  it  deserves,  with  the  result,  more 
especially  in  the  case  of  small  rooms  or  chambers,  that  the  condition 
of  the  atmosphere  is  anything  but  satisfactory,  and  great  difficulty  is 
experienced  in  keeping  provisions  in  good  condition  in  them. 

There  are  two  main  systems  of  air  circulation  in  use,  viz.,  the 
gravity  air  circulation  and  the  mechanical  or  forced  air  circulation. 

The  following  particulars  are  extracted  from  three  interesting  and 
instructive  articles  by  Mr  Madison  Cooper,  a  well-known  expert  upon 
refrigerating  matters  in  the  United  States,  and  which  articles  appeared 
in  the  American  journal  Ice  and  Refrigeration,  for  May,  June,  and 
August  1901. 

"METHODS  OF  PIPING  THAT  HINDER  CIRCULATION. 

"  When  mechanical  refrigeration  first  came  into  the  field,  the 
arrangement  of  cooling  surfaces  and  a  provision  for  air  circulation  was 
neglected  about  as  it  was  by  the  pioneers  in  natural  ice  refrigeration. 
The  cooling  pipes  were  placed  almost  anywhere,  regardless  of  the  laws 
of  gravity  which  control  air  circulation.  At  first  the  ceiling  of  the  room 


314      REFRIGERATION    AND    COLD   STORAGE. 

was  a  favourite  place  for  locating  the  coils  of  pipes  for  cooling  the  room. 
The  ceiling  was  utilised  because  thus  the  pipes  were  out  of  the  way 
in  piling  up  goods,  and  also  on  the  theory  that  *  cold  would  naturally 
drop.'  Cold,  or,  more  accurately  speaking,  cold  air,  will  naturally 
drop,  but  placing  the  pipes  on  the  ceiling  of  a  room  will  not  assist  the 
circulation  ;  it  will,  in  fact,  produce  practically  no  circulation  at  all 
if  the  whole  ceiling  of  the  room  is  covered  with  pipes  uniformly. 
Ceiling  pipes  have  generally  been  abandoned  for  the  more  rational 
method  of  placing  the  pipes  on  the  side  walls  of  the  room. 

"Fig.  210   shows  ceiling   piping,  and  should  make  plain  why  no 
circulation  is  created  when  the  pipes  cover  nearly  the  whole  top  of 


Fig.  210. — Diagram  showing  Gravity  Air  Circulation  in  Cold  Storage  Room 
Chamber,  with  Ceiling  Piping. 

the  room.  As  is  well  known,  cold  air  is  heavier  than  warm  air  and, 
if  free  to  move,  the  cold  air  will  seek  a  lower  level  than  the  warm 
air.  This  movement  of  the  cold  air  downward  and  the  warm  air 
upward  is  what  is  known  as  gravity  air  circulation.  A  slight  difference 
in  the  temperature  will  cause  a  circulation  of  air  if  the  warm  and  cold 
air  are  separated  from  each  other  and  not  allowed  to  mix,  which  would 
cause  counter-currents  and  retard  the  circulation.  In  a  cold  storage 
room  the  air  in  contact  with  the  cooling  coils,  as  it  is  cooled,  flows 
downward  towards  the  floor  by  reason  of  its  greater  specific  gravity. 
The  comparatively  warm  air  above  is  drawn  down  to  the  pipes,  where 
it  is  in  turn  cooled,  and  the  flow  is  continuous.  If  the  entire  ceiling 
is  covered  with  pipes,  what  results?  The  air  in  contact  with  the 


CIRCULATION    OF   AIR.  315 

pipes  cannot  fall  because  it  cannot  be  replaced  by  warm  air  from 
above.  The  result  is  that  practically  no  circulation  of  air  takes  place 
in  such  a  room.  A  slight  local  circulation  in  the  vicinity  of  the  pipes 
is  all  that  results,  except  under  unusual  or  accidental  conditions.  The 
goods  are  cooled  for  the  most  part  by  direct  conduction  and  radiation ; 
the  top  tier  of  goods  would  be  cooled  directly  from  the  pipes  and  each 
tier  under  successively  from  its  neighbour  above  in  the  same  manner. 

"Goods  are  cooled  by  radiation  by  the  passage  of  heat  from  the 
goods  directly  to  some  colder  object,  without  the  heat  being  conveyed 
by  the  movement  of  the  air,  as  it  should  be,  and  as  it  is  where  a  good 
circulation  is  present  in  the  room.  In  a  room  in  which  the  goods 
are  cooled  by  radiation  mostly,  the  moisture  instead  of  being  deposited 
entirely  on  the  cooling  pipes,  as  it  should  be,  is  also  likely  to  be 


^  \ 

\ 


\ 


Fig.  211. — Diagram  showing  Gravity  Air  Circulation  in  Cold  Storage  Room  or 
Chamber,  with  Side  Wall  Piping. 

deposited  on  the  walls  of  the  room  or  on  the  goods  themselves.  The 
result  of  such  a  condition  would  be  serious.  This  cooling  by  radiation, 
as  compared  with  cooling  by  a  circulation  of  air,  may  seem  like  a  very 
finely  spun  theory  to  some,  but  let  the  sceptic  watch  his  house  for  a 
demonstration.  Is  there  any  practical  cold  storage  man  now  in  the 
business  who  has  not  noticed  an  accumulation  of  frost  or  moisture  on 
goods  if  they  were  piled  too  near  to  the  exposed  cooling  pipes  1  What 
causes  this  result  ?  Radiation,  nothing  else. 

"The  bad  effects  of  radiation  cannot  be  altogether  overcome  by 
placing  the  pipes  on  the  sides  of  the  room,  but  it  is  counteracted  to 
some  extent  by  the  resulting  circulation  of  air.  Fig.  211  shows  side 
wall  piping  and  the  resulting  circulation,  which  is  confined  largely  to 
a  small  space  near  the  coils.  The  arrows  show  approximately  the  path 
of  circulation.  If  the  room  is  wide,  no  circulation  at  all  will  take  place 


316       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

near  the  centre.  In  some  cases  pipes  have  been  carelessly  placed  two 
or  three  feet  down  from  the  ceiling.  This  results  in  the  air  of  the 
room  becoming  stratified — a  warm  layer  of  air  in  the  top  of  the  room 
resting  on  a  cold  layer  beneath.  This  may  be  operative  to  such  an 
extent  as  to  cause  a  difference  in  temperature  between  floor  and  ceiling 
as  great  as  10°  Fahr.  A  case  has  come  to  the  writer's  notice  with 

O 

exactly  these  conditions.  Another  bad  arrangement  of  side  wall 
piping  was  that  of  a  room  more  than  50  ft.  square  piped  completely 
around  on  the  side  walls  from  floor  to  ceiling,  with  the  exception  of 
the  doors.  No  circulation^could  penetrate  to  the  centre  of  such  a  room, 
and  conditions  were  very  poor  in  consequence. 

"MEANS  FOR  IMPROVING  AIR  CIRCULATION. 

"  The  placing  of  a  screen  or  apron  in  front  of  the  side  wall  piping, 
as  illustrated  in  Fig.  212,  marks  the  first  scientific  step  toward  a  better- 


y//'/////////////////////////////////////S/s//s/////s//////s/ss<tf^££S/-/s/i 


Fig.  212. — Diagram  showing  Gravity  Air  Circulation  in  Cold  Storage  Room  or 
Chamber,  with  Screened  Wall  Piping. 

ment  of  air  circulation  in  a  room  with  direct  piping.  It  prevents  the 
action  of  radiation,  and  assists  the  volume,  velocity  and  area  of  circula- 
tion, but  does  not  well  take  care  of  the  centre  of  the  room,  although  the 
increased  velocity  forces  the  air  to  cover  a  greater  area  and  flow  to 
a  greater  distance  from  the  coils.  The  screen  or  apron  should  be  of 
wood  or  any  moderately  good  non-conductor.  By  separating  the 
warm  from  the  cold  currents  of  air,  the  velocity  is  increased  on  the 
same  principle  that  a  fire  burning  in  a  flue  creates  a  greater  draught 
than  when  burning  in  the  open  air.  Radiation  is  prevented  in  the 
same  way  that  a  fire  screen  protects  one  from  a  too  hot  fire  in  a  grate, 
only  the  radiation,  as  already  explained,  is  in  a  reverse  direction. 

"  Shown  in  Fig.  213  is  the  same  arrangement  of  screen  or  apron  as 


CIRCULATION    OF   AIR. 


317 


in  Fig.  212,  but  added  thereto  is  a  false  ceiling  extending  out  towards 
the  centre  of  the  room.  This  addition  to  the  perpendicular  apron 
causes  the  air,  after  circulating  over  the  coils,  to  spread  out  more 
towards  the  centre  of  the  room  and  cover  the  cross-sectional  area  much 


Fig.  213. — Diagram  showing  Gravity  Air  Circulation  in  Cold  Storage  Room  or 
Cham  ber,  with  Screened  Side  Wall  Piping  and  Ceiling  Extensions. 

more  uniformly.  While  it  decreases  the  velocity  proportionately,  it 
is  considered  a  superior  arrangement  to  the  perpendicular  apron  alone, 
placed  in  front  of  the  coil.  The  false  ceiling  should  have  a  slant  of 
about  1  ft.  in  10,  and  the  opening  on  the  outer  edge  near  the 


Fig.  214.— Diagram  showing  Gravity  Air  Circulation  in  Cold  Storage  Room  or 
Chamber,  with  Gay's  arrangement  of  Piping. 

centre  of  room  need  not  be  over  3  or  4  in.  in  depth  in  most  cases. 
Without  the  false  ceiling  some  space  must  be  left  for  a  circulation 
of  air  at  the  top  of  the  room ;  with  it,  the  goods  may  be  piled  close 
up  to  the  false  ceiling,  so  no  space  of  consequence  is  wasted  in  using  it. 
"The  arrangement  shown  in  Fig.  214  was  first  originated  by  Mr 


318       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

C.  M  Gay,  as  was  described  in  the  August  1897  issue  of  Ice  and 
Refrigeration.  Barring  the  space  occupied,  it  is  by  far  the  best 
arrangement  of  room  piping  now  in  use.  The  following  is  quoted  from 
Mr  Gay's  description :  '  Upper  pipes  of  box  coils  should  be  about 
10  in.  below  ceiling  of  room,  to  prevent  sweating.  When  brine  or 
ammonia  is  turned  into  these  pipes  the  cold  air  around  the  pipes 
seeks  an  outlet  downward,  and  passes  between  the  false  partition  and 
the  side  wall  of  the  room,  thus  displacing  or  pushing  along  the  air 
in  centre  of  room,  the  cold  air  naturally  seeking  the  lowest  point, 
and  the  warm  air  the  highest  point,  each  by  reason  of  its  relative 
gravity.  Thus,  as  the  cold  air  falls  from  the  cooling  surfaces,  it 


Fig.  215. — Diagram  showing  Gravity  Air  Circulation  in  Cold  Storage  Room  or 
Chamber,  with  the  St  Glair  Pipe  Loft  System. 

is  replaced  by  the  warm  air  from  highest  point  in  centre  of  room. 
This  secures  a  natural  circulation  and  a  dry  room,  there  being  no 
counter-currents  nor  tendency  to  precipitate  moisture  on  walls  or 
ceiling.'  Mr  Gay's  remarks  regarding  his  system  apply  with  still 
greater  force  to  the  St  Clair  system,  and  to  a  greater  or  lesser  extent 
to  any  system  which  provides  for  a  removal  of  the  cooling  pipes  from 
the  room. 

"The  St  Clair  system,  illustrated  in  Fig.  215,  is  sometimes  called 
the  pipe  loft  system,  because  the  cooling  pipes  are  placed  above  the 
storage  room  in  a  pipe  loft  or  coil  room.  This  is  a  favourite  arrange- 
ment where  an  overhead  ice  cold  storage  house  is  equipped  with  the 


CIRCULATION    OF   AIR.  319 

mechanical  system.  In  this  case  the  pipes  are  placed  in  a  portion  of 
the  old  ice-room,  and  perhaps  the  old  air  ducts  used  for  air  circulation. 
If  the  storage  house  consists  of  several  floors  of  storage,  the  pipe  loft 
may  be  placed  at  the  top  and  the  rooms  below  all  cooled  from  one 
pipe  loft,  but  a  much  better  method  is  to  have  an  independent  coil 
room  for  each  room,  and  circulate  the  air  through  separate  air  ducts. 
This  prevents  contamination  from  foreign  odours  when  different 
products  are  stored  in  different  rooms. 

"  The  circulation  is  more  vigorous  and  effective  with  the  St  Clair 
system  than  with  any  pipe-in- the-room  system,  depending  on  the  law 
that  the  higher  the  column  of  air  the  stronger  the  draught,  in  the  same 
manner  that  a  tall  chimney  gives  a  stronger  draught  than  a  short  one. 
The  effect  of  this  is  to  produce  a  good  circulation  of  air  with  a  com- 
paratively small  variation  of  temperature.  The  St  Clair  system  is 
also  better  because  by  suitable  trap-doors  on  the  air  ducts  the  pipes 
may  be  shut  off  from  the  room,  when  the  temperature  is  such  outside 
as  not  to  require  the  circulating  of  the  refrigerant.  The  necessity  of 
keeping  the  air  of  a  storage  room  from  contact  with  the  frosted  pipes 
when  the  refrigerant  is  shut  off  will  be  considered  in  connection  with 
the  forced  or  fan  circulation  system,  to  be  described  further  on. 

"MECHANICAL  on  FORCED  AIR  CIRCULATION. 

"The  simplest,  and  probably  the  most  unscientific,  form  of 
mechanical  air  circulation  in  cold  storage  rooms  is  the  small  electric 
fan.  These  fans  are  of  the  four  or  six-bladed  disc  type,  of  from  12 
to  18  in.  diameter,  attached  directly  to  the  shaft  of  an  -J-  or  J  H.P. 
electric  motor.  The  electric  current  for  operating  is  usually  obtained 
from  the  socket  for  an  incandescent  electric  lamp.  Electric  fans  are 
usually  placed  on  the  floor  in  the  end  of  an  alleyway,  or  in  an  opening 
in  the  piled  goods,  and  are  used  for  creating  a  flow  of  air  from  one 
extremity  of  the  room  toward  the  other.  If  the  circulation  is  strong 
enough,  these  fans  tend  to  create  a  uniform  temperature  in  the  room ; 
but,  as  the  air  from  the  fan  will  follow  a  path  of  least  resistance,  the 
circulation  resulting  from  their  use  is  largely  confined  to  the  alleyways 
and  openings  in  the  piles  of  stored  goods — it  does  not  penetrate 
through  and  behind  the  goods  where  it  would  be  most  useful. 

"  The  use  of  this  type  of  fan  in  cold  storage  rooms  is  of  doubtful 
utility,  and  is  liable  at  times  to  lead  to  a  positive  harm  by  causing  a 
condensation  of  moisture  on  the  goods  in  storage,  as  a  result  of  the 
warm  upper  stratum  of  air  coming  in  contact  with  the  cold  goods  in 


320       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD    STORAGE. 

the  bottom  of  the  room.  In  some  cases  electric  fans  have  been  used 
to  propel  the  air  from  the  cooling  pipes,  for  which  purpose  they  are 
placed  in  an  opening  in  a  screen  or  mantle  covering  the  pipes,  forcing 
the  cooled  air  outwardly  into  the  room.  This  is  a  first  step  toward 
scientific  forced  circulation,  and  is  useful  as  far  as  it  goes.  In  many 
cases  the  electric  fan  is  useful  only  as  a  '  talking  point,'  as  it  is  likely 
to  impress  a  person  who  is  not  familiar  with  cold  storage  work,  with 
the  cooling  power  of  the  refrigerating  apparatus,  to  stand  for  a  few 
seconds  in  the  breeze  created  by  one  of  these  high-speed  fans.  Their 
use  has  been  adopted  to  an  extent  not  at  all  warranted  by  the  results 
to  be  obtained,  and  they  will  no  doubt  be  gradually  discontinued  as 
the  fallacy  of  the  idea  becomes  apparent. 

'//^/////////y^ 


U04MPPMC1 

rct/unc 


*OCfffO/UlT,0n  o 


13 


on  THIS  SiOt. 


BITvPi   »rP  Our* 
«TCCH.'n« 


V 


-    / 

1 

-/ 

/  J 

^ 


. 


Fig.  216.  —  Diagram  showing  Mechanical  or  Forced  Air  Circulation,  with  Air 
forced  into  the  Room  at  each  end,  and  drawn  out  at  centre. 


"  Those  who  use  electric  fans  as  above  described,  by  so  doing  admit 
the  superiority  of  forced  circulation  over  the  gravity  system,  and  also 
admit  that  their  rooms  are  in  bad  condition,  and  that  some  mechanical 
means  of  agitating  or  circulating  the  air  is  necessary.  Instead  of  such 
a  poor  makeshift,  it  seems  that  they  will  eventually  be  forced  to  instal 
a  scientific  system  of  forced  circulation. 

"A  system  which  has  been  installed  in  several  large  houses  in  the 
United  States,  and  to  some  extent  elsewhere,  consists  in  placing  the 
refrigerating  pipes  outside  the  storage  room,  and  using  a  fan  to  propel 
the  air  to  and  from  the  room.  Fig.  216  shows  a  floor  plan  of  a  room 
so  equipped.  The  air  is  forced  into  the  room  at  each  end,  and  the 
return  air  to  coil-room  drawn  out  in  the  centre  as  shown.  The  cold- 


CIRCULATION   OF   AIR. 


321 


air  inlet  at  ends  of  room  are  in  some  cases  placed  at  the  floor  and 
in  others  at  the  ceiling  of  the  room,  but  further  than  this  no 
distribution  of  air  is  attempted  other  than  that  resulting  from  the 
location  of  the  inlet  and  outlet.  Sometimes  the  ducts  are  arranged 
to  force  the  air  into  the  room  at  the  centre,  and  the  return  air  to 
coil-room  is  taken  out  at  the  ends,  or  the  cold  air  is  allowed  to  flow 
from  several  openings  in  a  duct  running  across  the  centre  of  the 
room,  but  no  real  distribution  results  from  this  method. 

"  Employing  the  forced  circulation  system  in  this  way  is  very 
much  like  the  indirect  systems  of  steam-heating  as  at  first  installed. 
It  is  noticeable  now  that  the  best  steam-heating  work  provides  a 


V 


(.OIL  OOOH 


1 


w/////////^//////^^^ 

Fig.  217.— Diagram  showing  Mechanical  or  Forced  Air  Circulation,  with  False 
Ceiling  for  distributing  Cold  Air  from  the  Coil-room. 

thorough  distribution  of  the  heated  air  throughout  the  apartments 
through  a  great  many  small  openings  rather  than  forcing  a  large  volume 
of  air  into  the  room  at  one  or  two  places.  It  needs  no  argument  or 
demonstration  to  show  that  a  room  heated  or  cooled  by  air  forced 
in  at  one  or  two  openings  must  have  varying  degrees  of  temperature, 
humidity  and  circulation  depending  on  the  remoteness  or  proximity  to 
the  direct  flow  of  air  from  inlet  to  outlet,  for  the  reason  that  the  air 
from  inlet  always  seeks  the  most  direct  path  to  the  outlet  and  moves 
through  the  area  of  least  resistance,  usually  through  the  central  alley 
of  room.  This  is  a  positive  fact  and  not  a  theory.  The  writer  re- 
cently visited  a  large  room  of  the  kind  above  described,  and  despite 
the  manager's  statement  that  he  had  tested  in  every  known  way  and 
21 


322       REFRIGERATION   AND    COLD    STORAGE. 


found  conditions  absolutely  uniform,  the  writer  for  himself  saw  a 
temperature  variation  of  two  degrees,  and  this  between  two  thermo- 
meters hung  in  the  centre  alley  of  room  at  the  same  height  from 
floor,  and  without  any  extraordinary  conditions  to  cause  such  a  varia- 
tion. The  real  difference  in  temperature  in  this  room  between  the 
coldest  and  warmest  point  could  not  have  been  less  than  five  or  six 
degrees. 

"The  longitudinal  section  of  a  room  shown  in  Fig.  217  illustrates  a 
system  of  forced  air  circulation  which  has  been  installed  to  a  moderate 
extent,  but  has  not  become  as  well  established  as  the  one  first 
described.  A  false  ceiling  is  provided  for  distributing  the  cold  air 
from  cooling  coils  at  the  top  of  the  room,  but,  as  with  the  system  just 


Fig.  218. — Diagram  showing  Mechanical  or  Forced  Air  Circulation,  with  Air 
admitted  at  sides  of  Ceiling,  and  drawn  out  at  centre  thereof. 

described,  no  collecting  ducts  are  provided  for  the  purpose  of  uni- 
formly removing  the  air  from  the  room.  The  air-  from  coil-room 
comes  into  the  room  through  narrow  slit-like  openings  in  the  false 
ceiling,  and  is  returned  to  the  cooling  coils  through  and  by  the  disc 
fan  located  in  the  partition  between  coil-room  and  storage-room. 
It  would  seem  that  this  is  working  counter  to  the  natural  laws  of 
gravitation,  although  it  may  be  looked  at  in  another  light  also. 

"It  is  often  remarked  that  *  cold  will  naturally  drop,'  but  this 
should  not  confuse  us  when  studying  the  means  for  promoting  circula- 
tion. If  the  cold  air  is  admitted  to  the  room  at  the  top,  it  will  of 
course  fall  to  the  floor  if  allowed  to  do  so ;  but  why  admit  the  cold 
air  at  the  top  of  the  room  if  it  is  wanted  at  the  floor  1  In  a  room 


CIRCULATION   OF   AIR. 


323 


'////////////////////////////  ///////  x  ///  /yyy 

»£!•„,?«,,<»        -4. 
Ot/C"1"    /^  /        \      mr'm 


fitted  with  direct  piping  the  cold  air  does  not  drop  through  the  goods  in 
storage,  but  do"wn  over  the  cooling  coils,  and  rises  through  the  goods  in 
storage  as  it  is  warmed.  It  would  seem,  then,  that  any  method  of 
distributing  the  cold  air  at  the  top  of  the  room  is  wrong  in  principle, 
especially  as  no  means  of  uniformly  drawing  off  the  air  at  the  bottom 
of  the  room  is  provided.  When  warm  goods  are  placed  in  a  room 
equipped  in  this  way,  the  moisture  given  off  as  the  goods  are  cooled 
must  be  very  liable  to  collect  on  the  cold  false  ceiling.  To  provide 
uniform  temperatures  and  humidity  with  this  system  it  is  necessary 
to  provide  a  very  strong  blast  of  air,  which  is  to  be  avoided,  as  goods 
directly  in  front  of  the  fan  may  be  exposed  to  too  great  a  drying 
influence. 

"The  arrangement  of  collect- 
ing and  distributing  air  ducts 
shown  in  the  cross  section  of  room, 
Fig.  218,  has  been  installed  in  a 
number  of  houses  in  America,  and, 
like  some  of  the  others,  depends 
on  the  '  cold  will  naturally  drop ' 
theory  for  its  operation.  The 
arrows  show  the  natural  tendency 
of  the  air  circulation  from  the 
cold  air  ducts  on  the  sides  of  the 
room  to  the  warm  air  collecting 
duct  in  the  centre.  In  some  cases 
the  cold  air  is  distributed  in  the 
centre  and  collected  at  the  sides  of 
the  room,  and  where  the  room  is 
narrow  only  two  ducts  are  used,  as 
in  Fig.  219,  a  cold  air  distributing 

duct  on  one  side  of  the  room  and  a  warm  air  collecting  duct  on  the 
opposite  side.  In  every  case  the  ducts  are  placed  at  the  ceiling, 
on  the  theory  that  the  air  from  cold  air  duct  will  drop  and  distribute 
itself  along  the  floor  before  being  drawn  back  to  the  coil-room 
through  the  return  duct.  The  openings  provided  in  the  air  ducts  of 
this  system  are  usually  square  openings,  fitted  with  sliding  gates  to 
regulate  the  flow  of  air  into  the  room  and  its  return  to  cooler.  These 
gates  are  placed  5  or  6  ft.  apart,  consequently  a  good  distribution 
of  air  is  not  provided,  and  goods  exposed  to  the  rapid  flow  of  air 
directly  in  front  of  the  openings  will  get  a  much  greater  volume 
of  circulation  than  is  to  be  found  in  any  other  part  of  the  room. 


V, 

Fig.  2 1 9.  — Diagram  showing  Mechanical 
or  Forced  Air  Circulation,  with  Air 
admitted  at  one  side  of  Ceiling, 
and  drawn  out  at  the  other  side. 


324       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 


When  a  room  of  this  kind  is  filled  with  goods,  preventing  the  air  from 
falling  directly  from  the  cold  air  duct  to  the  floor,  no  circulation  of 
consequence  will  be  obtained  near  the  floor,  for  the  reason  that  air  will 


'//^////////////////////^ 


v/P/y///////ss/fy////%^^ 


Fig.  220. — Diagram  showing  MechanicarorJForced'Air  Circulation,  with  Air 
admitted  at  each  side  of  Floor,  and^drawn  out  at  ^centre  of  Ceiling. 

travel  through  path  of  least  resistance,  almost  directly  from  feeder 
duct  to  return  duct,  about  as  shown  by  the  arrows. 

"A  method  somewhat  similar  to  the  one  just  described  is  that  in 
which   the   cold-  air  distributing  ducts   are  placed  at  the  floor  and 


y//////////////////////////////////////////w^ 

%  RETURN    AIR  DUCT     I  W 


COt-O   AIR    DUCT 


Fig.  221. — Diagram  showing  Mechanical  or  Forced  Air  Circulation,  with  Air 
admitted  at  one  side  of  Floor,  and  drawn  out  at  other  side  of  Ceiling. 

the  warm  air  return  duct  is  placed  at  the  ceiling,  as  represented  by 
the  cross  sections  of  rooms,  Figs.   220  and  221.     In  narrow  rooms 


CIRCULATION    OF   AIR. 


325 


one  distributing  duct  is  used  as  shown  in  Fig.  221.  In  wider  rooms 
two  distributing  ducts  on  opposite  sides  of  the  room  at  the  floor  are 
used,  and  one  collecting  duct  at  ceiling  in  centre  of  room.  This 
arrangement  has  the  merit  of  operating  according  to  the  laws  of 
gravity,  but  still  lacks  the  thorough  distribution  of  cold  air  and 
collection  of  warm  air,  as  shown  in  the  system  described  further- 
on.  It  is,  however,  considerable  of  an  improvement  on  any  of  the 
preceding  methods,  and  the  writer  has  demonstrated  in  actual  service 
that  it  will  produce  fairly  uniform  circulation  and  temperatures  with  a 
comparatively  gentle  flow  of  air.  This  system  is  to  be  recommended 
for  goods  which  do  not  give  off  much  moisture.  It  is  preferable  to  use 


Fig.  222.—  Diagram  showing  Mechanical  or  Forced  Air  Circulation,  with  Air 
admitted  at  two  Ducts  on  each  side  of  Wall,  and  drawn  out  through  Perforated 
False  Ceiling. 

numerous  small  holes  rather  than  a  few  large  openings  in  the  supply 
and  return  ducts. 

"The  system  shown  in  the  cross  section  of  room,  Fig.  222,  was 
developed  by  the  writer  (Mr  Cooper)  after  some  experiments,  and 
has  since  been  improved  by  two  successive  steps.  It  was  the  old 
trouble  of  sluggish  circulation,  especially  during  the  fall  and  winter, 
which  impelled  the  writer  to  experiment  for  its  betterment.  As  an 
improvement  over  the  small  electric  fan  already  mentioned,  an 
exhaust  fan  was  fitted  up  to  take  air  from  the  cooling  apparatus 
and  deliver  it  to  the  rear  end  of  the  room  through  a  perforated  duct. 
The  air  was  allowed  to  find  its  way  back  to  the  coils  as  best  it 
could. 

"  This  method  was  applied  to  a  long  narrow  room,  and  certainly 


326       REFRIGERATION    AND    COLD    STORAGE. 

was  a  decided  improvement  over  the  sluggish  natural  circulation  which 
it  superseded.  Following  this,  the  perforated  false  ceiling  was  applied, 
with  distributing  cold  air  ducts  on  the  walls,  as  shown  in  Fig.  222. 
The  cold  air  from  coil-room  was  forced  into  small  holes  in  the  top, 
bottom,  and  sides  of  the  cold  air  ducts.  The  warm  air  from  the 
room  flowed  upwards  through  the  small  perforations  in  the  false 
ceiling  and  through  the  space  between  the  ceiling  of  the  room  and 
false  ceiling,  and  thence  to  the  coil-room,  where  the  air  was 
cooled,  and  caused  to  repeat  the  same  circuit  continuously.  The  first 
apparatus  was  clumsy,  and  the  proportions  of  the  various  parts  not 
correct,  but  the  efficiency  of  a  forced  circulation  of  air,  and  a  thorough 
distribution  and  collection  of  the  incoming  and  outgoing  air  of  a  cold 
storage  room  so  plainly  proven,  that  a  further  development  of  the  idea 
was  undertaken. 

"It  was  demonstrated  by  above-described  experiments  that  a 
comparatively  small  amount  of  air  well  distributed  and  uniformly  drawn 
off  at  the  top  of  the  room  after  flowing  upward  through  the  goods  in 
storage,  would  produce  very  uniform  conditions  throughout  the  entire 
area  of  the  room.  Following  up  this  information  the  apparatus  was 
reduced  to  a  more  practical  form  by  substituting  one  broad  duct  near 
the  floor,  as  in  Fig.  223,  for  distributing  the  cold  air,  in  place  of  the 
two  distributing  ducts  as  used  in  the  apparatus  shown  in  Fig.  222. 

"  The  top  duct  of  the  two  did  not  accomplish  any  result  of  conse- 
quence, and  was  considered  objectionable,  as  the  air  passing  from  this 
duct  to  the  false  ceiling  did  not  percolate  through  the  goods  to  any 
considerable  extent,  and  resulted  practically  in  a  loss  of  the  work 
done  by  the  air  flowing  from  the  top  duct.  Two  ducts  also  made  the 
apparatus  more  complicated.  Using  the  broad  single  distributing 
duct  near  the  floor  in  combination  with  the  false  ceiling  resulted  in 
very  penetrating  and  uniform  circulation  of  air,  and  in  practical  service 
it  has  been  found  to  produce  superior  results. 

"  No  practical  objections  have  been  urged  against  it.  As  shown 
by  the  arrows,  the  air  is  caused  to  cover  very  uniformly  the  entire  cross- 
sectional  area  of  the  room.  This  was  accomplished  by  perforating 
the  distributing  ducts  with  small  holes,  and  so  proportioning  them 
that  a  larger  part  of  the  flow  of  air  is  from  the  bottom  of  the  ducts. 
The  ducts  are  also  perforated  to  some  extent  on  sides  and  top.  By 
piling  the  goods  a  few  inches  off  the  floor  the  air  from  bottom  of  ducts 
flows  under  the  goods  and  out  to  centre  of  room.  This  action  is 
also  assisted  by  having  the  greater  number  of  the  perforations  in  false 
ceiling  in  the  middle  third  or  quarter  of  the  room,  so  as  to  draw  the 


CIRCULATION    OF   AIR. 


327 


air  out  from  sides  of  room.  As  indicated  by  the  arrows,  the  air 
moves  up  from  the  distributing  duct,  is  drawn  into  space  above  false 
ceiling,  and  returned  to  coil-room  to  be  cooled. 

"The  system  described  in  the  foregoing  paragraph  is  nearly  theo- 
retically perfect  so  far  as  a  uniform  circulation  of  air  is  concerned, 
and  a  more  thorough  method  than  any  of  its  predecessors,  but  it  still 
remained  to  design  the  perforated  false  floor  and  false  ceiling  combina- 
tion, Fig.  224,  to  produce  a  system  which  cannot  be  improved  upon 
theoretically.  Not  only  is  the  system  theoretically  perfect,  but  its 
practical  application  is  so  simple  as  to  be  unobjectionable.  As  shown 


Fig.  223. — Diagram  showing  Mechanical  or  Forced  Air  Circulation,  with  Air 
admitted  at  one  broad  Duct  on  each  Side  Wall,  and  drawn  out  through  Per- 
forated Ceiling. 

clearly  by  the  sketch,  the  flow  of  air  is  directly  upward  from  floor  to 
ceiling,  consequently  all  goods  piled  in  such  a  room  are  exposed  to 
exactly  the  same  conditions  as  to  circulation,  temperature,  humidity, 
and  purity  of  the  air.  In  a  room  equipped  with  this  system,  with  the 
parts  correctly  proportioned,  it  is  entirely  safe  to  pile  goods  closely, 
only  allowing  a  fraction  of  an  inch  between  the  packages  and  at  sides 
of  room  and  placing  thin  strips  beneath  the  goods  to  allow  air  to  flow 
from  perforations  in  false  floor. 

"Where,  in  rooms  fitted  with  direct  piping  and  some  of  the  fan 
systems  as  well,  a  large  space  must  be  left  at  floor  and  ceiling  for  a 


328       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

circulation  of  air,  with  this  system  goods  may  be  piled  close  up  to 
ceiling  leaving  only  half  an  inch  for  the  air  to  flow  into  perforations  in 
false  ceilings.  As  the  space  occupied  in  height  by  false  floor  and  its 
space  underneath  is  only  1^  in.  and  that  occupied  by  false  ceiling 
only  1J  in.,  it  will  be  apparent  that  much  space  will  be  saved 
by  using  this  system.  After  a  room  is  filled  with  goods  and  cooled 
down  to  the  correct  carrying  temperature,  no  difference  in  temperature 
can  be  noticed  in  different  parts  of  the  room.  No  blast  of  air  can  be 
felt  in  any  place,  a  gentle  flow  from  perforations  only  is  noticeable, 
therefore  no  particular  place  has  more  circulation  than  another  to 

/in, HIH/IIII//III/ ft/nii  fti/ii!ifi/iitiir/ini/fiM/iliilnJiiiiitniitliiitii/iiJl/J///h 


1  I    \    \  ;«-scp""-                       ?  n 

--»-;!  

\                 *         1      « 

I      If               t     (    i 

1      'l 

i    i    t    i    r           it 

(                  1 

i  1  l-  l   1  '  !     1  i  ' 

f                        t 

1        1 

Iff,          i         '      j 

! 

i                          '     f     '     '•        ' 
tit             '               t 

!               i  1         t    I        '          l 

i  1  1 

1        !I!I!,! 

i  ""I  «L0*»«^    |         t          i       r     i                 r 

i  i 

T       T       t 

1      |                 il'       1,.,—  —;    1 

i       1        1 

Fig.  224. — Diagram  showing  Mechanical  or  Forced  Air  Circulation,  with 
Air  admitted  through  Perforated  Floor,  and  drawn  out  through  Perforated 
Ceiling. 

cause  a  drying  out  of  the  goods.  The  advantages  of  this  system  over 
any  of  the  others  may  be  summed  up  as  follows : — 

"  1.  A  more  equal  distribution  of  air,  especially  when  the  room  is 
filled  with  goods.  Goods  in  centre  of  room  are  exposed  to  the  same 
temperature,  circulation,  &c.,  as  those  at  sides. 

"2.  Saving  in  space,  as  it  allows  the  room  to  be  filled  full  of 
goods  without  leaving  large  spaces  at  top  and  bottom  for  a  circulation 
of  air. 

"  3.  Where  the  air  is  so  perfectly  distributed  and  collected  it  is  not 
necessary  to  circulate  such  a  large  volume,  saving  in  power  and 
lessening  the  liability  of  evaporation  of  goods." 


INSULATION.  329 

INSULATION. 

Besides  being  non-conductive,  a  good  insulating  material  should  be 
non-odorous,  non-hygroscopic,  or  deliquescent,  not  liable  to  silt,  both 
vermin  and  fire  proof,  and  inexpensive. 

The  efficient  insulation  of  a  freezing-room  or  of  a  cold  store,  or 
refrigerating  chamber,  is  a  matter  of  very  great  importance  from  an 
economical  point  of  view.  This  will  be  apparent  when  it  is  remembered 
that  when  once  the  contents  of  the  cold  store  or  chamber  are  reduced 
to  the  requisite  temperature,  the  entire  work  required  of  the  refriger- 
ating machine  will  be  only  that  which  is  necessary  to  neutralise  the 
heat  that  passes  through  the  walls,  floor,  and  ceiling  from  the  exterior. 
Consequently,  the  more  perfect  the  insulation,  the  less  the  machine  will 
be  called  upon  to  work,  and  naturally  in  a  corresponding  ratio  also 
will  be  the  saving  effected  in  fuel,  wear  and  tear  of  the  working  parts, 
and  in  attendance. 

The  means  adopted  for  insulation  consist  in  lining  the  room,  or, 
in  the  case  of  a  marine  installation,  the  hold  of  the  vessel,  with  some , 
material  forming  a  very  bad  conductor  of  heat.  The  exact  method 
of  carrying  this  out,  as  also  the  nature  of  the  non-conducting  material 
employed,  must  necessarily  be  considerably  varied  according  to  the 
circumstances  of  each  particular  case. 

Mr  Lightfoot  recommends  as  a  fairly  good  protection  an  outer 
and  an  inner  layer  of  tongued  and  grooved  boards,  1  in.  or  1J  in. 
thick,  with  a  9-in.  space  or  clearance  between  them  filled  with 
charcoal,  or  in  some  cases  preferably  with  silicate  cotton  or  slag-wool. 

In  France  and  Germany  cork  is  used  with  marked  success  as  a  non- 
conductor, and  it  is  evidently  a  substance  exceedingly  suitable  for  the 
purpose  in  question,  being  a  material  very  impervious  to  heat,  and 
capable  of  withstanding  moisture.  Either  ordinary  cork  cut  into 
thin  slices,  or  refuse  or  waste  cork,  from  other  industries,  thoroughly 
ground  up  or  disintegrated  into  a  coarse  powder,  is  employed,  the 
former  being  the  best  but  the  most  expensive.  In  New  Zealand  and 
Australia  pumice  stone  is  much  used. 

Various  other  substances  such  as  asbestos,  cotton-wool,  sheep's 
wool,  pine-wood,  loam,  gas  works  breeze,  coal  ashes,  sawdust,  hair  felt, 
lampblack,  mica,  paper,  fine  cinders,  pitch,  &c.,  are  likewise  employed 
for  purposes  of  insulation.  A  number  of  different  compositions  have 
also  been  tested  and  used  as  heat  insulators,  amongst  which  may  be 
mentioned  the  following  : — Composition  of  fossil  meal,  composed  of 
60  per  cent,  of  washed  white  German  kieselguhr,  and  40  per  cent,  of 


330      REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD  STORAGE. 

binding  material;  composition  of  kieselguhr  from  German  mines, 
with  10  per  cent,  of  binding  matter,  such  as  fibre,  and  mucilaginous 
extract  of  vegetable  ;  cement  composed  of  blue  clay  mixed  with  flax ; 
jute  and  woollen  waste,  or  cow's  hair,  in  equal  proportions;  fibrous 
composition  of  fine  blue  clay  mixed  with  flax,  hemp,  rope,  jute,  cow- 
hair,  and  woollen  waste ;  and  a  papier  mache  composition  composed  of 
paper-pulp  mixed  with  clay  and  carbon,  together  with  hair  and 
fragments  of  hemp -rope. 

In  choosing  a  substance  other  considerations  besides  its  good 
insulating  powers  must  be  taken  into  consideration,  such,  for  instance, 
as  its  capacity  for  withstanding  moisture.  This  latter  quality  is  of  the 
utmost  importance,  inasmuch  as  at  very  low  temperatures  moisture 
from  the  air  is  very  readily  absorbed  by  many  substances,  and  fer- 
mentation, rotting,  and  decay  will  result  therefrom.  It  is  for  this 
reason  that  cork  forms  so  desirable  a  material  for  insulating  purposes, 
although  surpassed  in  non-conductibility  by  some  others.  For  a  like 
reason  pitch,  or  some  form  of  enamel  composed  of  bitumen  and  other 
ingredients,  is  found  to  be  very  valuable.  Lampblack  is  claimed  to 
be  a  very  good  material  for  insulating  purposes  in  railway  and  other 
portable  refrigerating  chambers  by  reason  of  its  lightness  and  elasticity, 
and  more  particularly  on  account  of  its  non-liability  to  pack  from  jolt- 
ing, and  complete  imperviousness  to  moisture.  This  material  is  the 
one  employed  by  Henry  Carr  Godell,  in  his  patent  (1884)  movable 
refrigerating  chamber.  When  it  is  desirable  to  increase  the  elasticity 
and  reduce  the  cost,  he  sometimes  uses  a  mixture  of  either  short  fibre 
or  scales  of  mica. 

Whatever  the  filling  material  that  may  be  employed  for  insulating 
purposes,  however,  it  should  always  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  more  air 
that  is  enclosed  with  it  between  the  walls  or  skins  the  better,  for  it  is 
a  well-known  fact  that  the  best  non-conductor  of  heat  is  dry  air,  the 
units  of  heat  transmitted  per  square  foot  per  hour,  through  a  layer  of 
confined  air  of  1  in.  in  thickness,  being  about  '29. 

When  charcoal  is  employed  it  should  be  well  dried,  and  packed  as 
nearly  as  possible  to  a  consistency  of  1 1  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  Silicate 
cotton  or  slag- wool  is  usually  packed  to  a  consistency  of  about  12  Ibs. 
per  cubic  foot,  one  ton  equalling  about  187  cub.  ft.  Some  engineers 
prefer,  however,  to  use  13  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot. 

The  following  table,  from  experiments  by  Peclet,  gives  the  amount 
of  heat  in  units  transmitted  per  square  foot  per  hour,  through  various 
substances,  in  plates  or  layers  of  1  in.  in  thickness,  many  of  which  are 
suitable  for  insulating  cold-air  or  refrigerating  chambers.  The  experi- 


INSULATION.  331 

ments  were  made  by  heating  one  side  of  the  plates  or  layers  by  means 
of  hot  water,  and  cooling  the  other  side  by  cold  water,  the  difference 
between  the  temperature  of  the  two  faces  being  1°  Fahr. 


Materials. 

Units  of 
Heat  trans- 
mitted. 

Materials. 

Units  of 
Heat  trans- 
mitted. 

Gold 

625 

Gutta-percha     - 

1-37 

Platinum  - 

600 

India-rubber 

1-36 

Silver 

595 

Brickdust,  sifted 

1-33 

Copper 

520 

Coke,  in  powder 

1-29 

Iron  - 

230 

Iron  filings 

1-26 

Zinc  -         - 

225 

Cork 

1-15 

Tin   -         - 

178 

Chalk,  in  powder 

•86 

Lead 

113 

Charcoal  (wood)   in  pow 

Marble 

24 

der 

•63 

Stone 

14 

Straw,  chopped 

•56 

Glass 
Terra  -cotta 

6'6 

4-8 

Coal  powder,  sifted  - 
Wood  ashes 

•54 
•53 

Brickwork 

4-8 

Mahogany  dust 

•52 

Plaster      - 

3'8 

Canvas,  hempen,  new 

•41 

Sand 

2-17 

Calico,  new 

•40 

Oak,  against  the  grain  or 
fibre       -                  -         - 

1-7 

Writing  paper,  white 
Cotton  and  sheep's  wool 

•34 
•32 

Walnut,  with  the  grain  or 

Eiderdown 

•31 

fibre       -         .         .         . 

1-4 

Blotting  paper,  grey 

•26 

Fir,    with    the    grain    or 

fibre       .... 

1-37 

i 

The  quantity  of  heat  in  units,  transmitted  through  1  sq.  ft.  of 
plate  per  hour,  may  be  found  thus  :  subtract  the  temperature  of  the 
cooler  side  from  that  of  the  hotter  side  of  the  plate,  then  multiply  the 
result  by  the  number  in  the  preceding  table  corresponding  to  the 
material  used,  and  divide  the  product  by  the  thickness  of  plate.  Thus 
an  iron  plate  2  in.  thick,  having  a  temperature  of  60°  on  one  side  and 

80°    on   the   other,  will   transmit    80  -  60  =  2230  =  2,300    units  of 


heat  per  square  foot  per  hour.* 

A  series  of  five  experiments  f  on  radiation  at  low  temperatures  were 
conducted  by  Raoul  Pictet  on  the  rate  of  heating  of  a  body  cooled  to 
-170°  Cent.  (-338°  Fahr.),  the  surrounding  atmosphere  being  at  a 
temperature  of  +11°  Cent.  (  +  51-8°  Fahr.). 

The  refrigerators  employed  were  cooled  by  a  mixture  of  sulphur  di 

*  Button,  "Works  Managers'  Handbook,"  Crosby  Lockwood  &  Son. 
t  "Comptes  Rendus  de  1'  Academic  des  Sciences,"  Paris,  vol.  cxix.,  p.  1202. 
1894. 


332       REFRIGERATION    AND    COLD    STORAGE. 

oxide  and  carbon  dioxide  (Pictet's  special  liquid),  or  by  liquid  nitrous 
oxide,  their  thermal  capacity  being  considered  in  every  case.  In  the  first 
experiment  the  surface  of  the  refrigerator  was  uncovered  ;  in  the  second 
it  was  encased  in  a  sufficient  covering  of  cotton  waste  to  prevent  the 
formation  of  hoar  frost  on  the  metal ;  whilst  in  the  third,  fourth,  and 
fifth  series  protecting  layers  of  10,  25,  and  50  centimetres  in  thickness 
were  employed. 

The  results  showed  that  at  extremely  cold  temperatures  between 
-  170°  Cent.  (  -  338°  Fahr.)  and  -  100°  Cent.  (  -  212°  Fahr.)  a  thick 
layer  of  cotton  afforded  but  a  slight  protection.  It  was  only  between 
the  temperatures  of  -20°  Cent.  (-68°  Fahr.)  and  +10°  Cent. 
( 4-  50°  Fahr.)  that  the  effect  of  the  protecting  layers  became  pro- 
portional to  their  thickness. 

In  the  opinion  of  Mr  Pictet,  bad  conductors  of  heat  are  capable  of 
absorbing,  with  considerable  efficiency,  the  radiations  from  bodies 
at  temperatures  between  -60°  Cent.  (-140°  Fahr.)  and  +11°  Cent. 
(  +  51*8°  Fahr.),  but  are  ineffective  as  regards  calorific  vibrations  at 
temperatures  below  -60°  Cent.  (-140°  Fahr.).  With  other  non- 
conducting substances,  such  as  silk,  wool,  sawdust,  cork,  charcoal 
powder,  and  peat,  the  results  were  identical,  and,  as  a  rule,  bad  con- 
ductors appeared  to  be  freely  permeable  to  heat  at  low  temperatures 
between  -  100°  Cent.  ( -  212°  Fahr.)  and  -  170°  Cent.  (338°  Fahr.). 

The  table  on  the  next  page  gives  the  results  of  tests*  undertaken 
by  Professor  Andrew  Jamieson,  M.Inst.C.E.,  for  the  purpose  of 
determining  the  relative  and  absolute  thermal  conductivities  of  sub- 
stances used  as  lagging  for  steam  boilers,  for  parts  of  steam  engines, 
and  for  refrigerating  machines.  The  method  adopted  was  to  observe 
the  fall  of  temperature  in  a  known  weight  of  hot  water  contained  in 
a  vessel  coated  on  all  sides  with  a  certain  thickness  of  the  material 
under  examination,  the  outer  surface  of  which  was  maintained  at  a 
constant  temperature  by  the  continuous  flow  of  cold  water  through  a 
water  jacket. 

The  apparatus  consisted  of  three  cylindrical  tin  cases,  the  inner- 
most of  which  was  fitted  with  a  water-tight  lid  having  a  central  funnel 
through  which  the  hot  water  was  inserted.  The  space  or  clearance 
of  1  in.  left  between  the  first  or  innermost  vessel,  and  the  second  vessel, 
contained  the  non-conducting  material  under  test;  and  the  space 
between  the  second  and  third  vessel  formed  the  water  jacket.  Ther- 
mometers were  placed  in  the  hot-water  chamber  and  water  jacket,  and 

*  Minute*  of  Proceedings,  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers,  vol.  cxxi. ,  Session 
1894-95,  pp.  291,  292,  293,  294,  295. 


INSULATION. 


333 


an  arrangement  for  stirring  the  water  in  said  hot-water  chamber  in 
the  innermost  vessel  was  likewise  provided.  Each  specimen  of  non- 
conducting material  was  placed  upon  a  separate  inner  case,  each  of 
the  latter  being  covered  to  an  uniform  thickness  of  1  in.  in  the  manner 
in  which  the  material  would  be  employed  in  actual  practice.  The 
non-con  ducting  composition  was  applied  in  layers,  carefully  dried  in 
succession,  so  as  to  ensure  the  dry  ness  necessary  to  the  accuracy  of  the 
tests  being  obtained. 

RESULTS  OP  THE  TESTS. 


Weight  of 

Qarnrvlp 

Total  Fall 
of 

Thermal 
Conductivity 

Conductivity 
as 

Name  of  Material. 

(including 
Tin). 

Temperature 
in  120 
minutes. 

in 
Absolute 
Measure. 

Compared 
with  Dry 
Still  Air. 

Ibs.       07.. 

Deg.  Cent. 

Dry  air    

... 

6-0 

0-0000558 

1-00 

Fossil  meal  composition  - 

7        2    i      21-5 

0-0002689 

4-82 

Cement  with  hair  felt  *    - 

5       15     |      30-0 

0-0003613 

6-47 

Silicate  cotton,  f  or  slag-  wool  - 

29-0 

0-0003875 

6-95 

Kieselguhr  £  composition 

7       13 

29-0 

0-0004336 

7-77 

Papier  mache  composition  § 

7        6 

35-5 

0-0004424 

7-93 

Fibrous      composition      (flax, 

I 

hemp,  cow-hair,  and  clay)  -       9        9 

34-5 

0-0004550 

7-98 

Papier  mache  composition  || 

8       12 

37-5 

0-0005019 

8-99 

The  covered  tin  cases  were  tested  as  follows: — 10  Ibs.  of  boiling 
water  was  poured  through  a  funnel  into  the  hot-water  chamber.  Cold 
water  was  then  allowed  to  flow  uniformly  from  the  main  water-pipe, 
and  to  circulate  freely  through  the  cold-water  chamber.  During  no 
test  was  the  temperature  in  this  chamber  observed  to  rise  as  much  as 
1°  Cent.  The  outer  surface  was,  therefore,  kept  at  a  constant  tempera- 

*  The  outside  diameter  of  this  sample  was  about  ^  in.  smaller  than  the  inside 
diameter  of  the  middle  tin  case  or  vessel,  and  it  had  consequently  a  slight 
advantage  over  the  other  samples  in  having  a  thin  layer  of  air  between  its  outer 
surface  and  the  latter. 

t  The  silicate  cotton  was  pressed  together  tightly,  and  thus  its  conductivity 
appears  greater  than  would  have  been  the  case  had  it  been  more  loosely  packed. 

£  The  Kieselguhr  employed  consisted  on  the  average  of  silica  83 '8,  magnesia 
0'7,  lime  0*8,  alumina  I'O,  peroxide  of  iron  2"1,  organic  matter  4'5,  moisture  and 
loss  7*1.  It  was  employed  in  conjunction  with  10  per  cent,  of  binding  material, 
viz.,  fibre  and  mucilaginous  extracts  of  several  vegetable  matters. 

§  Papier-mache  composition,  consisting  of  paper  pulp  mixed  with  clay  and 
carbon,  together  with  hair  and  fragments  of  hemp  rope. 

j|  A  lighter  modification  of  above. 


334       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD    STORAGE. 

ture  throughout  each  test.  In  order  to  prevent  the  temperature  of 
the  hot  water  from  falling  too  quickly  at  first,  and  to  bring  the  non- 
conductor and  the  whole  apparatus  to  a  condition  of  constant  tempera- 
ture or  heat  equilibrium,  steam  at  atmospheric  pressure  generated  in  a 
Florence  flask  was  first  passed  into  the  inner  vessel  by  means  of  a 
glass  tube  led  into  it  through  the  funnel.  The  steam-pipe  was  then 
removed,  and  a  paraffined  cork  fitted  tightly  into  its  position.  The 
first  reading  was  always  taken  when  the  temperature  of  the  hot  water 
had  just  fallen  to  94°  Cent.  (201-2°  Fahr.).  The  water  in  inner 
chamber  was  stirred  by  a  perforated  piston  prior  to  the  readings  of  the 
thermometers  in  the  two  chambers,  which  were  taken  simultaneously, 
being  noted.  Successive  readings  of  both  thermometers  were  taken  in 
the  same  way,  and  recorded  every  ten  minutes. 

The  results  of  tests*  made  by  Mr  John  G.  Dobbie,  superintending 
engineer  at  Calcutta  to  the  British  India  Steam  Navigation  Company, 
to  determine  the  conductivities  of  asbestos  and  Kieselguhr  composi- 
tion were  as  follows  :  — 


RESULTS  OF  TESTS. 


Asbestos. 

Kieselguhr  Com-, 
position. 

Water  Condensed 
in  Inches. 

Water  Condensed 
in  Inches. 

After  15  minutes 
„     30        „ 
,,     45 

,,     60        „ 

4* 
3f 

3f 

3f 

1 
1 

Totals  in  one  hour 

14| 

9* 

This  experiment  shows  a  saving  of  36  per  cent,  in  favour  of  Kieselguhr 
composition.  The  tests  were  made  with  two  boiler-tubes — 3J  in.  in 
outside  diameter  and  7  ft.  long,  closed  at  both  ends,  and  covered  with 
a  thickness  of  2  in.  of  asbestos  and  Kieselguhr  composition  respectively. 
The  tubes  were  suspended  side  by  side,  and  steam  was  admitted  at  the 
top,  a  gauge-glass  being  fitted  at  the  bottom  of  each  by  which  the 
amount  of  condensation  inside  the  tubes  could  be  accurately  observed. 
Steam  at  a  pressure  of  30  Ibs.  per  square  inch  was  used  in  the  tubes. 

*  Minutes  of  Proceedings,  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers,  vol.  cxxi.,  Session 
1894-95,  pp.  301,  302. 


INSULATION.  335 

In  the  first  trial,  which  lasted  one  hour,  12-375  in.  of  water  were  con- 
densed in  the  tube  covered  with  asbestos,  and  8 '3 7 5  in.  in  that  covered 
with  Kieselguhr  composition,  showing  33  per  cent,  less  water  condensed 
with  Kieselguhr  composition.  In  the  second  trial,  of  one  hour  also,  the 
condensation  was  noted  every  fifteen  minutes,  and  gave  the  results 
shown  in  the  above  table. 

From  these  and  other  tests  the  author  has  been  led  to  the  conclu- 
sion that  hard-pressed  asbestos  paper  or  cloth  is  a  better  conductor  of 
heat  than  silicate  cotton  or  slag-wool,  felt,  hair,  wool,  or  some  of  the 
Kieselguhr  compositions.  The  main  reason  for  the  superior  non-con- 
ductivities of  porous  materials  is  on  account  of  the  entrapped  and 
occluded  air,  hence  the  looser  asbestos  and  other  fibrous  materials  are 
laid  on  the  better  will  they  prevent  radiation  of  heat. 

In  an  appendix*  to  his  paper  on  heat-insulators,  Professor  Jamieson 
gives  some  accounts  of  previous  experiments,  of  which  the  following 
is  a  brief  extract : — 

"In  1881,  Mr  Charles  E.  Emery,  Ph.D.,  wrote  a  paper  f  on  'Ex- 
periments with  Non-Conductors  of  Heat,'  wherein  the  results  of  his 
tests  on  fourteen  different  substances  are  given.  The  apparatus  used 
consisted  of  a  boiler,  4  ft.  in  diameter  and  12  ft.  long,  constructed 
with  three  10-in.  tubes.  Into  these  tubes  were  placed  smaller  tubes  to 
receive  steam,  and  around  the  inner  tubes  were  placed  the  non-con- 
ducting substances,  water  being  circulated  through  the  larger  shell 
outside  of  the  outer  tubes.  The  results  (see  table,  page  336)  were  shown 
by  the  amount  of  steam  condensed  in  the  inner  tubes,  the  water  of 
condensation  being  conducted  to  small  cylindrical  vessels,  each  pro- 
vided with  a  glass  gauge." 

In  1884,  Professor  John  M.  Ordway,  of  Boston,  Mass.,  described 
in  a  paper  J  on  "  Experiments  upon  Non-Conducting  Coverings  for 
Steam  Pipes,"  tests  of  a  great  variety  of  substances  by  three  methods, 
viz. :  (1)  by  measuring  the  temperatures  on  the  outside  of  the  coverings  ; 
(2)  by  measuring  the  weight  of  steam  condensed  in  a  certain  time 
over  a  certain  length  of  covered  pipe ;  (3)  by  a  calorimeter. 

In  1884,  Mr  J.  J.  Coleman  gave§  the  results  of  a  series  of  experi- 

*  Minutes  of  Proceedings,  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers,  vol.  cxxi.,  Session 
1894-95,  pp.  298-299. 

f  Transactions,  American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers,  vol.  ii.,  1881, 
p.  34. 

J  Transactions,  American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers,  vol.  v.,  1883-84, 
p.  73. 

§  Proceedings,  Philosophical  Society  of  Glasgow,  vol.  xv.,  1883-84,  p.  90. 


336       REFRIGERATION   AND   COLD    STORAGE. 

ments  (see  table)  on  eight  substances  tested  by  means  of  Lavoiser's  ice- 
calorimeter.  The  object  of  the  experiments  was  to  find  the  substance 
which  would  make  best  covering  for  the  "  Bell-Coleman  Freezing 
Machines." 

In  1884,  Mr  D.  K.  Clark,  M.Inst.C.E.,  reported*  to  the  National 
Smoke  Abatement  Institution  the  results  of  tests  carried  out  at  the 
works  of  Messrs  Samuel  Hodge  &  Sons,  Millwall,  of  seven  substances 
as  compared  with  a  bare  pipe. 

In  1891,  Mr  W.  Hepworth  Collins  read  a  paper f  on  "The  Com- 
parative Value  of  Various  Substances  used  as  Non-Conducting  Cover- 
ings for  Steam  Boilers  and  Pipes,"  giving  the  results  of  experiments 
in  which  a  mass  of  each  material  to  be  experimented  upon,  1  in.  thick, 
was  carefully  prepared  and  placed  on  a  perfectly  flat  iron  plate  or 
tray,  which  was  then  maintained  at  a  constant  temperature  of  310° 
Fahr.  The  heat  transmitted  through  each  non-conducting  mass  was 
calculated  in  Ibs.  of  water  heated  10°  Fahr.  per  hour  (see  table). 


RESULTS  OF  DIFFERENT  EXPERIMENTS  ON  THE  HEAT  CONDUCTIVITIES 

OF  VARIOUS  SUBSTANCES. 
(Silicate  cotton  being  taken  as  100.) 


b 

c 

I 

§ 
| 

Substance. 

Id 

Is 

J3j 

»a 

as 

ffi^ 

^,« 

m 

•—» 

. 

"i 

u 

^ 

^ 

£ 

Fossil  meal  composition 

70 

Cement  with  hair-felt    - 

83 

93 

Silicate  cotton  or  slag-  wool 

100 

100 

100 

100 

Hair-felt  or  fibrous  composit  on 

117 

114 

112 

Papier-mache' 

147 

111 

Kieselguhr  composition 

... 

136 

112 

Sawdust         -         -         -        -• 

112 

163 

142 

Charcoal 

132 

140 

•I    QQ 

Sheep's  wool  -         -         - 

136 

Pine  wood  (across  the  grain) 

150 

Loam     - 

... 

Gasworks  breeze  or  coal  ashes 

240 

230 

299 

Asbestos         „    - 

229 

... 

179 

*  The  Engineer,  vol.  Ivii.,  1884,  p.  65. 

f-  "Report  of  the  British  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,"  Cardiff, 
1891,  p.  780. 


INSULATION. 


337 


RESULTS  OF  TESTS  TO  DETERMINE  THE  NON-CONDUCTIVE  VALUES 
OF  DIFFERENT  MATERIALS. 

(H.  F.  Donaldson,  M.I.C.E.,  Proceedings,  Inst.  C.E.) 
EXPERIMENT  No.  1. 


Weight  after 

Thickness 
of 
Insulating 
Material. 

Original 
Weight 
of  Ice. 

Loss  after 
Seventy-two 
Hours. 

Twenty-four 

Seventy-two 

Hours. 

Hours. 

Inches. 

Oz. 

Oz. 

Oz. 

Per  cent. 

Peat  (compressed  and  ! 

set  in  fossil  meal)   -             9 

95 

81 

59 

37-89 

Charcoal    - 

11 

96i 

79^ 

56 

41'97 

Silicate  cotton  - 

4£ 

92i 

731 

40i 

56-21 

Magnesia  and  asbes- 

tos fibre 

*i 

93 

73 

40£ 

56-45 

NOTE.  — The  author  thought  it  undesirable  to  consider  further  compressed  peat 
set  in  fossil  meal,  as  he  found  by  experiment  its  powers  of  absorption  of  moisture 
to  be  so  great  as  to  constitute  in  his  opinion  a  source  of  danger. 


EXPERIMENT  No.  2. 


- 

Weight  after 

Thickness 
of 
Insulating 
Material. 

Original 
Weight 
of 
Ice. 

Loss  after 
Ninety-six 
Hours. 

Twenty- 
four 

Forty- 
eight 

Ninety- 
six 

Hours. 

Hours. 

Hours. 

Inches. 

Oz. 

Oz. 

Oz. 

Oz. 

Per  cent. 

Silicate  cotton 

6 

104 

88| 

76| 

58i 

43-75 

Sawdust 

9 

103i 

86£ 

71 

48 

52-62 

Peat      - 

9 

104 

77£ 

56 

26* 

74-75 

Charcoal 

9 

104 

88| 

78i 

60£ 

41-82 

22 


338       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 


RESULTS  OF  TESTS — continued. 

EXPEEIMENT   NO.   3. 


Weight  after 

Thickness 
of 
Insulating 
Material. 

Original 
Weight 
of 
Ice. 

Loss  after 
Seventy-two 
Hours. 

Twenty-four 

Seventy-two 

Hours. 

Hours. 

Inches. 

Oz. 

Oz. 

Oz. 

Oz. 

Silicate  cotton   - 

9 

92                 83i 

724 

21-19 

Charcoal    - 

11 

92                82} 

70* 

23-36 

EXPERIMENT  No.  4. 


Weight  after 

Thickness 

Original 

Loss  after 

of 

Weight 

Ninety- 

Insulating 

of 

Twenty-            Ninety- 

six 

Material. 

Ice. 

four                   six 

Hours. 

Hours.               Hours. 

Inches. 

Oz. 

1 
Oz.                   Oz. 

Per  cent. 

Silicate  cotton 

(loosely  packed) 
Silicate  cotton  - 

9 
9 

110                 103                    84± 
110              101  1              80j 

23-41 
26-59 

Charcoal    - 

11 

110              lOOi              79 

28-18 

Vegetable  silica 
Diatomite  - 

11                110              lOli              76| 
11                110               99               73| 

30-22 
32-95 

i 

RESULTS  OF  TESTS  TO  DETERMINE  THE  NON- CONDUCTIVE  VALUES  OF 

VARIOUS  MATERIALS. 

(Dr  Wm.  Wallace.) 


Cubic 

Materials. 

Centimetres 
(grammes)  of 
Water  Melted 

Average  c.c.'s 
per  Day. 

in  12  Days. 

Silicate  cotton 

9,470 

789 

Flake  charcoal       

11,010 

917 

Felt 

11,760 

980 

Fossil  meal    

12,530 

,044 

Twig  charcoal 

13,590 

,132 

Plain  cork  slabs 

14,020 

,168 

Tarred  cork  slabs  

14,610 

,217 

Broken  lump  charcoal    - 

15,916 

1,326 

Ashes     

23,316 

,943 

Coleman's  method  was  used  in  making  the  above  tests,  with  walls  6  in.  thick. 


INSULATION. 


339 


RATE  OF  PASSAGE  OF  HEAT  THROUGH  VARIOUS  MATERIALS. 
(Alex.  Marcet.) 


British  Thermal  Units  per  hour  per  superficial  foot  through  materials  6  in.  thick. 

T=60° 

T  =  50° 

T=40° 

Dry. 

Wet. 

Dry. 

Wet. 

Dry. 

Wet. 

Silicate  cotton 

4-11 

14-05 

2-34 

8-57 

1-17 

6-70 

Cow  hair 

4-11 

8-80 

2-34 

5-30 

1-17 

3-50 

Charcoal 

4-70        12-30 

2-93 

7-50 

1-76 

4-40 

Sawdust 

6-75        15-60 

4-40 

9-60 

2-34 

5-50 

Infusorial  earth    - 

10-00 

6-18 

3-57 

Cork  bricks          -         -  1      5  '87    j 

3-20 

2-90 

... 

T  =  Difference  of  Temperature  (Fahr. )  on  the  two  sides  of  the  material. 


RESULTS  OF  TESTS  ON  THE  HEAT  CONDUCTIVITY  OF 
DIFFERENT  SUBSTANCES. 

( Various  authorities. ) 
(Silicate  Cotton  being  taken  at  100.) 


Substances. 

C.  E. 

Emery, 
1881. 

J.  J.  Cole- 
man, 
1884. 

W.  H. 
Collins. 
1891. 

Prof. 
Jamieson, 
1894. 

Silicate  cotton  or  slag-  wool 

100 

100 

100 

100 

Hair-felt  or  fibrous  composition  - 

117 

114 

112 

Papier-mache      -         ... 

147 

111 

Kieselguhr  composition 
Sawdust      

122 

136 
163 

142 

112 

Charcoal 

132 

140 

... 

... 

Cotton  wool         .... 

122 

Sheep's  wool        - 

136 

... 

Pine  wood  (across  the  grain) 

150 

... 

... 

Loam  -         

Gasworks  breeze  or  coal  ashes    - 

240 

230 

299 

Asbestos      -... 

229 

179 

340      REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 


TABLE  GIVING  THE  RELATIVE  HEAT  CONDUCTIVITY  OF  VARIOUS 
BOILER-COVERING  MATERIALS. 


(The  "American  Engineer") 

Silicate  cotton  or  mineral  wool  - 

Hair-felt  - 

Cotton  wool 

Sheep's  wool         - 

Infusorial  earth   - 

Charcoal  - 

Sawdust   - 

Gasworks  breeze 

Wood  and  air  space 


100 
117 
122 
136 
136 
140 
163 
230 
280 


RESULTS  OP  EXPERIMENTS  REGARDING  NON-HEAT-CONDUCTING 

PROPERTIES  OF  VARIOUS  SUBSTANCES. 

(Professor  J.  M.  Ordway. ) 


Coverings  1  in.  thick. 

Lbs.  of  Water  heated 
10°  Fahr.  per  hour 
by  1  square  foot. 

(1.   "  Silicate  cotton  "  or  "  slag-  wool  "  - 

13-0 

2.  Paper       

14-0 

3.  Cork  strips,  bound  011 

14-6 

4.  Straw  rope,  wound  spirally 

18-0 

5.  Loose  rice  chaff 

18-7 

6.  Blotting  paper,  wound  tight    - 

21-0 

f  7.  Paste  of  fossil  meal  and  hair    - 

16-7 

1    8.  Loose  bituminous  coal  ashes     - 

21-0 

J    9.  Paste  of  fossil  meal  with  asbestos    - 

22-0 

tl  10.  Loose  anthracite  coal  ashes 
111.  Paste  of  clay  and  vegetable  fibre 
^12.  Dry  plaster  of  paris 

27-0 
30-9 
30-9 

13.  Asbestos  paper,  wound  tight   - 

21-7 

14.  Air  alone  -         -         -         -         - 

48-0 

15.  Fine  asbestos    - 

49-0 

16.  Sand 

62-1 

N.B. — The  asbestos  of  15  had  smooth  fibres,  which  could  not  prevent  the  air 
from  moving  about.  Later  trials  with  an  asbestos  of  exceedingly  fine  fibre  have 
made  a  somewhat  better  showing,  but  asbestos  is  really  one  of  the  poorest  non- 
conductors. By  reason  of  its  fibrous  character  it  may  be  used  advantageously 
to  hold  together  other  incombustible  substances,  but  the  less  the  better. 

*  These  substances  are  not  well  suited  for  covering  Jieated  surfaces — owing 
to  their  nature  they  soon  become  carbonised. 

t  Hard  substances  that,  with  the  action  of  the  heat,  break,  powder,  and 
fall  off. 


INSULATION. 


NON-HEAT-CONDUCTING    PROPERTIES    OF    VARIOUS    SUBSTANCES. 
(From  "Engineering") 


Prepared  Mixtures,  for  Covering  Boilers,  Pipes,  &c. 

Lbs.  of  Water  heated 
10°  Fahr.  per  hour 
per  square  foot. 

Slag-  wool  (silicate  cotton)  and  hair  paste 
Fossil  meal  and  hair  paste         .... 
Paper  pulp  alone       - 
Asbestos  fibre,  wrapped  tightly 
Fossil  meal  and  asbestos  powder 
Coal  ashes  and  clay  paste,  wrapped  with  straw 
Clay,  dung,  and  vegetable  fibre  paste 
Paper  pulp,  clay,  and  vegetable  fibre 

10-0 
10-4 
147 
17-9 
26-3 
29-9 
39-6 
44-6 

RESULTS  OF  EXPERIMENTS  REGARDING  NON-HEAT-CONDUCTING 
PROPERTIES  OF  VARIOUS  SUBSTANCES. 

( Walter  Jones,  "  Heating  by  Hot  Water.") 


Highest 

Frame  Filled  with 

Left  for 

Temperature 

Registered. 

Leroy's  boiler-covering  composition     - 
Asbestos  powder 

3  hours 
4     „ 

94° 

86° 

Hair-felt      - 

9     „ 

77° 

Silicate  cotton      

9     „ 

76° 

The  quantity  of  heat  in  units,  transmitted  through  1  sq.  ft.  of 
plate  per  hour,  may  be  found  thus  : — Subtract  the  temperature  of  the 
cooler  side  from  that  of  the  hotter  side  of  the  plate,  then  multiply  the 
result  by  the  number  in  the  preceding  table  corresponding  to  the 
material  used,  and  divide  the  product  by  the  thickness  of  plate. 
Thus  an  iron  plate  2  in.  thick,  having  a  temperature  of  60°  on  one  side 

and    80°    on    the    other,    will    transmit    80  -  60  =  ~°  x  23Q  =  2,300 
units  of  heat  per  square  foot  per  hour. 


342       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

HEAT-CONDUCTING  POWEK  OF  VARIOUS  SUBSTANCES, 
SLATE  BEING  1,000. 

(Molesworth. ) 


Slate       -        -  -     1,000 

Lead        ...  .     5,210 

Flagstone  1,110 

Portland  stone  -        750 

Brick  600-730 

Fire-brick        ....        620 


Chalk 564 

Asphalte  -  451 

Oak  -  336 

Lath  and  plaster  255 

Cement 200 


EXPERIMENTS  ON  HEAT  CONDUCTIVITY  OF  SLAG-WOOL  AND  CHARCOAL. 
(T.  B.  Lightfoot,  M.Inst.  C.E.,  G.  A.  Becks,  A.M.Inst.  C.E.,  in  1885.) 

EXPERIMENT  No.  1. 

Began  11.30  A.M.,  2nd  June. 

Ended  11.30  A.M.,  4th  June. 

Duration  of  experiment,  forty-eight  hours. 

Average  temperature  of  room  or  chamber,  90°  Fahr. 

A  piece  of  ice  23  Ibs.  in  weight  was  placed  in  a  zinc  box  12  in. 
cube,  and  covered  with  2  in.  silicate  cotton,  this  latter  being  provided 
with  an  outer  cover,  also  of  zinc. 

When  the  ice  was  taken  out  it  weighed  10J  Ibs.,  showing  a  loss 
of  12Jlbs. 

12  J  Ibs.  x  142  (latent  heat  of  ice)  =  1775  thermal  units  passed 
through  in  forty-eight  hours. 

48)  1775  (36-9  thermal  units  passed  through  in  one  hour. 

Difference  in  temperature  between  inner  box  and  outer  air  == 
58°  Fahr. 

36-9 

-— T-  =0'63  thermal  unit  transmitted  per  hour  per  degree  difference 

in  temperature. 

Area  of  zinc  boxes  : — 

Inner  box  -        6  sq.  ft. 

Outer  casing  -  -  1O6  ,,     „ 

Mean  -     8-1  ,,     „ 

Thermal  units  transmitted  through  the  three  areas  = 
6)  -63  8-1)  -63  10-6)  -63 

•105  -07  -059 


INSULATION.  343 

which  being  multiplied  by  2  for  the  thickness  of  cotton,  gives  thermal 
units  per  hour,  per  degree  difference  in  temperature,  per  square  foot, 
per  inch  of  thickness,  as  follows  : — 

•210  inner  tin. 
•118  outer  tin. 
•14  mean  between  the  two. 

EXPERIMENT  No.  2- 

Began  11.30  A.M.,  2nd  June. 

Ended  11.30  A.M.,  4th  June. 

Duration,  forty-eight  hours. 

Average  temperature  of  room,  90°  Fahr. 

A  piece  of  ice  26  Ibs.  in  weight,  covered  with  6  in.  of  charcoal. 

When  taken  out  it  weighed  7J  Ibs.,  showing  a  loss  of  18 J  Ibs. 

18-5  x  142  =  2627  thermal  units  in  forty-eight  hours. 

2627 

g    =  54'72  thermal  units  per  hour. 

=  '94  thermal  unit  per  hour,   per  degree  difference  in  tem- 

Oo 

perature  between  inner  box  and  outer  air. 
Area  of  tins  : — 

Inner  box     -  6  sq.  ft. 

Outer  casing  24    „    ,, 

Mean  -     13*5    „    ,, 

The  number  of  thermal  units  transmitted  per  hour,   per  degree, 
per  square  foot  = 

6)-94  13-5)  -94  24)  -94 

^  -069^  -039 

which  being  multiplied  by  6  for  the  thickness  of  charcoal  = 

•90    inner  tin  \  Thermal  units  transmitted  per  hour, 
•234  outer  tin  >  per  degree,  per  square  foot,  per  inch  of 
4-14    mean        )  thickness. 


344       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

TABLE  * 

SHOWING  TRANSMISSION  OF  HEAT  THROUGH  VARIOUS  INSULATING 
STRUCTURES  (Starr). 

Col.  I.  gives  B.T.U.  per  square  foot  per  day  per  degree  of  difference  of  tempera- 
ture. Col.  II.  gives  meltage  of  ice  in  pounds  per  day  by  heat  coming  through 
100  sq.  ft.  at  a  difference  of  40°. 

Col.  I.        Col.  II. 
f -in.  oak — paper.     1  in.  lampblack,  |-in.  pine.     (This  is 

the  ordinary  small  stock  family  refrigerator)-  -  5*7  160 '7 

One  |-in.  board,  1  in.  pitch,  one  |-in.  board  -  4 '90        138 

Four  |-in.  spruce  boards,  two  papers,  solid,  no  air  space  -  4-28         120 
Two  double  boards  and  paper  (four  |-in.  boards)  and 

one  air  space     -  -  3 '71         105 

One  £-in.  board,  2  in.  pitch,  one  £-in.  board  -  4 '25         119 '7 

One  f -in.  board,  2£  in.  mineral  wool,  paper,  one  £-in.  board  3 '62        101  '9 

Two  |-in.  double  boards  and  two  papers,  1  in.  hair-felt  -  3 '318        93 '4 
Two  £-in.  boards  and  paper,  1  in.  sheet  cork,  two  |-in. 

boards  and  paper  •  3 '30          92 '9 

One  |-in.  board,  paper,  2  in.  calcined  pumice,  paper  and 

|-in.  board        -  -  3  -38          95 '2 

Four  double  J-in.    boards  with  paper  between   (eight 

boards)  and  three  8 -in.  air  spaces        -  -  2 '7  76 

Hair  quilt  insulator,  four  boards,  four  quilts,  hair  -  2 '51  70'9 

One  7  in.  board,  6  in.  patent  silicated  strawboard,  air 

cell  finished  inside  with  thin  layer  patent  cement     -  2 '48          69 '8 
One  £-in.  board,  paper,  3  in.  sheet  cork,  paper,  one  f-in. 

board     -  -  2 -10          60 

Two  g-in.   boards  and  paper,  8  in.   mill   shavings  and 

paper,  two  g-in.  boards  and  paper       -  -  T35          38 '3 

Same  slightly  moist  1'80          50 '7 

Same  damp       -  -  2 -10          60 

Double  boards  and  paper,   1  in.   air,  4  in.  sheet  cork, 

paper,  one  |-in.  board  -  -  T20          33 '6 

Same,  with  5  in.  sheet  cork  -90          25 '3 

£-in.  board,  paper,  1  in.  mineral  wool,  paper,  g-in.  board  4 '6  130 

Double  boards  and  papers,  4  in.  granulated  cork,  double 

boards  and  paper  -  1  '7  48 


EXPERIMENTS  ON  THE  TRANSMISSION  OF  HEAT  THROUGH  NON- 
CONDUCTING MATERIALS. 

The  following  results,  according  to  II  Politecnico,  Milan,  were 
obtained  by  Mr  Maurs  from  a  series  of  experiments  upon  the  trans- 
mission of  heat  through  various  materials  used  at  the  present  time  for 

*  "  Insulation  for  Cold  Storage."  Paper  read  before  the  Eleventh  Annual 
Convention  of  the  American  Warehousemen's  Association  at  Buffalo,  N.Y., 
October  1901. 


INSULATION.  345 

insulating  purposes  in  refrigeration.  According  to  the  author  there 
existed  an  incertitude  on  the  subject  of  the  coefficients  of  the  trans- 
mission of  heat  through  various  insulating  materials.  In  carrying  out 
the  experiments,  he  employed  a  cubical  receptacle  or  container  having 
double  walls,  the  space  or  clearance  between  which  walls  was  filled 
with  the  insulating  material  to  be  tested,  and  a  known  quantity  of  ice 
was  placed  within  the  receptacle  and  the  amount  melted  in  a  given 
time  ascertained.  In  this  manner  he  obtained  a  coefficient  K  for  the 
transmission  of  heat  which  expresses  the  number  of  units  of  heat  passing 
through  the  insulating  material  per  hour,  per  degree  of  difference  of 
temperature,  between  the  opposite  surfaces  per  square  metre  of  these 
surfaces,  the  distance  being  one  metre.  This  coefficient  expresses  con- 
jointly a  number  of  complex  phenomena,  viz.,  the  absorption  of  heat, 
conductivity,  convection  on  the  exterior,  &c.  These  phenomena, 
however,  are  always  present  in  the  use  of  insulating  materials,  and  it 
is  sufficient  that  the  coefficient  K  be  established  for  all  the  materials 
under  uniform  conditions.  The  following  are  the  coefficients  that  were 
found  for  K  for  the  following  materials : — Cork  in  powder,  O048 ; 
cork  in  pieces,  0'041 ;  wad  of  silk  flock,  0-041  ;  wad  of  silk  fibre, 
0-043;  cotton,  0'045 ;  husks  of  rice,  0-050;  deal  sawdust,  0-066; 
fibrous  peat,  0-063  ;  peat  in  pieces,  0*065  ;  peat  in  powder,  0-082. 


WATERPROOF  COATINGS  FOR  BRICK  SURFACES.* 

"During  the  summer  of  1899  a  large  variety  of  paints,  oils, 
varnishes,  cements,  and  so-called  waterproof  coatings  were  tested  for 
a  cold  storage  company  in  the  hope  of  finding  some  coating  that  would 
make  waterproof  and  airproof  the  brick  walls  of  its  warehouses.  The 
tests  were  made  with  quarter  bricks  with  good,  fair  surfaces,  free  from 
large  holes,  and,  as  nearly  as  possible,  like  those  used  in  the  exterior 
walls.  Quarter  bricks  were  used  instead  of  whole  bricks,  so  that 
sensitive  balances  could  be  used  for  the  different  weighings.  All 
weighings  were  made  to  within  one-thousandth  of  a  gram.  The  results 
of  the  more  satisfactory  tests  are  tabulated  below,  and  besides  these, 
many  other  tests  were  made,  but  these  other  tests  were  either  unsatis- 
factory or  the  materials  tested  of  no  value  for  the  desired  use.  The 
quarter  bricks  to  be  tested  were  immersed  in  water  of  a  temperature  of 

*  Extract  from  paper  by  Mr  Stoddard,  read  before  the  Eleventh  Annual 
Convention  of  the  American  Warehousemen's  Association  at  Buffalo,  N.Y., 
October  1901. 


346       REFRIGERATION    AND    COLD    STORAGE. 

about  70°,  the  brick  being  placed  on  its  side,  and  there  being  1  in.  of 
water  over  the  brick.     Weighings  were  made  as  follows  : — 
"  Of  the  brick  before  coating. 

Of  the  brick  after  coating. 

Of  the  brick  after  immersion  24  hours. 

AO 
55  55  55 

79 

55  55  '  "  ?5 

Qfi 

55  5  >  ^U  5  5 

-       120     „ 

"  At  the  end  of  each  twenty-four  hour  period  the  quarter  bricks 
were  taken  from  the  water,  the  outer  surfaces  carefully  dried  by  cloth 
and  blotting  paper,  and  then  the  bricks  were  immediately  weighed 
before  any  evaporation  could  take  place  from  the  pores  of  the  brick. 
This  was  repeated  in  most  of  the  tests  until  the  bricks  had  been 
immersed  for  a  period  of  1  20  hours.  After  this  continued  immersion 
the  bricks  were  taken  from  the  water  and  their  surfaces  examined  in 
order  to  see  what  change,  if  any,  had  taken  place  in  the  coating.  In 
some  cases  the  coating  had  softened,  in  some  shrivelled,  and  in  one 
case  the  coating,  naphtha  and  a  paraffin-like  substance,  which  before 
immersion  was  evidently  well  into  the  pores  of  the  brick,  had  gradually 
worked  out  into  the  water. 

"  The  nature  of  the  substances  tested  varied  greatly.  Some  were 
in  the  nature  of  paints  and  varnishes,  and  were  retained  mostly  upon 
the  surfaces  of  the  bricks.  To  this  class  belonged  the  materials  used  in 
tests  marked  A,  B,  D,  G,  L,  O,  P,  and  Q.  Other  substances  were  more 
in  the  nature  of  a  paste  or  coating  applied  upon  the  surface  of  the  bricks. 
In  this  class  may  be  included  the  substances  used  in  tests  marked 
C,  I,  K,  N,  R,  S,  T,  and  U.  Another  class  of  substances  was  supposed 
to  soak  into  the  bricks,  and  by  filling  the  pores  exclude  moisture.  To 
this  class  belonged  the  substances  used  in  tests  E,  F,  and  J.  Other  coat- 
ings consisted  of  two  substances,  which,  when  combined,  were  supposed 
to  form  an  insoluble  compound  or  compounds  which  would  fill  up  the 
pores  of  the  brick.  The  tests  of  this  class  are  marked  H,  M,  and  V. 

"  Some  substances  which  were  submitted  for  test  could  be  applied 
to  the  bricks  only  by  soaking,  and  so  were  not  available.  Some  bricks 
offered  for  test  were  soaked  full  of  the  so-called  waterproofing,  and  of 
course  would  not  absorb  water  or  anything  else  while  in  that  condition, 
as  the  pores  of  the  brick  were  already  filled.  Many  resins,  gums,  and 
oils  were  tested,  but  they  were  of  no  practical  use. 

"  Pitch,  asphaltum,  &c.,  were  objectionable,  because  of  their  odour 
and  colour.  The  results  of  the  tests  giving  the  most  favourable  results 
are  shown  in  the  following  tables. 


INSULATION. 


347 


TESTS  OF  WATERPROOFING  BRICK. 


1 

2                      3 

4               5 

11 

12 

Weight  —  Grams.                                    Compared  to  Bare  Briek. 

Sample. 

Bare  Brick. 

Coated 
Brick. 

a-**  •£££ 

Per  Cent.  In- 
crease by  Coat- 
ing and  Water. 

Per  Cent. 
Increase  by 
Water. 

A     - 

630-32 

639-10 

8-78          1-39 

1-63 

0-24 

B     - 

556-71 

571-11 

14-40         2-59 

3-11 

0-52 

C     - 

578-43 

581-92 

3-49         0-60 

1-14 

0-89 

D     - 

527-80 

537-70 

9-90          1-88 

2-84 

0-97 

E     - 

616-10 

637-60 

21-50         3-49 

5-61 

1-62 

F     - 

633-80 

706-87 

73-07        11-53 

13-75 

2-23 

G     - 

584-40 

588-92 

4-52         0-77 

3-23 

2-46 

H     -        - 

499-52 

551-00 

51-48        10-31 

13-36 

3-07 

I      - 

504-12 

523-40 

19-28 

3-82 

6-93 

3-10 

J      - 

666-94 

670-07 

3-13 

0-47 

3-94 

3-47 

K     - 

607-29 

610-90 

3-61 

0-59 

4-19 

3-59 

L     - 

519-68 

527-34 

7-69 

1-48 

5-66 

4-18 

M    - 

652-50 

692-99 

40-49 

6-21 

10-53               4-33 

N     - 

510-20 

529-10 

18-90         3-70 

8-35 

4-65 

0     - 

570-87 

586-20 

15-33         2-69 

7-71 

5-03 

P     - 

496-20 

503-00 

6-80 

1-37 

7-16 

579 

Q     -       - 

502-87 

515-12 

12-25 

2-44 

8-85 

6-37 

K     - 

... 

543-60 

,   1-32 

S      - 

602-20 

Compared 

1    1-53 

T     - 

606-31 

to  coated 

{    1-68 

U     - 

581-16 

brick. 

2-69 

V     - 

621-85 

*  5-17 

W    - 

... 

X     - 

Y     - 

... 

Bare  brick 

489-04 

8  '-68 

348       REFRIGERATION   AND   CdLD   STORAGE. 


TESTS  OF  WATERPROOFING  BRICK. 


Sample. 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

Increased  Weight  by  Absorption  of  Water. 

24  Hours. 

48  Hours. 

72  Hours. 

96  Hours. 

120  Hours. 

A     - 

0-30 

1-10 

1-50 

B      -         -         - 

1-39 

2-16 

2-49 

2-89 

C      - 

1-15 

2-18 

3-25 

3-49 

5-13 

J)     - 

1-00 

... 

2-88 

4-00               5-10 

E     -        -        - 

2-10 

5-55 

7-15 

9-97 

F      - 

4-75 

12-13 

12-83 

14-13 

G     -        -        - 

4-88 

7-48 

9-68 

11-43             14-38 

H     - 

7-30 

9-70 

11-30 

13-30             15-32 

I      ... 

3-73 

6-33 

12-12             15-63 

J      -        - 

20-33 

21-13 

21-63 

23-13 

K     -        -        - 

7-00 

8-60 

9-30 

21-83 

L     - 

3-73 

5-78 

12:68 

21-72 

M    -        -        - 

24-78 

... 

27:16 

28-24 

N     -        -        - 

23-10 

... 

23-80 

23-72 

0     - 

26-98 

28-00 

28-00 

23-70 

P      - 

24-85 

28-75 

28:71 

28-72 

Q     -        -        - 

29-08 

36:70            31-28 

32-03 

R     - 

3-72 

5-00              6-15              7-15 

8      ... 

3-10 

5-55              7-35 

9-20 

T      -        -        - 

2-35 

4-69              8-07 

10-21 

U     -        -        - 

6-46 

9-69             12-69 

15-64 

V     -        -        - 

21-15 

29-60 

31-02 

32-15 

W    -        -        - 

X    - 

Y     - 

Bare  brick 

21  '-26 

39:69 

39:69 

42:43 

INSULATION. 


349 


TESTS  OP  WATERPROOFING  BRICK. 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6           7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

Weight  —  Grams. 

Increase  in  Weight  by  Absorption 
of  Water. 

Compared 
to  Bare 
Brick. 

^ 

j 

0 

"a 

£ 

_o 

m 

PQ 

1 

trt 

ti) 
C 

II 

I 

Hours. 

o 

ffi 

1 

g 

1 

•""'5  * 

*.S 

CAJ 

1 

0 

O 

c! 

ll 

oo 

(M 

§ 

S 

I 

J5* 

A     - 

630-32 

639-10 

8-78 

1-39 

0-30 

1-10 

1-50 

1-63 

0-24 

B     - 

556-71 

571-11 

14-40 

2-59 

1-39 

2-16 

2-49 

2-89 

3-11 

0-52 

C     - 

578-43 

581-92 

3-49 

0-60 

1-15 

2-18 

3-25 

3-49 

5-13 

1-14 

0-89 

D     - 

527-80 

537-70 

9-90 

1-88 

1-00 

2-88 

4-00 

5-10 

2-84 

0-97 

E     - 

616-10 

637-60 

21-50 

3-49 

2-10 

5-55 

7-15 

... 

9-99 

5-11 

1-62 

F     - 

633-80 

706-87 

73-07 

11-53 

4-75 

12-13 

12-83 

14-13 

13-75 

2-23 

G     - 

584-40 

588-92 

4-52 

0-77 

4-88 

7-48 

9-68 

liV43 

14-38 

3-23 

2-46 

H    - 

499-52 

551-00 

51-48 

10-31 

7-30 

9-70 

11-30 

13-30 

15-32 

13-36 

3-07 

I      - 

504-12 

523-40 

19-28 

3-82 

3-73 

6-33 

12-12 

15-63 

6-93 

3-10 

J     - 

666-94 

670-07 

3-13 

0-47 

20-33 

21-13 

21-63 

23-13 

3-94 

3-47 

K    - 

607-29 

610-90 

3-61 

0-59 

7-00 

8-60 

9-30 

2l'-83 

4-19 

3-59 

L     - 

519-68 

527-34 

7-69 

1-48 

3-76 

5-78 

.  . 

12-68 

21-72 

5-66 

4-18 

M    - 

652-50 

692-99 

40-49 

6-21 

24-78 

27-16 

28-24 

10-53 

4-33 

N    - 

510-20 

529-10 

18-90 

3-70 

23-10 

23-80 

23-72 

8-35 

4-65 

0     - 

570-87 

586-20 

15-33 

2-69 

26-98 

28-00 

28-00 

28-70 

7-71 

5-03 

P     - 

496-20 

503-00 

6-80 

1-37 

24-85 

28-75 

28-71 

28-72 

7-16 

5-79 

Q 

502-87 

515-12 

12-25 

2-44 

29-08 

30-70 

31-28 

32-03 

8-85 

6-37 

R     - 

... 

543-60 

3-72 

5-00 

6-15 

7-15 

... 

... 

*l-32 

S     - 

602-20 

3-10 

5-55 

7-35 

9-20 

... 

*l-53 

T     - 

606-31 

2-35 

4-69 

8-07 

1021 

*l-68 

U    - 

581-16 

6-46 

9-69 

12-69 

15-64 

... 

*2-69 

V 

621-85 

'... 

21-15 

29-60 

31-02 

32-15 

*5-17 

W   - 

X     - 

Y     - 

Bare 

>rick 

489-04 

21-26 

39-69 

39-69 

42-43 

*8-68 

1  gram  equals  15  "43  grains  ;  28  "35  grams  equals  1  ounce  avoirdupois. 
*  Compared  to  coated  brick. 


350      REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 


KEY  TO  TESTS  OF  WATERPROOFING  BRICK. 

A. — Bay  State  air  and  waterproofing  -  -         3  coats. 

B.  — Red  mineral  paint,  ground  in  oil  -         2  coats. 

C. — Spar  varnish  with  plaster  of  paris  -        2  coats. 

D.  — Spar  varnish  -  -        2  coats. 

E.— New  York  sample,  No.  2  Soaked. 

F.— New  York  sample,  No.  1  Soaked. 

G.— Shellac       -  1  coat. 

H.— Portland  cement,  1  coat ;  soap  and  alum,  3  coats  -         4  coats. 

I. — White  enamel  paint  -         3  coats. 

J. — Paraffin  in  naphtha  -         3  coats. 

K.— Hot  paraffin  -         3  coats. 
L.  —  Water  paint  3  coats. 

M.— Portland  cement  mixed  with  CaCl2,  1  coat ;  water  glass, 

3  coats   -  -        4  coats. 
N. — Portland  cement   -  2  coats. 

O.  —Black  varnish,  No.  2  3  coats. 

P. — Spar  varnish  -         1  coat. 
Q.— Black  varnish,  No.  1  3  coats. 

R. — Waterproofing,  No.  1. 

(A  putty-like  substance  applied  to  surface  of  brick.) 
S. — Waterproofing,  No.  4.     Similar  to  "R." 
T. — Waterproofing,  No.  3.     Similar  to  "R." 
U.— Waterproofing,  No.  2.     Similar  to  "  R." 
V. — Bi-chromate  potash  and  glue — exposed  to  sunlight. 
Bare  brick         -  No  coating. 

"  In  regard  to  the  result  of  the  tests  it  is  worthy  of  remark  that 
some  of  the  substances  that  have  been  considered  as  among  the  best 
waterproof  materials  proved  to  be  either  of  little  value  or  very  inferior 
to  some  of  the  other  substances. 

"The  Sylvester  process,  H,  soap  and  alum,  proved  to  be  of  little 
value,  even  when  applied  to  a  surface  made  as  smooth  as  possible  with 
Portland  cement.  This  process  was  also  tried  without  the  cement,  but 
was  even  less  effective.  Hot  paraffin  has  often  been  used  to  water- 
proof walls ;  but,  under  the  conditions  of  these  tests,  it  proved  to  be 
very  far  from  waterproof.  Portland  cement  is  another  substance  which 
did  not  prove  to  be  as  good  as  its  reputation." 


WALLS  FOR  COLD  STORES. 

The   following  materials  and  dimensions  have  been  used  and  are 
recommended  for  walls  of  cold  chambers  : — 

Walls  at   the   St  Katherine's  Dock,  London,  were  formed  of  up- 


INSULATION.  351 

rights,  5J  in.  by  3  in.,  fixed  upon  the  floor  joists  or  bearers,  and 
having  an  outer  and  an  inner  skin  attached  thereto ;  the  former  consist- 
ing of  2-in.  boards,  and  the  latter  of  two  thicknesses  or  layers  of  1^-in. 
boards,  with  an  intermediate  layer  of  specially-prepared  brown  paper. 
The  5±  in.  clearance  or  space  between  the  inner  and  outer  skins  of 
the  walls  and  roof  was  likewise  filled  with  wood  charcoal,  carefully 
dried. 

14  in.  brick  wall,  3J  in.  air  space,  9  in.  brick  wall,  1  in.  layer  of 
cement,  1  in.  layer  of  pitch,  2  in.  by  3  in.  studding,  layer  of  tar  paper, 
1-in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  2  in.  by  4  in.  studding,  1-in.  tongued 
and  grooved  board,  layer  of  tar  paper,  and,  finally,  1-in.  tongued  and 
grooved  boarding,  the  total  thickness  of  these  layers  or  skins  being 
3  ft.  3  in. 

36  in.  brick  wall,  1  in.  layer  of  pitch,  1  in.  sheathing,  4  in.  air 
space,  2  in.  by  4  in.  studding,  1  in.  sheathing,  3  in.  layer  of  mineral 
or  slag  wool,  2  in.  by  4  in.  studding,  and,  finally,  1  in.  sheathing; 
total  thickness,  4  ft.  7  in. 

14  in.  brick  wall,  4  in.  pitch  and  ashes,  4  in.  brick  wall,  4  in.  air 
space,  14  in.  brick  wall ;  total  thickness,  3  ft.  4  in. 

14  in.  brick  wall,  6  in.  air  space,  double  thickness  of  1-in.  tongued 
and  grooved  boards,  with  a  layer  of  waterproof  paper  between  them, 
2  in.  layer  of  the  best  quality  hair  felt,  second  double  thickness  of  1-in. 
tongued  and  grooved  boards,  with  a  similar  layer  of  paper  between 
them ;  total  thickness,  2  ft.  2  in. 

14  in.  brick  wall,  8  in.  layer  of  sawdust,  double  thickness  of  1-in. 
tongued  and  grooved  boards,  with  a  layer  of  tarred  waterproof  paper 
between  them,  2  in.  layer  of  hair-felt,  second  double  thickness  of  1-in. 
tongued  and  grooved  boards,  with  a  similar  layer  of  paper  between 
them ;  total  thickness,  2  ft.  4 \  in. 

Brick  wall,  3  in.  scratched  hollow  tiles,  4  in.  silicate  cotton  or  slag- 
wool,  3  in.  scratched  hollow  tiles,  and  layer  of  cement  plaster. 

Brick  wall,  1  in.  air  spaces  between  fillets  of  strips,  1-in.  tongued 
and  grooved  boarding,  two  layers  of  insulating  paper,  I7in.  tongued  and 
grooved  boarding,  2  in.  by  4  in.  studs,  16  in.  apart,  spaces  filled  in 
with  silicate  cotton,  1-in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  two  layers  of 
insulating  paper,  air  spaces  between  fillets,  or  strips  1  in.  by  2  in. 
spaced  16  in.  apart  from  centres,  1-in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding, 
two  layers  of  insulating  paper,  and  1-in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding. 

Brick  or  stone  wall,  well  coated  on  inside  with  pitch  or  asphaltum, 
2  in.  by  3  in.  studding,  24  in.  centres,  spaces  between  filled  in  with 
silicate  cotton,  f-in.  rough  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  two  layers 


352       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

waterproof  insulating  paper,  j-in.  rough  tongued  and  grooved  board- 
ing, 2  in.  by  3  in.  studding,  24  in.  centres,  in  spaces  between,  j-in. 
rough  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  two  layers  of  waterproof  insulating 
paper,  j-in.  rough  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  2  in.  by  3  in. 
studding,  24  in.  centres,  spaces  between  filled  in  with  silicate  cotton, 
J-in.  rough  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  two  layers  of  waterproof 
insulating  paper,  and  j-in.  tongued  and  grooved  match-boarding. 
Paper  to  be  laid  one-half  lap  and  cemented  at  all  joints. 

Brick  wall,  2  in.  air  space,  2  in.  thicknesses  of  tongued  and  grooved 
boards  with  three  layers  of  paper  between,  2  in.  air  space,  2  in.  thick- 
nesses of  tongued  and  grooved  boards  with  three  layers  of  paper 
between,  2  in.  air  space  and  2  in.  thicknesses  of  tongued  and  grooved 
boards  with  three  layers  of  paper  between. 

Brick  wall,  well  coated  with  pitch,  2  in.  air  space,  2  in.  thicknesses 
of  tongued  and  grooved  boards  with  three  layers  of  paper  between, 
2  in.  space  filled  with  slag-wool  or  cork,  2  in.  thicknesses  of  tongued 
and  grooved  boards,  with  three  layers  of  paper  between,  2  in.  space 
filled  with  slag-wool  or  cork,  2  in.  thicknesses  of  tongued  and  grooved 
boards,  with  three  layers  of  paper  between.  Shelving  should  be  fixed 
horizontally  in  the  spaces  packed  with  slag- wool  or  cork  at  about 
16  in.  apart. 

Brick  wall,  1  in.  air  space,  f-in.  match-boarding,  9  in.  slag- wool  or 
silicate  cotton,  layer  of  insulating  paper  and  j-in.  match-boarding. 

Brick  wall,  1  in.  air  space,  6  in.  slag-wool  or  silicate  cotton,  1  in. 
silicate  of  cotton  slab,  layer  of  insulating  paper,  \  in.  air  space,  and 
j-in.  match -boarding. 

Brick  wall,  1  in.  air  space,  1  in.  silicate  of  cotton  slab,  4  in.  silicate 
of  cotton,  1  in.  silicate  of  cotton  slab,  J-in.  air  space,  and  f-in. 
match-boarding. 

Brick  wall,  well  coated  with  pitch,  2  in.  air  space,  J-in.  tongued 
and  grooved  boarding,  two  layers  of  paper,  J-in.  tongued  and  grooved 
boarding,  4  in.  slag-wool  or  silicate  cotton,  J-in.  tongued  and  grooved 
boarding,  two  layers  of  paper,  J-in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  2  in. 
air  space,  J-in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  two  layers  of  paper,  and 
J-in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding. 

Brick  wall,  2  in.  air  space,  J-in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding, 
two  layers  of  paper,  J-in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  2  in.  air  space, 
J-in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  two  layers  of  paper,  and  J-in. 
tongued  and  grooved  boarding. 

Brick  wall,  2  in.  air  space,  J-in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding, 
one  layer  of  paper,  4  in.  slag- wool  or  silicate  cotton,  J-in.  tongued  and 


INSULATION.  353 

grooved  boarding,  one  layer  of  paper,  4  in.  air  space,  |~in.  tongued 
and  grooved  boarding,  two  layers  of  paper,  and  |-in.  tongued  and 
grooved  boarding. 

Brick   wall,  layer  of   pitch,  J-in.   tongued   and   grooved  boarding 

2  in.  air  space,  f-in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  one  layer  of  paper, 

3  in.   cork  dust,  f-in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,   two  layers  of 
paper,  and  f-in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding. 

Brick  wall,  2J  in.  air  space  ventilated  by  air  bricks  every  5  ft. 
in  all  directions,  1-in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  layer  of  Willesden 
and  brown  paper,  1-in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  12  in.  charcoal 
supported  by  horizontal  shelving  28  in.  centres  apart,  1-in.  tongued 
and  grooved  boarding,  two  thicknesses  of  brown  paper,  and  1-in.  tongued 
and  grooved  boarding. 

Wall  of  cold  storage  room  when  made  of  wood :  2  in.  thicknesses 
of  tongued  and  grooved  boarding  with  three  layers  of  paper  between, 
2  in.  air  space,  2  in.  thicknesses  of  tongued  and  grooved  boarding  with 
three  layers  of  paper  between,  2  in.  air  space,  2  in.  thicknesses  of 
tongued  and  grooved  boarding  with  three  layers  of  paper  between, 
2  in.  air  space,  2  in.  thicknesses  of  tongued  and  grooved  boarding  with 
three  layers  of  paper  between,  8  in.  slag-wool  or  silicate  cotton,  and 
1-in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding. 

2  in.  boards,  5J  in.  by  3  in.  uprights,  spaces  between  filled  with 
carefully  dried  wood  charcoal,  IJ-in.  boarding,  layer  of  insulating 
paper,  and  IJ-in.  boarding. 

Outside  siding,  two  layers  of  insulating  paper,  1-in.  tongued  and 
grooved  boarding,  2  in.  by  6  in.  studdings,  16  in.  apart  from  centres, 
1-in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  two  layers  of  insulating  paper, 
1-in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  2  in.  by  4  in.  studding  16  in.  apart 
from  centres,  spaces  filled  in  with  silicate  cotton,  1  in.  tongued  and 
grooved  boarding,  two  layers  of  insulating  paper,  2  in.  by  2  in.  fillets 
or  strips  16  in.  apart  from  centres,  1-in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding, 
two  layers  of  insulating  paper,  and  1-in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding. 


DIVISIONAL  PARTITIONS  FOR  COLD  STORES. 

Tongued  and  grooved  match-boarding,  wire  netting,  6  in.  silicate 
of  cotton  or  slag-wool,  wire  netting,  tongued  and  grooved  match- 
boarding.  The  object  of  the  netting  is  to  render  the  partition  fire- 
proof by  supporting  the  silicate  of  cotton  after  the  match-boarding 
might  have  burnt  away. 

|-in.   match-boarding,   J    in.   air  space,    1    in.   silicate  cotton   slab, 

23 


354       REFRIGERATION    AND    COLD   STORAGE. 

4  in.  of  silicate  of  cotton  or  slag-wool,  1  in.  silicate  of  cotton  slab, 
|-in.  air  space,  and  1  in.  silicate  of  cotton  slab. 

2  in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding  with  three  layers  of  paper 
between,  2  in.  silicate  of  cotton  or  cork,  2  in.  tongued  and  grooved 
boarding  with  three  layers  of  paper  between,  2  in.  silicate  of  cotton  or 
cork,  2  in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding  with  three  layers  of  paper 
between. 

f-in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  two  layers  of  paper,  J-in 
tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  4  in.  silicate  cotton  or  slag-wool,  f -in. 
tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  2  in.  air  space,  J-in.  tongued  and 
grooved  boarding,  two  layers  of  paper,  and  J -in.  tongued  and  grooved 
boarding. 

f-in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  two  layers  of  paper,  j-in. 
tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  6  in.  silicate  of  cotton  or  slag-wool, 
J-in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  two  layers  of  paper,  |-in.  tongued 
and  grooved  boarding,  2  in.  air  space,  ^-in.  tongued  and  grooved 
boarding,  two  layers  of  paper,  and  f -in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding. 

|~in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  2  in.  silicate  cotton  or  slag 
wool,  J-in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  2  in.  air  space,  |-in. 
tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  two  layers  of  paper,  and  f-in.  tongued 
and  grooved  boarding. 

|-in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  two  layers  of  paper,  f-in. 
tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  2  in.  air  space,  f-in.  tongued  and 
grooved  boarding,  two  layers  of  paper,  and  J-in.  tongued  and  grooved 
boarding. 

J-in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  two  layers  of  paper,  |-in. 
tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  8  in.  silicate  cotton  or  slag-wool,  f-in. 
tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  two  layers  of  paper,  and  f-in.  tongued 
and  grooved  boarding. 

^-in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  two  layers  of  paper,  J-in. 
tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  4  in.  silicate  cotton  or  slag-wool,  f-in. 
tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  two  layers  of  paper,  and  J-in.  tongued 
and  grooved  boarding. 

|-in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  two  layers  of  paper,  |-in. 
tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  2  in.  hair  felt,  |-in.  tongued  and 
grooved  boarding,  2  in.  silicate  cotton  or  slag-wool,  J-in.  tongued 
and  grooved  boarding,  two  layers  of  paper,  and  J-in.  tongued  and 
grooved  boarding. 


INSULATION.  355 

FLOORING  FOR  COLD  STORES. 

2  in.  flooring,  two  layers  of  paper,  J-in.  tongued  and  grooved  board- 
ing, 2  in.  air  space  between  fillets  or  scantlings,  J-in.  tongued  and 
grooved  boarding,  12-in.  joists,  space  between  packed  with  silicate 
cotton  or  slag- wool,  J-in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  two  layers  of 
paper,  J-in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  2  in.  air  space  between 
fillets  or  scantlings,  J-in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  two  layers  of 
paper,  and  J-in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding. 

2  in.  cement,  3  in.  concrete,  J-in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding, 
two  layers  of  paper,  2  in.  flooring,  4  in.  silicate  cotton  between  fillets 
or  scantlings,  J-in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  two  layers  of  paper, 
2  in.  flooring  boards  on  fillets  or  scantlings  set  in  concrete. 

2  in.  asphalte,  f-in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  two  layers  of 
paper,  |-in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  2  in.  air  space  between 
scantlings,  |-in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  3  in.  silicate  cotton  or 
slag-wool  between  fillets  or  scantlings,  f-in.  tongued  and  grooved 
boarding,  2  in.  air  space  between  fillets  or  scantlings,  concrete. 

1  in.   asphalte,  2  in.  concrete,  J  in.   pitch,   2   in.   concrete,  brick 
arches. 

1^-in.  tongued  and  grooved  flooring  boards,  layer  of  insulating 
paper,  2  in.  by  9  in.  joists  12  in.  centres  apart,  spaces  filled  with  sili- 
cate cotton  or  slag-wool,  wire  netting,  layer  of  insulating  paper,  |-in. 
match -boarding  on  2  in.  by  2  in.  fillets  or  scantlings,  air  spaces  between 
existing  wooden  or  concrete  flooring.  The  wire  netting  secured  to  the 
underside  of  the  joists  serves  to  retain  the  silicate  cotton  in  case  of  fire. 

1-in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  three  layers  of  insulating  paper, 
1-in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  2  in.  by  9  in.  joists,  spaces 
between  filled  with  silicate  cotton  or  cork,  1-in.  tongued  and  grooved 
boarding,  three  layers  of  insulating  paper,  and  1-in.  tongued  and  grooved 
boarding. 

IJ-in.  tongued  and  grooved  flooring  boards,  layer  of  insulating  paper, 
2  in.  by  9  in.  joists,  12  in.  centres  apart,  spaces  between  filled  in  with 
silicate  cotton  or  slag-wool,  1  in.  silicate  cotton  slab  on  £  in.  by  2  in. 
fillets,  air  spaces  between,  and  |-in.  match-boarding.  The  1  in.  sili- 
cate of  cotton  slab  is  nailed  on  the  underside  of  joists  and  is  claimed 
to  render  the  floor  fire-proof,  and  to  prevent  radiation  through  the 
joists. 

2  in.  matched  flooring,  two  layers  of  insulating  paper,  1  in.  matched 
sheathing,  4  in.  by  4  in.  sleepers   16   in.   apart  from  centres,   spaces 
between  filled  in  with  silicate  cotton,  double  1  in.  matched  sheathing 


356       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD    STORAGE. 

with  twelve  layers  of  paper  between,  and  4  in.  by  4  in.  sleepers  1 6  in. 
apart  from  centres  embedded  in  12  in.  of  dry  underfilling. 

Ground,  concrete,  layer  of  asphalte,  1-in.  tongued  and  grooved 
match-boarding  wTell  tarred,  two  layers  of  stout  brown  paper,  1-in. 
tongued  and  grooved  match-boarding,  floor  joists  3  in.  by  11  in.  spaced 
21  in.  apart,  binder  joists  11  in.  by  4  in.,  bearing  edges  of  floor  joists 
protected  by  strips  of  hair-felt  J  in.  thick  and  spaces  between  joists 
filled  in  with  flake  charcoal,  and  1^-in.  tongued  and  grooved  flooring 
boards. 

The  floors  of  the  cold  storage  chambers  built  at  the  St  Katherine 
Dock,  London,  were  constructed  as  follows : — On  the  concrete  floor  of 
the  vault,  as  it  stood  originally,  a  covering  of  rough  boards  1J  in.  in 
thickness  were  laid  longitudinally.  On  this  layer  of  boards  were  then 
placed  transversely  bearers  formed  of  joists  4J  in.  in  depth  by  3  in.  in 
width,  and  spaced  21  in.  apart.  These  bearers  supported  the  floors 
of  the  storage  chamber,  which  consisted  of  2J-in.  battens  tongued  and 
grooved.  The  4J-in.  wide  space  or  clearance  between  this  floor  and 
the  layer  or  covering  of  rough  boards  upon  the  lower  concrete  floor 
was  filled  with  well-dried  wood  charcoal. 

FLOORING  FOR  ICE  HOUSES. 

Floor  to  incline  3  in.  towards  central  drain,  and  cross  channelled 
fillets  or  scantlings  on  1^  in.  flooring,  2  in.  cement,  6  in.  concrete, 
ground. 

1-in.  tongued  and  grooved  match-boarding,  three  layers  of  paper, 
1-in.  tongued  and  grooved  match-boarding  (to  incline  3  in.  towards 
central  drain)  on  fillets  or  scantlings,  air  spaces  between,  1-in.  tongued 
and  grooved  match-boarding,  three  layers  of  paper,  1-in.  tongued  and 
grooved  match-boarding,  2  in.  by  9  in.  joists,  spaces  between  filled  with 
4  in.  silicate  of  cotton  or  slag-wool  kept  in  position  by  j-in.  boards 
secured  by  cleats  to  joists. 

CEILINGS  FOR  COLD  STORES  AND  ICE  HOUSES. 

1-in.  tongued  and  grooved  match-boarding,  three  layers  of  insulat- 
ing paper,  1-in.  tongued  and  grooved  match-boarding,  2  in.  air  spaces 
between  strips  or  fillets,  1-in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  three 
layers  of  insulating  paper,  1-in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  joists, 
spaces  between  filled  with  silicate  cotton  or  cork,  1-in.  tongued  and 
grooved  match-boarding,  three  layers  of  insulating  paper,  and  1-in. 
tongued  and  grooved  match-boarding. 


INSULATION. 


357 


Insulated  flooring,  joists,  f-in.  tongued  and  grooved  match-board- 
ing, two  layers  of  insulating  paper,  £-in.  tongued  and  grooved  match  - 
boarding,  2  in.  spaces  between  strips  or  fillets  filled  in  with  silicate 
cotton  or  cork,  |-in.  tongued  and  grooved  match-boarding,  three  layers 
of  insulating  paper,  and  £-in.  tongued  and  grooved  match-boarding. 

1-in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  two  thicknesses  of  brown  paper, 
1-in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  joists  with  spaces  between  packed 
with  silicate  cotton,  1-in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  Willesden  and 
brown  paper,  1-in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding. 

Concrete  floor,  3  in.  book  tiles,  6  in.  dry  underfilling,  double  space 
hollow  tile  arches  and  layer  of  cement  plaster. 


Fig.  225.— Door  for  Cold  Store,  with  Taylor's  Patent  Fittings. 

Double  1  in.  floor  with  two  layers  of  insulating  paper  between,  2  in. 
by  2  in.  strips  or  fillets  16  in.  apart  from  centres,  spaces  filled  in  with 
silicate  cotton,  two  layers  of  insulating  paper,  1-in.  tongued  and  grooved 
match-boarding,  2  in.  by  2  in.  strips  16  in.  apart,  spaces  filled  in  with 
silicate  cotton,  two  layers  of  insulating  paper,  1-in.  tongued  and  grooved 
match-boarding,  joists  and  double  1-in.  flooring  with  two  layers  of  in- 
sulating paper  between. 

DOOR  INSULATION. 

A  weak  point  in  most  cold  storage  rooms  is  the  door ;  these  are 
usually  constructed  on  the  wedge  principle,  and  several  simple  forms 


358       REFRIGERATION    AND    COLD   STORAGE. 

are  shown  in  the  illustrations  on  this  and  succeeding  pages.     Even 
when   properly   designed    and    carefully   made   from    the   best,    well- 


fo,  -s 

*c.  HOARD*  rofl  CE 

•*<—"*»'•   COLO  STO, 

.4G.BOAROS  AND  ICC 

.  4  B.  f>APtR  6ETWKNJ 


EILINCOF 

ORAGE  ROOMS 

MOUSE. 


"TmCKNEsscsor 

;:J.:P»ETWEE 

"THICKNESSES  OF 

fctltXpKWt 

FOR  WALL  Of 
COLD  STORAGE  ROOM 
AND  ICE  HOUSE 
MADE  OF  BRICK. 


. t*  THICKNESSES  OF  T.4    C    BOARDS 

P.  «  8.  PAPER  BtTAttN 

IR  SPACE  FILLED  AS  SHOWN 
HICKNESStS  OF  T.  A  C  BOARDS 

.<  P.  4  B.  PAPER  BETWtEN 

IR  SPACt  FllLEO  AS  SHOWN 
HICKNESSES  OF  T   4  C.  BOARDS 

.1  P.  4  8.  PAPtR  OCTWttJI 


rOft  INTEflHEDIATE  FLOORS. 

_    5'THICKNESStiOf  T.*   C.  IOAR 
^_J-  ~  ..     P.  «  ».  PAPtH 


Figs.  226  and  227. — Frick  Company  Method  of  Insulating  a  Cold  Store. 
Vertical  and  Horizontal  Sections. 


seasoned  timber,  the  doors  of  cold  storage  rooms  are  very  apt  to  give 
trouble  on   account  of  the  extreme  temperatures  to  which  they  are 


INSULATION. 


359 


I'THICK.  T.  i  o.  BOAXCS 
)'     ••  PAPER 

t>R  SPACE 

•"THICK.  I.  AC.  DOAROS 

,'      •  ••'  PAPE 

WOOL 


JCE  HOUSE  FLOOR  WHEN  MADE  OF  WOOD 

A 


ICE  HOUSE  FLOOR  WHEN  LAID  IN  CEMENT 

FLOOR  TO  INCLINE  a'TOWAROS  tHE  CENTER 

-T 


INSULATION    OF   JOISTS 


V,            '    , 

g 

S-ji?*??! 

^•V'-.--":'"' 

S 

-It  MINERAL  WOOLORCOBR 
«-2"TH1CK.  t.  A  C.  BOARDS 

-3^      >•                         PAPER 

w 

-4*MINeRAI.  WOOL  OR  CORK 

WINDOW  SASH  AND  FRAME  IN  STORAGE  ROOMS^.TH1CKNE8SE9(?F  T<  4G  BOARM 

km  SPACE 


WHEN  MADE  OF  WOOD 


OF  COLD  S 
THICKNESSES  OF  T.  i  G.  BOARDS 

••  ii  1PAPER  BETWEEN 


SPACE 

Z'THICK.  OF  T.  A  c.  BOARDS 

V      -         <•  PAPER  BETWEEN 

B'AIR  SPACE 

THICK.  OF  T.  ft  C.  BOARDS 

•i         <l  PAPER  BETWEEN 

AIR  SPACE 
THICK.  OF  T.  «  C.  BOARDS 

..     >«  PAPER 


OR  MINERAL  WOOL  AS  SHOW 


.OTJGITUDINAL 
SECTION  OF 
DOOR  IN  PARTITION 


CROSS  SECTJON  DOOR 
THROUGH  WALL  AND  INSULATION 


Figs.  228  to  235.— Frick  Company  Methods  of  Wall,  Floor,  Ceiling,  Partition, 
Door,  and  Window  Insulation. 


360       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

subjected  and  from  the  absorption  of  moisture  from  the  air.  As  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  considerable  loss  is  experienced  through  badly- 
made  and  poorly-fitting  doors,  too  much  care  cannot  be  expended  in 
securing  the  best  possible  workmanship  and  efficient  and  easily  mani- 
pulated fittings.  Fig.  225  shows  a  type  of  door  fitted  with  Taylor's 
patent  door-fittings,  of  which  Mr  John  Straiten,  Liverpool,  is  the  sole 
maker.  A  door  much  used  in  America  is  Stevens'  patent,  which  is 
made  up  of  five  thicknesses  of  insulated  and  waterproofed  paper,  ^  in. 
prepared  mineral  or  slag  wool,  three  air  spaces,  and  four  thicknesses  of 
wood.  Amongst  the  advantages  claimed  for  this  type  of  door  is  that 
it  will  not  frost  through  with  zero  temperature.  A  canvas  cushion  on 
the  bottom  prevents  the  cold  air  from  escaping  at  that  point.  The 
door  will  not  stick.  It  closes  quite  tight  on  the  hinge  edge.  The 
fastening  is  of  a  special  pattern  and  is  for  both  edges  of  the  door.  It 
is  claimed  to  shut  as  tight  as  a  cross-bar  would  if  it  were  wedged  up, 
and  can  be  opened  either  from  the  exterior  or  interior.  A  special  form 
of  door,  designed  by  the  author  for  use  in  hotels,  or  elsewhere,  where 
the  cold  storage  room  or  chamber  has  to  be  frequently  entered,  has 
been  described  in  a  previous  chapter.  Other  insulations  for  doors  are  : — 

1-in.  tongued  and  grooved  match-boarding,  three  layers  of  insulating 
paper,  1-in.  tongued  and  grooved  match-boarding,  2  in.  by  1  in.  fillets 
or  strips  with  spaces  between  filled  in  with  silicate  cotton  or  cork,  1-in. 
tongued  and  grooved  match-boarding,  three  layers  of  insulating  paper, 
1-in.  tongued  and  grooved  match-boarding.  2  in.  by  1  in.  fillets  or  strips, 
spaces  between  filled  in  with  silicate  cotton  or  cork,  1-in.  tongued  and 
grooved  match-boarding,  three  layers  of  insulating  paper,  and  1-in. 
tongued  and  grooved  match-boarding. 

1-in.  tongued  and  grooved  match-boarding,  two  layers  of  insulating 
paper,  1-in.  tongued  and  grooved  match-boarding,  12  in.  space  filled 
in  with  silicate  cotton,  1-in.  tongued  and  grooved  match-boarding,  two 
layers  of  insulating  paper,  and  1-in.  tongued  and  grooved  match- 
boarding. 

WINDOW  INSULATION. 

Windows  are  better  dispensed  with  in  cold  stores  and  artificial 
light  resorted  to ;  where  present,  three  sashes  spaced  a  few  inches  apart 
and  glazed  at  both  sides  should  be  used. 

TANK  INSULATION. 

Tank  sides :  4  in.  air  space  between  studding,  1-in.  tongued  and 
grooved  match-boarding,  three  layers  of  insulating  paper,  1-in.  tongued 


INSULATION. 


361 


and  grooved  match-boarding,  4  in.  space  filled  with  cork,  1-in.  tongued 
and  grooved  match-boarding,  three  layers  of  insulating  paper,  1-in. 
tongued  and  grooved  match -boarding,  2  in.  air  space,  1-in.  tongued  and 
grooved  match-boarding,  three  layers  of  insulating  paper,  and  1-in. 
tongued  and  grooved  match-boarding.  Bottom,  1  in.  space  between 
strips,  fillets  or  studding,  well  tarred  before  tank  is  placed  in  position, 
1-in.  tongued  and  grooved  match-boarding,  three  layers  of  insulating 


SPACE  FILLED  WITH  con 


2X4   STUDDING  30  CEN. 
8*X    2"          11  30*    ii 

*"x   4*  *  10*    «• 


AIR   SPACC- 


TMICKNE8SES   OF   T.1G.   BOARDS 

'•          .  PAPER 

SPACE  FILLED  WITH  CORK 
THICK.  '(.  A  G.  BOARDS 

»  PAPER. BETWEE 


AIR   SPACE        

THICK.    T.  A  G.   BOARDS 


SPACE   FILLED  WITH  CORK 


Fig.  236.— Frick  Company  Method  of  Tank  Insulation.     Vertical  Section. 


paper,  1-in.  tongued  and  grooved  match-boarding,  1  in.  airspace  between 
strips,  fillets  or  studding,  1-in.  tongued  and  grooved  match-boarding, 
three  layers  of  insulating  paper,  1-in.  tongued  and  grooved  match - 
boarding,  2  in.  by  9  in.  joists,  spaces  between  filled  with  cinders. 

Tank,  2  in.  air  space  between  fillets,  f-in.  tongued  and  grooved 
match-boarding,  two  layers  of  insulating  paper,  |-in.  tongued  and 
grooved  match-boarding,  4  in.  silicate  cotton  or  slag- wool,  J-in.  tongued 


362       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD    STORAGE. 


THICKNESS  T.  4  G.  PAPER  BETWEEN 
SPACE  FOR  MINERAL  WOOV 
/THICKNESS  T.  4  <T.  PAPER  8ETWESN 
AIR  SPACE, 
THICKNESS 
AIR  SPACE, 
3  THICKNESS 


SIDES  OF  COLD  STORAGE 
ROOMS  WHEN  MADE  OF 
WOOD 


THICKNESS  T.  * 
PAPER  BETWEEN) 


3  TMJCKNE88  T.  4 

*A«rt  B6TWEEW 
.  *MINE9AfcWOOL- 
gTWlfiKNEWT.  ft 

PAPER  BETWEEN 


18 

CR083  SECTION  OF  DOOR 


LONGITUDINAL  SECTION  OF  DOOR 


DOOR  FOR  STORAGE  ROOMS 
AND  ICE  HOUSE 


J2YI6* 
Lights. 


TRIPLE  $ASH  WINDOW  FOR  COLO 
ROOMS  AND  ICE  HOUSE 


Figs.  237  to  246.— Barber  Manufacturing  Co.  Methods  of  Wall,  Floor, 
Ceiling,  and  Tank  Insulation. 


INSULATION. 


363 


I        I-   I        I 


Figs.  247  to  254.  —Triumph  Ice  Machine  Co.  Methods  of  Wall,  Floor 
Ceiling,  and  Tank  Insulation. 


364       REFRIGERATION   AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

and  grooved  match-boarding,  two  layers  of  insulating  paper,  and  -f-in. 
tongued  and  grooved  match  -boarding. 

Tank,  2  in.  air  space  between  studding,  layer  of  insulating  paper, 
2  in.  flooring,  two  layers  of  insulating  paper,  |-in.  tongued  and  grooved 


Figs.  255  to  265.  --Triumph  Ice  Machine  Co.  Methods  of  Wall  and  Floor 

Insulation. 


boarding,  joists  on  concrete  or  ground,  spaces  between  filled  with 
charcoal  for  three-quarters  depth,  ^-in.  tongued  and  grooved  match- 
boarding,  two  layers  of  insulating  paper,  J-in.  tongued  and  grooved 
match-boarding,  ground  or  concrete. 


REFRIGERATED    RAILWAY   VANS.  365 

METHODS  OP  INSULATION  USED  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

In  Figs.  226  to  265  are  depicted  various  plans  for  insulation  which 
have  been  successfully  used  in  the  United  States.  Figs.  226  and  227 
illustrate  a  method  of  insulating  a  cold  store  recommended  by  the  Frick 
Company;  Figs.  228  to  235,  various  methods  of  wall,  floor,  ceiling,  par- 
tition, door,  and  window  insulation,  and  Fig.  236  a  method  of  insulat- 
ing a  tank  recommended  by  the  same  company.  Figs.  237  to  245  give 
a  number  of  methods  of  wall,  floor,  ceiling,  door,  window,  and  tank 
insulation  used  by  the  Barber  Manufacturing  Co.,  and  Figs.  246  to 
254  and  255  to  265  show  at  A,  K,  p,  Q,  G,  H,  M,  N,  o,  R,  and  T,  various 
wall  insulations ;  at  E  a  ceiling  insulation ;  at  B,  c,  D,  v,  u,  and  s,  floor 
insulations ;  and  at  L  a  tank  insulation  according  to  the  practice 
approved  by  the  Triumph  Ice  Machine  Co.  The  explanatory  matter 
on  the  drawings  sufficiently  clearly  indicates  the  construction  of  the 
above. 

REFRIGERATED  RAILWAY  VANS. 

An  important  type  of  portable  refrigerator  is  that  adapted  to  meet 
the  requirements  of  railway  vans,  trucks,  cars,  or  waggons,  which  it  is 
desirable  to  maintain  at  a  low  temperature  for  considerable  periods,  but 
which,  for  obvious  reasons,  it  is  undesirable,  in  doing  so,  to  encumber 
with  machinery,  to  increase  in  weight  to  any  considerable  extent,  or  to 
render  in  any  way  necessary  the  employment  of  special  labour  to  take 
charge  of  same. 

The  frozen  meat,  as  a  rule,  arrives  in  good  condition  on  board  the 
vessels,  and  deterioration  in  quality  usually  takes  place  during  its  trans- 
ference to  the  cold  stores  on  land,  and  again  during  the  subsequent 
delivery  thereof  to  the  retailer,  when  the  meat  is  exposed  to  tem- 
peratures frequently  much  higher  than  what  is  required  to  preserve  it 
in  good  condition.  The  great  desideratum  for  this  purpose  is  a  plan 
which  will  avoid  the  necessity  of  carrying  the  source  of  refrigeration 
upon  the  conveyance  itself,  and  this  the  Pulsometer  Engineering  Co., 
Ltd.,  claim  to  have  successfully  accomplished  in  their  system  of 
refrigeration  for  railway  trucks  or  cars,  arid  other  portable  chambers, 
and  they  state  that  they  are  willing  to  guarantee  to  maintain  below  the 
freezing  point  properly  fitted  portable  chambers  of  all  kinds,  for  ample 
time  for  transit  between  Penzance  and  Aberdeen. 

The  method  of  refrigeration  primarily  employed  in  vans  and  railway 
trucks,  was  to  effect  the  production  of  cold  with  mixtures  of  ice  and 
salt.  The  great  objection  to  this  arrangement  is  the  large  increment  of 


366       REFRIGERATION    AND    COLD    STORAGE. 

weight,  and  the  nuisance  and  damage  caused  by  the  moisture  due  to 
the  melting  ice. 

As  early  as  the  year  1867  a  refrigerator  car  was  constructed  in  the 
United  States  having  a  refrigerating  chamber  surrounded  by  an  air 
space.  A  fan  or  blower  was  provided,  driven  off  one  of  the  car  axles, 
and  air  was  forced  by  this  blower  through  a  compartment  containing 
ice  into  the  refrigerating  chamber.  The  water  resulting  from  the  lique- 
faction of  the  ice  in  the  compartment,  -which  had  a  capacity  of  about 
2  tons,  was  drawn  off  through  a  suitable  trap.  In  some  instances  the  ice 
was  replaced  by  a  refrigerating  mixture  passing  through  a  suitable  pipe 
in  the  ice  box  or  chamber.  The  air  was  drawn  in  by  the  fan  during 


Fig.  266.— Refrigerator  Van  or  Waggon,  Great  Southern  and  Western 
Railway,  Ireland.     Sectional  Side  Elevation. 

the  forward  motion  of  the  car,  and  after  being  passed  through  the 
ice  chamber  was  delivered  at  the  top  of  the  refrigerating  chamber.  A 
car  of  this  description  is  said  to  have  successfully  transported  meat 
slaughtered  in  Illinois  to  New  York,  during  the  hottest  part  of  the 
summer,  no  perceptible  deterioration  in  quality  having  occurred  during 
the  ten  days'  journey. 

Another  refrigerator  car  of  somewhat  similar  construction,  having 
the  external  appearance  of  an  ordinary  freight  car,  has  an  ice  box  at 
each  extremity  wherein  the  ice  is  placed  upon  gratings  so  arranged  that 
a  current  of  cold  air  circulates  continually  through  a  flue  situated  near 
the  top  of  the  chamber,  over  the  surface  of  the  ice,  down  to  the  floor, 


REFRIGERATED    RAILWAY   VANS. 


367 


and  then  up  over  the  surface  of  the  ice,  down  to  the  floor,  and  then 
up  again  amongst  the  meat.  The  air  circulation  is  maintained  by  a 
fan  operated  in  a  like  manner  to  that  above  mentioned.  The  car  was 
also  built  double,  with  inside  double  doors,  filled  in  with  charcoal,  and 
the  temperature  of  the  meat  was  easily  kept  at  about  40°  Fahr.  even 
in  the  hottest  weather. 

As  has  been  already  mentioned,  Godell  uses  lampblack,  or  a  mix- 
ture of  lampblack  and  mica  scales,  as  non-conducting  material  for  use 
in  refrigerator  cars. 

In  another  arrangement,  also  used  in  America,  the  car  is  cooled 
by  means  of  some  suitable  volatile  liquid,  which  is  allowed  to  vaporise 


Fig.  267. — Refrigerator  Van  or  Waggon,  Great  Southern  and  Western 
Railway,  Ireland.     p]nd  Elevation  partly  in  Section. 


slowly  through  a  system  of  pipes  from  one  reservoir  into  another,  thus 
reducing  the  temperature  of  the  chamber.  An  objection  to  this 
arrangement  is  the  danger  of  leakage  of  the  volatile  liquid  taking 
place  into  the  refrigerating  chamber. 

Fig.  266  is  a  side  elevation  partly  in  section,  Fig.  267  is  an  end 
elevation  partly  in  section,  and  Fig.  268  is  a  sectional  plan  showing 
a  refrigerator  van  or  waggon  built  for  the  Great  Southern  and  Western 
Railway  of  Ireland.  These  illustrations,  which  are  reproductions  on  a 
reduced  scale  of  cuts  that  appeared  in  Ice  and  Cold  Storage,  are 
self  explanatory. 

A  refrigerator  van,  car,   or  waggon,  said   to  be  in  use   upon  the 


368       REFRIGERATION    AND    COLD   STORAGE. 

Illinois  Central  Railway,  U.S.,  and  which  has  been  designed  and 
patented  by  Mr  H.  F.  Stanley,  the  foreman  of  the  car  department  at 
New  Orleans,  Louisiana,  is  shown  in  Figs.  269  and  270  in  sectional 
side  elevation  and  in  plan,  and,  according  to  the  patent  specification, 
consists  essentially  of  the  following  features : — The  car  is  provided 
with  three  floors,  viz.,  a  central  or  main  floor  A,  which  slopes  in  a 
downward  direction  from  the  sides  of  the  van  towards  a  central  gutter, 
which  runs  through  its  entire  length,  and  serves  as  a  drain  to  carry  off 
all  internal  drippings ;  a  lower  or  sub-floor  B,  lined  with  paper-felt ;  and 
lastly  a  false,  or  deck  floor  c,  formed  of  lattice  work,  and  arranged  in 
sections  divided  on  the  centre  line  of  the  car,  each  section  being  hinged 
or  jointed  to  the  sides  of  the  latter,  to  admit  of  its  being  raised  or 


Fig.  268. — Refrigerator  Van  or  Waggon,  Great  Southern  and  Western  Railway, 
Ireland.     Sectional  Plan. 

folded  up,  and  thus  allowing  of  access  to  the  central  or  main  floor  and 
gutter  for  cleansing  purposes.  Ventilating  doors  D  are  provided  at 
each  end  of  the  car,  through  which  a  current  of  air  can  be  admitted 
which  will  circulate  between  the  main  floor  and  the  latticed  upper  floor. 
E  are  hatches  fitted  with  ventilating  hoods,  and  removable  plugs,  and 
auxiliary  screens,  which  admit  of  filling  the  ice  tanks  F. 

The  ice  tanks  or  boxes  are  formed  by  doors  or  swinging  partitions, 
hinged  or  jointed  to  the  roof  of  the  car  about  3  ft.  from  each  end,  so 
that  they  can  be  either  fastened  up  out  of  the  way,  as  shown  at  G,  or 
let  down  until  they  hang  vertically,  and  reach  the  floor,  as  shown  at  G1, 
forming,  when  in  the  latter  position,  the  ice  compartment  or  chamber 
p.  At  a  height  of  1  ft.  6  in.  above  the  upper  or  deck  latticed  floor  c,  in 


REFRIGERATED    RAILWAY   VANS. 


369 


this  ice  chamber  or  compartment  P,  is  provided  a  deck  or  false  floor  H, 
which  consists  of  a  hinged  grating,  which  can  be  brought  down  into 
the  position  shown  in  Fig.  269  or  can  be  folded  back  against  the  end 
of  the  car  when  not  in  use.  The  side  door  openings  i  are  fitted  with 
cross-bars  J,  which  can  be  fixed  firmly  in  position  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  be  easily  removable  when  desired.  The  van  or  waggon  is  sup- 
ported upon  bogie  frames.  A  special  feature  in  the  arrangement  is  the 
very  great  facility  with  which  the  van  can  be  converted  from  an 


Fig.  269. — Refrigerator  Car  or  Waggon,  Illinois  Central  Railway,  U.S. 
Side  Elevation  partly  in  Section. 


Fig.  270. — Refrigerator  Car  or  Waggon,  Illinois  Central  Railway,  U.S. 
Sectional  Plan. 

ordinary  car  or  waggon  into  a  refrigerator  car,  or  vice  versa,  the  time 
necessary  for  effecting  the  first-mentioned  change,  or  for  folding  up 
out  of  the  way  the  parts  forming  the  ice  chambers  or  compartments, 
being  only  about  ten  minutes.  The  car  is,  therefore,  available  for 
use  as  an  ordinary  freight  car  or  waggon,  or  as  a  refrigerator  car  or 
van.  The  principal  dimensions  of  this  van  or  car  are  as  follow:  — 
Length  of  frame,  37  ft. ;  width  of  frame,  9  ft.  Outside  length  of 
car  body,  36  ft. ;  width  of  car  body,  9  ft.  Inside  length  of  car,  35  ft. ; 
width  of  car,  7  ft.,  from  wall  to  wall,  without  ice  chambers  or  compart- 
24 


3/0       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD    STORAGE. 

merits.  Height  from  upper  or  deck  floor  to  ceiling  plate,  8  ft.  Clear 
space  in  car  when  ice  chambers  or  tanks  are  in  position,  29  ft. ;  width 
of  ice  chambers  or  tanks,  3  ft.  each;  length  of  do.,  7  ft. ;  capacity  of 
do.,  108  cub.  ft.  The  false  upper  or  deck  flooring  is  formed  of 
2  in.  by  4  in.  battens,  and  the  central  or  main  flooring  of  1J  in.  by 
5  in.  battens.  The  lower  or  sub-floor  has  a  f-in.  lining.  The  space  or 
clearance  for  the  circulation  of  air  between  the  upper  or  deck  floor  and 
the  central  or  main  floor  is  4  in.  The  width  of  the  gutter  in  the  central 
or  main  floor  is  4  in.  The  doors  or  swinging  partitions  for  forming  the 
ice  chambers  or  compartments  are  constructed  of  2  in.  by  2J  battens. 
The  width  of  the  side  door  openings  is  5  ft.  The  timbers  supporting 
the  bogie  trucks  or  carriages  are  8|  in.,  and  the  centres  of  the 
latter  are  5  ft.  from  the  end  of  the  car  or  van.  The  distance  between 
the  centres  of  the  wheels  in  the  trucks  is  5  ft.,  and  the  height  of  the 
top  of  the  truck  from  the  wheel  base  is  29  in. 

John  Lobrist,  of  Hanford,  California,  has  designed  a  refrigerator 
car,  comprising  vertical  ice  tanks  or  chambers  placed  at  each  end,  to 
which  chambers  access  can  be  had  for  charging  through  hatches  having 
hermetically  closing  doors.  These  chambers  are  surrounded  by  open- 
work walls  with  an  annular  air  passage  arranged  exteriorly,  and  a 
second  open  or  net-work  wall  located  outside  the  air  chamber.  In  a 
space  or  clearance  situated  exteriorly  to  the  air  chamber,  and  between 
the  latter  and  an  outer  closed  casing,  is  placed  a  layer  or  filling  of  salt. 
A  lining  extends  right  across  the  top  of  the  car  and  from  end  to  end 
thereof,  so  as  to  form  a  passage  between  it  and  the  roof;  and  a 
central  opening  which  communicates  with  the  body  of  the  car,  and 
openings  at  the  extremities  which  give  access  to  air  passages  surround- 
ing the  ice  chamber,  are  also  provided.  Centrally  along  the  floor  of 
the  car  is  a  passage,  around  and  over  which  passage  the  boxes  are 
packed,  openings  being  provided  between  the  opposite  ends  of  the 
passage  in  question  and  the  lower  ends  of  the  refrigerating  air 
chambers  at  the  ends  of  the  car.  Fans  mounted  in  these  openings 
cause  a  circulation  of  air  to  take  place  through  the  refrigerating 
chamber  and  the  body  of  the  car,  the  air  returning  through  the  air 
passages  adjacent  to  the  roof  of  the  latter.  The  air-circulating  me- 
chanism is  driven  by  an  arrangement  of  gearing  from  the  axles  of  the 
car,  which  operates  the  pistons  or  plungers  of  compressor  cylinders 
connected  with  compressed  air  receivers  or  reservoirs.  The  air  thus 
compressed  is  employed  to  drive  motor  wheels,  which  in  turn  drive  the 
fans.  A  compressor  cylinder  fixed  to  a  frame  to  which  the  crankshaft 
working  the  compressor  pistons  or  plungers  is  journalled,  and  which 


REFRIGERATED    RAILWAY   VANS.  371 

cylinder  is  connected  through  a  suitable  pipe  with  the  compressed  air 
receiver  or  reservoir,  admits,  by  allowing  air  under  pressure  to  enter  the 
cylinder,  of  so  acting  upon  its  piston  or  plunger  as  to  raise  the  journal 
frame  and  crankshaft,  thereby  .disengaging  the  driving  gear  and  stop- 
ping the  action  of  the  pumps,  when  desired. 

Refrigerator  cars  have  also  been  designed,  fitted  with  refrigerating 
machinery.  One  type  of  car  patented  by  M.  E.  Schmidt  and  T.  J.  Ryan, 
of  York,  U.S.,  has  an  installation  of  refrigerating  machinery  on  the 
ammonia  compression  system.  A  dynamo,  driven  from  one  of  the 
axles,  supplies  current  to  an  electro-motor  and  to  a  storage  battery. 
The  compressor  is  in  this  manner  driven  by  electric  power,  and  by 
means  of  the  storage  battery  can  be  continued  in  operation  for  a  cer- 
tain time  whilst  the  car  is  at  rest. 

An  attempt  has  been  recently  made  in  the  United  States,  by  the 
Standard  Butter  Co.,  Oswego,  New  York,  to  refrigerate  or  cool  a 
car  or  van  for  the  transport  of  butter,  by  the  application  of  liquid 
air.  The  refrigerator  car  used  was  an  ordinary  one,  and  the  expense 
of  adapting  it  for  the  test  was  only  about  .£5. 

The  cooling  apparatus  is  extremely  simple,  consisting  merely  of 
about  200  feet  of  2-in.  galvanised  iron  pipe  coiled  on  the  ceiling,  and 
running  lengthways  from  end  to  end  of  the  car.  This  pipe  is  con- 
nected to  a  small  cylindrical  galvanised  iron  tank  some  4  ft.  high,  and 
2  ft.  in  diameter,  which  is  fixed  in  one  corner  of  the  car,  and  con- 
tains the  liquid  air.  From  this  iron  tank  the  liquid  air  is  forced,  at 
a  pressure  of  about  4  Ibs.  to  the  square  inch,  to  the  coil  of  pipe 
overhead,  an  arrangement  which,  it  is  claimed,  admits  of  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  van  being  raised  or  lowered  at  the  will  of  the  operator. 

According  to  reports  of  the  test,  within  an  hour  from  the  first  appli- 
cation of  liquid  air  to  the  van,  the  temperature  was  reduced  to  15° 
below  zero,  and  held  at  that  point  for  three  hours.  The  tank  used 
contained  sufficient  liquid  air  to  keep  the  temperature  down  for  twenty- 
four  hours  without  having  to  be  recharged.  The  air  in  the  van  was 
found  to  be  perfectly  pure,  there  being  no  moisture  anywhere  to  be 
seen,  very  little  frost  on  the  pipes,  and  no  drip  whatever.  After  the 
test  the  floor  was  clean  and  dry,  and  the  truck  itself  presented  in  every 
way  a  much  more  pleasing  look  than  when  ice  is  used,  with  its  waste 
and  continual  drip. 


CHAPTER   XIY 
REFRIGERATION  AND  COLD  STORAGE  (continued) 

Hoisting  and  Conveying  Machinery. 

A  NUMBER  of  cranes,  and  hoists  and  lifts,  are  required  in  a  cold  store 
of  any  size  for  handling  the  carcasses.  The  first-mentioned  do  not 
differ  materially  from  those  employed  in  factories,  warehouses,  &c., 
the  second,  however,  are  usually  of  special  construction.  The  motive 
power  may  be  either  steam,  gas,  compressed  air,  water  under  pres- 
sure, or  electricity.  The  advantages  of  hydraulic  power  are :  Perfect 
security  in  handling  the  load  when  raising  or  lowering  it,  and  being 
able  to  stop  the  load  in  any  position.  Great  simplicity  of  construction. 
Facility  of  operating  enabling  skilled  operators  to  be  dispensed  with. 
Relatively  small  cost  of  construction  and  operation.  Noiselessness  in 
action.  The  provision  of  water  under  pressure  on  the  premises  in  case 
of  fire.  All  the  above  advantages,  except  the  last,  are  also  applicable 
to  the  use  of  electricity,  and  the  latter  power  has  the  further  advan- 
tage of  being  unaffected  by  cold.  Space  does  not  admit  of  more  than 
touching  briefly  upon  this  portion  of  the  subject,  and  of  giving  illus- 
trations and  short  descriptions  of  two  or  three  carcass  hoists  by  way 
of  example.  Short  descriptions  of  cranes,  hoists,  and  conveyors  for 
handling  ice  will  be  found  in  the  chapter  on  "  Ice-making." 

Figs.  271  to  276  show  various  views  of  an  automatic  electric  beef 
hoist,  designed  by  Messrs  J.  G.  Childs  &  Co.,  Ltd.,  London.  The 
construction  of  the  hoist  will  be  readily  understood  from  the  drawing.  It 
consists  of  any  suitable  number  of  cradles,  in  this  instance  ten,  running 
in  vertical  guides,  and  suspended  from  two  endless  chains.  Two  hinged 
platforms  are  provided  at  each  floor,  the  one  for  loading  and  the 
other  for  unloading,  and  these  platforms  are  turned  back  out  of  the  way 
at  all  the  floors  not  in  use.  In  order  to  load  the  hoist,  the  loading 
platform  on  any  of  the  floors  is  turned  into  position  to  receive  the 
carcasses,  which  are  then  placed  one  by  one  upon  this  platform,  the 
next  cradle  in  rising  lifting  the  quarter  of  beef  and  carrying  it  up  over 
the  top  of  the  lift  and  down  on  the  other  side,  finally  depositing  it 

372 


HOISTING    AND    CONVEYING    MACHINERY.      373 


StcTiori-CD. 


Figs.  271  to  276.— Childs'  Patent  Automatic  Electrically-driven  Beef  Hoist  or 

Elevator. 


374       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD    STORAGE. 

automatically  upon  whichever  of  the  hinged  receiving  platforms  or 
forks  that  has  been  adjusted  into  position  to  receive  it  and  lift  it  off 
the  cradle.  The  cradles  are  kept  in  the  same  position  and  are  pre- 
vented from  swinging  or  moving  laterally  during  the  rising  and 
descending  movement  of  their  vertical  travel  by  means  of  the  vertical 
arms  shown,  one  of  which  is  provided  at  each  side  of  the  cradle,  and  is 
fitted  at  each  extremity  with  rollers  engaging  between  vertical  guides. 
The  upper  ends  of  these  arms  are  connected  to  the  endless  carrying 
chains  of  the  hoist,  and  the  cradle  is  secured  to  the  lower  ends  of  these 
arms  or  levers.  When  each  of  the  cradles  reaches  the  upper  or  lower 
sprocket  or  chain  wheels  supporting  the  endless  chains,  and  is  passing 
round  them,  the  rollers  on  its  arms  or  levers  pass  clear  of  the  guides, 
and  it  will  be  seen  that  the  cradles  are  consequently  permitted  to 
swing  free  from  their  pivot  at  the  upper  end  of  these  levers,  and  thus 
to  retain  a  vertical  position  whilst  passing  round  the  upper  and  lower 
sprocket  or  chain  wheels.  After  clearing  the  sprocket  or  chain  wheels 
the  rollers  on  the  vertical  arms  or  levers  once  more  engage  in  the 
vertical  guides. 

The  beef  hoist  motor  (which  is  a  Westinghouse  3J  H.P.  electric 
motor)  is  located  at  the  upper  extremity  of  the  hoist,  and  is  geared 
through  a  worm-wheel,  the  thrust  of  which  is  taken  up  by  ball-bear- 
ings, which  have  been  found  greatly  to  reduce  the  friction  of  the 
gearing.  The  switching  arrangements  enable  the  above  motor  to  run 
on  either  a  530  volt  current,  or  on  a  400  volt  current. 

The  motor  can  only  be  started  from  the  weigh-bridge  room,  which 
latter  is  situated  on  the  ground  floor,  but  it  can  be  stopped  by  means 
of  any  of  the  press  buttons  placed  on  the  various  floors. 

Fig.  277  shows  a  portion  of  one  of  Childs'  patent  hoists  or  elevators 
erected  at  the  Campania  Sansinena's  Cold  Stores,  Long  Lane,  Smith  - 
field,  London,  with  a  quarter  of  beef  in  position  on  one  of  the  cradles. 

This  beef  hoist  has  a  capacity  equal  to  the  delivery  of  about  300 
quarters  of  beef  per  hour  on  the  uppermost  floor  of  the  store,  which 
in  the  example  shown  is  four  storeys  in  height,  at  a  cost  of  about 
2Jd.  per  100  quarters.  A  considerable  saving  of  labour  can  be 
effected  by  the  use  of  this  lift,  inasmuch  as  by  its  automatic  system 
of  delivery  it  enables  a  number  of  hands  that  would  be  otherwise 
required  for  the  removal  and  handling  of  the  heavy  quarters  of  beef 
to  be  dispensed  with.  The  carcasses  are  delivered  in  close  proximity 
to  the  chambers,  and  could,  if  desired,  be  easily  slid  on  suitable  chutes 
or  inclines  to  and  through  the  doors  of  the  chambers,  and  be  thus 
passed  entirely  automatically  into  the  latter. 


HOISTING   AND   CONVEYING   MACHINERY.     375 

The  elevators  for  the  Southampton   Cold  Storage  Co.  have  like- 
wise been  designed  and  are  being  supplied  by  Messrs  Childs.     These 


Fig.  277.— Childs'  Patent  Automatic  Electrically -driven  Beef  Hoist. 
View  showing  a  Quarter  of  Beef  in  position  on  one  of  the  cradles. 

elevators  are  each  intended  to  take  the  produce  from  the  ship's  side, 
raise  it  about  50  ft.  vertically,  and  then  convey  it  for  about  another 


3/6       REFRIGERATION    AND    COLD    STORAGE. 


50  ft.  horizontally,  finally  automatically  depositing  it  at  the  desired 
spot.  Each  elevator  will  be  capable  of  dealing  with  about  1,800  car- 
casses of  mutton  per  hour,  or  about  600  quarters  of  beef,  barrels,  or 

Continental   egg  -  cases 
per  hour. 

It  will  be  seen  that 
these  lifts  are  really 
combined  elevators  and 
conveyors. 

Fig.  278  is  a  view 
showing  a  portion  of  a 
mutton  hoist,  also  con- 
structed by  Messrs 
Childs,  and  working 
at  the  Campania  San- 
sinena's  Cold  Store  in 
London.  This  hoist, 
it  will  be  seen,  con- 
sists of  two  vertically 
arranged  parallel  end- 
less chains,  carrying 
at  intervals  sheet-iron 
trough-shaped  cradles 
or  carriages,  into  which 
the  carcasses  are 
placed,  and  from  which 
they  are  removed  by 
hand.  The  hoist  is 
operated  by  an  elec- 
tric motor  located,  in 
this  instance,  at  the 
bottom. 

This  mutton  hoist 
is  capable  of  delivering 
about  700  carcasses  of 
frozen  sheep  per  hour 
at  the  top  or  fourth 
floor  of  the  store  at  a 
cost  of  about  three-farthings  per  hundred  carcasses. 

Figs.  279  and  280  are  two  views  showing  an  external  carcass  hoist 
or  lift  erected  at  Nelson's  Cold  Storage  Wharf,  Lambeth,  by  Messrs 


Fig.  278. — Mutton  Hoist  in  London  Cold  Store. 


HOISTING   AND   CONVEYING   MACHINERY.     377 


Fig.  279.— External  Carcass  Hoist  at  Nelson's  Cold  Storage  Wharf, 
London.     At  Rest. 


378       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

R.  Waygood  &  Co.,  Ltd.,  Falmouth  Road,  London,  for  raising  frozen 
carcasses  from  barges  lying  in  the  river,  and  delivering  same  to  the  top 
of  the  cold  store,  from  where  they  are  distributed  to  the  various  floors 
by  means  of  internal  lifts. 

This  lift  or  hoist  consists,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  cuts,  of  a  number 
of  cradles  carried  by  two  parallel  endless  chains  mounted  upon  sprocket 
or  chain  wheels,  those  at  one  end  being  carried  upon  a  long  arm  or  jib 
pivoted  at  its  upper  extremity  to  a  suitable  platform,  and  capable  of 
being  swung  or  moved  by  hydraulic  power  into  various  angles  rela- 
tively to  the  platform,  so  as  to  enable  the  carcasses  from  barges  lying 
at  different  distances  from  the  wall  of  the  store  to  be  raised,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  280.  The  endless  chains  carrying  the  cradles  pass  over  sprocket 
or  chain  wheels  provided  upon  the  platform  to  other  sprocket  or  chain 
wheels  situated  within  the  building  at  the  point  of  discharge. 

Another  large  cold  store  in  London,  with  river  frontage,  in  which 
the  carcasses  are  also  taken  in  from  the  top,  and  conveyed  down  by 
lifts  to  the  various  floors  below,  has  at  the  upper  part  of  the  building 
a  crane  with  a  very  long  jib,  enabling  barges  lying  at  a  considerable 
distance  from  the  wharf  to  be  reached.  The  carcasses  are  raised  from 
the  barges  by  means  of  this  crane  in  a  sailcloth,  a  number  at  a  time, 
and  are  delivered  to  a  suitable  platform  at  the  top  of  the  store,  from 
whence  they  can  be  delivered  to  the  vertical  internal  lifts,  and  con- 
veyed thereby  to  the  various  floors. 

In  some  stores  lifts  capable  of  carrying  both  passengers  and  meat 
in  trucks  are  employed,  and  also  lifts  of  the  ordinary  direct-acting 
type,  with  arrangements  for  tipping  automatically  at  the  end  of  the 
stroke  so  as  to  effect  the  discharge  of  the  loads  on  to  a  receiving  table, 
the  latter  being  in  use  at  the  Victoria  Dock,  London.  At  the  West 
India  Dock  there  are  four  hydraulic  lifts,  which  are  supported  on  one 
side  only  in  the  form  of  a  bracket,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  work  of 
transporting  the  frozen  carcasses  is  carried  out  by  gravitation. 

In  the  West  Smithfield  store,  besides  two  lifts  by  Messrs  R. 
Waygood  &  Co.,  capable  of  carrying  either  passengers  or  goods, 
there  are  two  other  lifts  designed  by  Mr  H.  F.  Donaldson,  M.I.C.E.,* 
which  are  so  arranged  that  carcasses  of  meat  are  loaded  at  the  receiv- 
ing platform,  where  the  attendant  in  charge  is  already  informed  by  the 
tallyman  as  to  the  chamber  into  which  the  various  loads  are  to  go. 
By  levers  he  throws  the  points  over  to  the  floor  on  which  the  carcasses 
have  to  be  discharged,  and  starts  the  lift,  after  which  he  need  only  let 

*  Proceedings  of  the  Institution  oj  Civil  Engineers,  vol.  cxxix.,  Session  1896-7, 
Part  iii. 


HOISTING   AND    CONVEYING    MACHINERY.     379 


Fig.  280. — External  Carcass  Hoist  at  Nelson's  Cold  Storage  Wharf, 
London.     At  Work. 


380       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

the  lift  run  its  course,  as,  when  it  reaches  the  point  at  which  the  turn- 
out has  been  prepared,  an  automatic  cut-off  in  connection  with  the 
lever  comes  into  play,  and  the  machine  is  stopped  at  the  exact  place 
at  which  the  best  result  in  discharging  is  to  be  obtained.  In  practice, 
however,  the  driver  generally  slackens  the  speed  of  travel  just  before 
reaching  the  point  of  discharge,  so  as  to  avoid  the  jar  which  results 
from  the  automatic  cut-off  due  to  the  high  speed  at  which  these  lifts 
travel.  The  meat  so  discharged  on  to  a  table  overhead  naturally  falls 
away  by  gravitation,  and  passes  along  chutes  directly  into  the  chamber 
for  which  it  is  intended ;  so  that  from  the  time  the  meat  is  placed  upon 
the  lift  at  the  bottom,  it  only  requires  to  be  directed  into  its  proper 
chute  from  the  receiving-table,  and  has  not,  of  necessity,  to  be  again 
lifted  until  it  reaches  the  chamber  in  which  it  has  to  be  stored. 

A  lowering  apparatus  of  extremely  simple  and  ingenious  construc- 
tion which  is  much  employed  in  the  United  States,  consists  essentially 
of  a  cage  guided  by  two  supporting  angle  irons,  and  somewhat  more 
than  balanced  by  a  weighted  piston,  which  latter  is  fitted  with  a  steel 
air  tube  located  at  the  rear.  This  air  tube  is  perforated  in  order  to 
admit  of  the  air  escaping  therefrom  when  the  piston  rises  during  the 
lowering  of  the  cage,  and  the  perforations  near  the  upper  end  or  top 
of  the  tube  are  regulated  in  size  and  made  smaller  so  as  to  cushion  the 
air  as  the  cage  reaches  the  lower  level.  In  operation,  as  soon  as 
the  cage  is  loaded  it  descends  very  rapidly,  and  is  brought  gradually 
to  rest  in  the  last  two  or  three  feet  of  its  downward  course.  As  soon 
as  the  cage  reaches  the  bottom  level  it  engages  with  a  lever  and  is 
automatically  upset  or  tilted  so  as  to  turn  out  its  load  on  the  lower 
platform,  and  directly  it  is  relieved  of  its  load  the  cage  rises  or  ascends 
rapidly  under  the  action  of  the  loaded  piston  located  in  the  air  tube, 
the  piston  and  cage  being  brought  to  rest  by  air  cushioning  at  the 
bottom  of  the  tube  in  a  manner  practically  similar  to  that  already 
mentioned.  It  will  be  seen  that  this  lift  or  lowering  apparatus 
operates  entirely  by  gravity,  and  requires  no  motive  power  whatever. 

This  apparatus  could  be  advantageously  employed  wherever  the 
dimensions  of  a  room  or  chamber  are  so  limited  as  to  render  the  use 
of  an  ordinary  "run  way"  or  "sliding  way"  inadvisable  owing  to 
necessitating  too  steep  a  gradient  in  the  latter. 


CHAPTER   XV 
REFRIGERATION   AND    COLD   STORAGE  (continued) 

Proper  Methods  of  Storing,  and  Temperatures  for  the  Cold  Storage  of  Various 
Articles— Specific  Heat  and  Composition  of  Victuals— Meats  and  Fish— Butter 
— Cheese — Milk — Eggs — Fruits — Vegetables— Morgues  or  Mortuaries — Table 
of  Temperatures  for  Cold  Storage  of  Various  Articles. 

SPEAKING  generally,  cold  storage  rooms  or  chambers  are  maintained 
at  a  temperature  of  somewhere  near  34°  Fahr. ;  rooms  or  chambers  for 
chilling  at  about  30°  Fahr. ;  and  freezing  rooms  or  chambers  at  any- 
thing between  0°  Fahr.,  or  lower,  and  10°  Fahr. 

The  amount  of  refrigeration  required  to  cool  a  given  amount  of 
food  product  through  a  given  range  in  temperature  is  a  practically 
fixed  quantity  for  a  given  product,  but  varies  widely  with  different 
products.  The  following  particulars  on  this  head  are  given  by  Mr  F.  C. 
Matthews  in  an  article  entitled  "  Cold  Storage  Duty,"  which  appeared 
in  a  recent  number  of  Power,  New  York  : — 

"  When  cooling  is  not  to  be  carried  below  the  freezing-point  the 
amount  of  the  refrigeration  required,  says  the  author,  may  be  found 
by  multiplying  the  specific  heat  of  the  product  by  the  number  of 
degrees  through  which  it  is  to  be  cooled.  If  the  product  is  also  to  be 
frozen,  this  amount  of  refrigeration  must  be  increased  by  the  amount 
of  the  latent  heat  of  fusion,  and  if  cooling  is  to  be  continued  below  the 
freezing-point,  the  refrigeration  must  be  further  increased  by  the  specific 
heat  of  the  product  below  32°  Fahr.  multiplied  by  the  number  of  degrees 
through  which  it  is  cooled  below  freezing-point.  The  specific  and 
latent  heat  of  a  number  of  products  commonly  preserved  in  cold 
storage  are  given  in  the  table. 

"It  is  required,  for  example,  to  cool  10,000  Ibs.  of  freshly  killed 
poultry  through  68°  Fahr.  The  specific  heat  as  given  in  the  table  is 
•80°.  The  number  of  B.T.TJ.  to  be  removed  will  be — 

•80x10,000x68  =  544,000. 
Dividing  this  result  by  144  (number  of  B.T.U,  per  pound  of  refrigera- 


382       REFRIGERATION    AND    COLD    STORAGE. 


tion),  the  amount  of  cooling  duty  is  found  to  be  37777  Ibs.  If  the 
poultry  is  frozen,  the  additional  refrigeration  required  will  be  — 

10,000  x  105  =  1,050,000  B.T.U. 

or  (-r!44)  7,292  Ibs.,  and  if  additional  cooling  to  zero  degrees  Fahren- 
heit is  required,  the  additional  cold  necessary  will  be — 

10,000  x  -42  x  32  =  134,000  B.T.U. 

or  933*3  Ibs.  The  total  refrigeration  duty  required  to  cool  the  pro- 
ducts through  68°  Fahr.,  freeze  it  at  32°  Fahr.,  and  then  chill  it  to 
zero  degrees  Fahrenheit,  would  be — 

3777-7  +  7,292  +  933-3  =  12,003  Ibs. 

or,  dividing  by  2,000  (pounds  per  ton),  6  tons. 

"The  table  may  be  found  convenient  in  estimating  the  amount  of 
refrigeration  required  to  chill  beef,  pork,  and  sausage  through  64° 
Fahr.,  or  from  104°  to  40°  Fahr. 

"tlt  may  be  noticed  that  ten  750-lb.  fat  beeves,  and  thirty-five  250-lb. 
hogs  require  one  ton  of  refrigeration  for  the  cooling  of  the  meat  alone. 
In  estimating  the  cooling  capacity  of  a  medium  for  packing-house 
work,  a  ton  of  refrigeration  is  allowed  for  from  five  to  seven  beeves, 
weighing  from  700  to  750  Ibs.,  and  for  from  fifteen  to  twenty-four  hogs 
weighing  250  Ibs.  Still  another  rough  rule  sometimes  employed  is  to 
allow  a  ton  of  refrigeration  for  from  3,000  to  4,000  Ibs.  of  meat  cooled. 
These  larger  figures  are  intended  to  give  ample  reserve  capacity  to 
provide  for  ordinary  insulation  and  other  losses  encountered  in  packing- 
house practice." 

REFRIGERATION  REQUIRED  TO  COOL  MEA.TS.— Matthews. 


Products. 

Poultry. 

Beef  Fat. 

Beef 

Medium. 

Beef  Lean. 

Pork  Fat. 

Sausage 
(15  °/= 
Water). 

Specific  heat      - 

0-80 

0-60 

0-68 

0-77 

0-51 

0-65 

B.T.U.  to   cool  1,000  Ibs. 

l°Fahr. 

800 

600 

680 

770 

510 

650 

B.T.U.  to  cool  1,000  Ibs. 

64°  Fahr.        -        -        -    51,200 

38,400 

43,520 

49,280 

32,640 

41,600 

Pounds    refrigeration   per 

1,000  Ibs.  (64°  Fahr.)      - 

355-55 

266-66 

302-22 

333-66 

226-66 

228-88 

Pounds  of  meat  cooled,  64° 

per  ton  refrigeration 

5,625 

7,500 

6,615 

5,844 

8,765 

6,923 

Average  weight  carcass,  Ibs. 

750 

750 

750 

250 

Carcasses  cooled  per  ton  - 

10 

6-82 

7-78 

35-3 

... 

METHODS  OF  COLD  STORAGE. 


383 


SPECIFIC  HEAT  AND  COMPOSITION  OF  VICTUALS — Cooper  and  Matthews. 


Product. 

Water. 

Solids. 

Specific 
Heat  above 
Freezing 
Calc. 

Specific 
Heat  below 
Freezing 
Calc. 

Latent 
Heat  of 
Freezing 
Calc. 

Lean  beef            » 

72-00 

28-00 

0-77 

0-41 

102 

Fat  beef 

51-00 

49-00 

0-60 

0-34 

72 

Veal    -                 - 

63-00 

37-00 

0-70 

0-39 

90 

Fat  pork       ;..      - 

39-00 

61-00 

0-51 

0-30 

55 

Eggs 

70-00 

30-00 

0-76 

0-40 

100 

Potatoes        '  .     - 

74-00 

26-00 

0-80 

0-42 

105 

Cabbages 

91-00 

9-00 

0-93 

0-48 

129 

Carrots 

83-00 

17-00 

0-87 

0-45 

118 

Cream 

59-25 

30-75 

0-68 

0-38 

84 

Milk   - 

87-50 

12-50 

0-90 

0-47 

124 

Oysters 
White  fish 

80-38 
78-00 

19-62 
22-00 

0-84 
0-82 

0-44 
0-43 

114 
111 

Eels    -              :  -. 

62-07 

37-93 

0-69 

0-38 

88 

Lobsters               * 

76-62 

23-38 

0-81 

0-42 

108 

Pigeons 

72-40 

27-60 

0-78 

0-41 

Poultry 

73-70 

26-30 

0-80 

0-42 

... 

Butter 

... 

... 

0-64 

0-84 

Mutton           t  .  . 

... 

... 

0-67 

0-81 

... 

MEATS  AND  FISH. 

The  freezing  and  storing  of  meat  has  been  already  touched  upon 
in  the  previous  chapter.  Fish  is  by  no  means  an  easy  article  to  deal 
with,  and  it  is  maintained  by  many  that  the  best  method  of  preserving 
it  is  to  pack  with  ice.  Indeed,  attempts  to  employ  refrigeration  on 
steam  trawlers  have  not  been  signalised  by  remarkably  good  results, 
and  the  old  plan  of  an  ice  room  still  holds  the  leading  place.  Some 
kinds  of  fish  indeed  will  not  stand  low  temperatures  at  all,  and  are 
spoiled  if  they  are  exposed  to  anything  as  low  as  15°. 

The  following  is  a  method  of  freezing  fish,  described  by  a  successful 
firm  in  the  United  States : — "  When  the  fish  are  unloaded  from  the 
boats  they  are  first  sorted  and  graded  as  to  size  and  quality.  These 
are  placed  in  galvanised  iron  pans  22  in.  long,  8  in.  wide,  and  2J  in. 
deep,  covered  with  loosely-fitting  lids,  each  pan  containing  about  1 2  Ibs. 
The  pans  are  then  taken  to  the  freezers.  These  are  solidly  built  vaults, 
with  heavy  iron  doors,  resembling  strong  rooms,  and  filled  with  coils 
of  pipes,  so  arranged  as  to  form  shelves.  On  these  shelves  the  pans 
are  placed,  and  as  one  feature  of  the  fixtures  is  economy  of  space,  not 
an  inch  is  lost.  The  pans  are  kept  here  for  twenty-four  hours  in  a 
temperature  at  times  as  low  as  16°  below  zero.  Each  vault  or  chamber 


384       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD    STORAGE. 

has  a  capacity  of  2J  tons,  and  there  are  sixteen  of  them,  giving  a  total 
capacity  of  40  tons,  which  is  the  amount  of  fish  that  can  be  frozen 
daily  if  required. 

"  On  being  taken  out  of  the  sharp  freezers  the  pans  are  sent  through 
a  bath  of  cold  water,  and  when  the  fish  are  removed  they  are  frozen  in 
a  solid  cake.  These  cakes  are  then  taken  to  the  cold  storage  ware- 
house, which  is  divided  into  chambers  built  in  two  storeys,  almost  the 
same  as  the  sharp  freezers.  The  cakes  of  fish,  as  hard  as  stone,  are 
packed  in  tiers,  and  remain  in  good  condition  ready  for  sale.  It  is 
possible  to  preserve  them  for  an  indefinite  time,  but  as  a  rule  frozen 
fish  are  only  kept  for  •&  season  of  from  six  to  eight  months.  They  are 
frozen  in  the  spring  and  fall,  when  there  is  a  surplus  of  fish,  and  sold 
generally  in  the  winter,  or  in  the  close  season,  when  fresh  fish  cannot 
be  obtained." 

For  shipment,  says  the  same  authority,  fish  may  be  packed  in  bar- 
rels after  the  following  directions: — "Put  in  a  shovelful  of  ice  at  the 
bottom  of  the  barrel,  and  be  always  careful  to  see  that  auger  holes 
are  bored  into  the  bottom  of  the  barrels,  to  let  the  water  leak  out  as 
fast  as  it  is  produced  by  the  melting  ice.  After  putting  in  a  shovelful 
of  fine  ice,  crushed  by  an  ice  mill,  put  in  about  50  Ibs.  of  fish ; 
then  another  shovelful  of  ice  on  top  of  the  fish,  &c.,  until  the  barrel 
is  full,  always  leaving  space  enough  on  the  top  of  the  barrel  to  hold 
about  three  shovelsful  of  ice.  By  shovels,  scoop  shovels  are  meant." 

The  following  is  said  to  be  the  usual  method  adopted  in  salmon 
freezing  works  on  the  Pacific  Coast : — The  choice  steel  head  and  oval 
chinook  salmon  are  received  in  a  large,  airy  room,  where  they  are 
washed,  thoroughly  cleansed,  and  laid  upon  large  trays,  which  are 
ranged  in  tiers  one  above  the  other.  When  a  truck-load  of  these  trays 
is  filled  it  is  wheeled  into  the  freezing  room,  where  it  remains  about 
thirty-six  hours.  The  cars  are  then  wheeled  into  the  packing  room. 
Here  the  fish  are  placed  upon  a  large  elevator  or  dipping  machine,  and 
submerged  in  a  vat  of  cold  water.  They  are  then  let  stand  for  a 
few  minutes,  and  a  thick  coating  of  ice  is  formed  around  each  fish. 
The  fish  are  then  wrapped  separately  in  paper  and  packed  in  boxes, 
which  are  put  into  refrigerator  cars  and  shipped  to  the  markets  of 
the  world. 

Mr  C.  J.  Tabor,  in  a  paper  read  before  the  Cold  Storage  and  Ice 
Association,  gives  the  following  particulars  regarding  the  preservation 
of  fish  :  "  One  of  our  large  refrigerating  companies,  he  says,  has  hit  on 
the  plan  of  covering  fish  with  a  thin  layer  of  water  and  then  freezing 
it.  So  to  speak  glazing  the  goods,  and  from  samples  I  have  seen  this 


METHODS   OF   COLD    STORAGE.  385 

works  very  well ;  but  let  us  consider  what  has  happened  :  the  whole 
body  has  first  of  all  been  cooled  down  to  40°  Fahr.  before  the  surface 
ice  can  form.  I  myself  have  often  preserved  white  fish — cod,  haddock, 
turbot,  plaice,  hake,  &c. — by  simply  hanging  them  in  a  store  at 
28°  Fahr.  and  leaving  them  till  hard  frozen,  then  transferring  them  to 
a  chamber  cooled  down  to  15°  Fahr.,  they  were  delivered  in  Melbourne 
three  months  later  in  the  pink  of  condition.  Most  of  the  pleuronectidse 
bear  refrigeration  exceedingly  well,  but  soles  and  smelts  do  not ;  the 
former  appear  to  be  broken  up  by  the  process  and  will  not  skin 
properly.  Smelts  are  so  delicate  that  a  natural  frost  often  renders 
them  unsaleable.  Salmon  bears  the  initial  freezing  very  well,  but  if 
allowed  to  rise  in  temperature  and  be  then  refrozen  it  becomes  unsightly 
and  rank  in  flavour.  Eels  will  not  bear  the  refrigerating  process,  but 
become  so  rank  as  to  be  uneatable.  The  reason  I  would  assign  for 
this  rancidity  both  in  eels  and  in  salmon  is  that  in  the  natural  order 
of  things  fresh  salmon  contains  a  deal  of  oil  in  the  fat  which  con- 
stitutes the  so-called  curd,  so  appreciated  in  fresh  salmon ;  when  it  is 
cooled  down  to  a  low  temperature  the  fat  cells  are  burst,  and  permeat- 
ing the  tissue  give  it  a  rank  flavour.  The  oil,  moreover,  finds  its  way 
to  the  surface  and  causes  that  yellow  look  so  often  seen  in  long  stored 
salmon  which  has  experienced  anything  in  temperature;  on  this 
oleaginous  pabulum  a  peculiar  form  of  mould  is  often  found.  Frozen 
salmon  requires  to  be  used  as  soon  as  thawed  ;  if  exposed  for  any  length 
of  time  the  flesh  goes  into  a  soft  mass  and  looks  as  bad  as  it  tastes. 
Eels  are  nearly  as  delicate  as  smelts,  and  are  spoiled  for  commercial 
purposes  even  if  naturally  frozen." 


BUTTER. 

Butter  can  be  preserved  by  either  keeping  it  in  a  chamber  at  the 
ordinary  cold  storage  temperature,  or  by  freezing,  the  latter  being  said 
to  give  the  best  results  as  regards  the  retention  of  the  flavour  and  other 
qualities  of  the  butter.  For  lengthened  storage  it  is  recommended  to 
freeze  the  butter  rapidly  at  a  temperature  of  from  5°  to  10°  Fahr.,  and 
afterwards  to  keep  it  at  about  20°  Fahr. 

The  thawing  can  be  effected  by  simply  removing  it  from  the  freezing 
chamber,  and  when  selling  it  is  desirable  to  allow  the  butter  to  stand 
for  a  short  time  in  order  to  develop  the  flavour.  See  also  chapter  on 
"  Refrigeration  in  Dairies,"  pages  422  to  438. 


386       REFRIGERATION    AND    COLD    STORAGE. 

CHEESE. 

Cheese  should  not  be  placed  in  cold  storage  until  it  is  getting  on 
in  ripening,  so  as  to  prevent  unpleasant  odours,  and  it  should  not  be 
previously  subjected  to  any  high  temperatures.  Cheese  is  better  not 
frozen,  but  in  case  the  latter  should  occur,  the  thawing  must  be 
gradual,  and  it  is  advisable  to  consume  it  as  soon  as  possible,  as  it 
will  not  keep  long  after  this  has  occurred.  If  the  atmosphere  of  the 
room  is  too  dry  the  cheese  will  shrink  and  crack,  and  on  the  other 
hand,  if  damp,  the  cheese  will  become  mouldy. 


MILK. 

Milk  should  only  be  kept  in  cold  storage  for  limited  periods.  A 
method  has,  however,  been  proposed,  according  to  Professor  Siebel,  for 
concentrating  milk  by  the  freezing  process  by  which  part  of  the  water 
in  the  milk  is  converted  into  ice.  The  ice  is  allowed  to  form  on 
the  surface  of  the  pans,  which  are  placed  in  cold  rooms,  and  the  surface 
of  the  ice  is  broken  frequently,  to  present  a  fresh  surface  for  freezing. 

The  refrigeration  and  cold  storage  of  milk  will  be  found  further 
dealt  with  in  the  chapter  on  "  Refrigeration  in  Dairies,"  pages  422 
to  438. 

EGGS. 

Eggs  can  be  kept  in  cold  storage  for  some  months,  but  the  diffi- 
culties to  be  overcome  in  order  to  ensure  success  are  considerable. 

The  contents  of  eggs  can  be  stored  in  bulk,  to  effect  which  the 
eggs  are  emptied  into  tin  cans  containing  about  50  Ibs.  and  stored  at 
30°  Fahr.  They  will  keep  for  any  reasonable  length  of  time,  but 
must  be  used  quickly  after  thawing. 

In  the  United  States,  where  much  attention  has  been  given  to  the 
cold  storage  of  eggs  and  where  the  value  of  the  eggs  placed  in  cold 
storage  annually  is  estimated  at  about  $20,000,000  (and  it  must  be 
remembered  that  the  prices  there  are  low,  and  consequently  this  sum 
represents  a  very  large  quantity),  many  concerns  met  with  financial 
disaster,  and  those  which  have  succeeded  have  had  to  instal  new 
systems  and  make  expensive  changes. 

It  is  important  that  eggs  for  cold  storage  should  be  very  carefully 
selected,  and  that  every  bad  one  should  be  picked  out  by  candling. 
Considerable  attention  has  been  given  in  Belgium  to  the  cold  storage  of 


METHODS    OF   COLD    STORAGE.  387 

eggs,  and  at  a  large  establishment  (La  Fermiere)  in  Brussels  the  follow- 
ing is  the  process  carried  out.  On  arrival  the  eggs  are  rapidly  in- 
spected by  means  of  an  egg-testing  machine,  which  consists  briefly  of 
a  frame  fitted  with  an  endless  moving  carrier  worked  by  hand,  and 
constructed  of  bobbins  fitted  closely  together  and  lined  with  cloth, 
thus  affording  accurate  hollows  in  which  the  eggs  may  be  placed. 
Over  the  central  portion  of  the  frame  is  constructed  a  dark  chamber 
or  room  through  which  the  carrier  moves,  and  beneath  the  carrier  in 
this  dark  chamber  is  a  powerful  electric  lamp  by  which  the  spots 
or  dark  colour  of  the  bad  eggs  will  be  shown  up.  This  apparatus 
admits  of  an  exceedingly  rapid  inspection,  a  large-sized  one  installed 
at  the  works  in  question  being  capable  of  dealing  with  between 
four  and  five  hundred  eggs  per  minute.  The  eggs  are  fed  on  trays  to 
the  testing  machine,  and  after  testing  are  placed  in  cases  of  from 
three  to  five  hundred,  the  smaller  package  being  found  to  be  the 
most  convenient  for  handling.  These  cases  are  first  taken  to  an  outer 
egg  store,  where  they  are  reduced  to  a  temperature  of  about  33°  Fahr. 
From  there  they  are  removed  to  the  general  store  where  they  are  kept 
at  a  temperature  just  below  freezing.  The  cold  rooms  are  provided 
with  large  air  locks  or  lobbies. 

An  important  point  to  be  attended  to  in  the  cold  storage  of  eggs 
is  the  correct  relative  humidity,  too  dry  a  temperature  will  cause 
serious  evaporation,  and  two  moist  a  temperature  will  produce  mould, 
and  the  exact  relative  humidity  most  suitable  does  not  seem  to  be 
understood  even  in  the  United  States,  judging  from  the  remark 
reported  to  have  been  made  to  a  refrigerating  expert  by  a  prominent 
commission  man  who  observed,  alluding  to  storage  eggs  :  "  You  storage 
men  are  between  the  devil  and  the  deep  sea.  You  always  shrink 
'em  or  stink  'em,"  by  which  he  meant  that  eggs  held  any  length  of 
time  in  cold  storage  would  show  either  a  considerable  evaporation  or  a 
radical  "  musty  "  flavour. 

The  above  renders  it  necessary  to  carefully  provide  for  the  ventila- 
tion of  egg  stores,  and  is  the  reason  why  absorbents  for  drying  the  air 
are  largely  used.  An  excellent  arrangement  for  this  purpose  is  that 
which  has  been  already  shown  in  Fig.  194,  page  298,  which,  as  has 
been  already  mentioned,  has  been  designed  by  Mr  Madison  Cooper, 
of  Minneapolis,  Minn.,  U.S.,  especially  for  the  ventilation  of  egg 
stores. 

According  to  the  above  authority  the  following  is  the  correct  rela- 
tive humidity  for  a  given  temperature  in  egg  rooms  : — 


388       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD    STORAGE. 


Temperature 
in  degrees  Fahr. 

28 
29 
30 
31 
32 
33 
34 


Relative  Humidity 
per  cent. 

-  80 

-  78 
76 
74 
71 
69 

-  67 


Temperature 
in  degrees  Fahr. 

35 
36 
37 
38 
39 
40 


Relative  Humidity 
per  cent. 

-  65 
62 
60 

-  58 
56 

-  53 


It  is  impossible  within  the  space  at  command  to  deal  even  com- 
paratively fully  with  the  subject  of  egg  storage,  and  to  those  interested 
the  author  would  strongly  recommend  the  perusal  of  a  little  work  by 
Mr  Madison  Cooper  entitled  "  Eggs  in  Cold  Storage,"  and  published 
by  Messrs  H.  S.  Rich  &  Co.,  Chicago,  U.S. 


FRUITS. 

It  may  be  taken  as  a  general  rule  that  all  green  fruits  should  not 
be  allowed  to  wither. 

Citrus  fruits  (orange,  lemon,  citron,  lime,  forbidden  fruit,  or  shad- 
dock, &c.)  should  be  kept  dry  until  the  skin  has  yielded  its  moisture, 
upon  which  the  drying  process  should  be  arrested. 

There  is  no  particular  practice  for  bananas  as  the  ripening  will 
have  to  be  governed  according  to  the  demand,  and  it  may  be  taken  that 
the  ripening  of  this  fruit  can  be  manipulated  at  will. 

Tender  fruits  are  better  placed  in  cold  storage  when  just  ripe  as 
they  then  keep  better  than  when  brought  in  before  being  fully  ripe. 
According  to  Professor  Siebel  sour  fruit  will  not  bear  as  much  cold  as 
sweet  fruit.  Catamba  grapes  will  suffer  no  harm  at  26°  Fahr.,  while 
36°  Fahr.  will  be  as  cold  as  is  safe  for  a  lemon.  The  spoiling  of  fruit 
at  temperatures  below  40°  Fahr.  is  due  to  moisture. 

Tender  fruits,  such  as  pears,  must  be  stored  whilst  firm,  and  must 
be  very  carefully  handled,  and  they  should  be  wrapped  in  paper. 
Once  the  chemical  changes  which  cause  ripening  have  set  in  it  is  too 
late  to  place  them  in  cold  storage.  After  being  kept  in  cold  storage 
pears  will  spoil  very  quickly  on  removal. 

Lemons  as  a  rule  cannot  be  kept  in  cold  storage  for  over  four 
months,  although  it  is  stated  that  those  stored  during  January, 
February,  and  March  will  keep  good  for  five  months. 

Grapes  do  not  keep  well  in  cold  storage,  and  lose  most  of  their 
flavour  of  taste.  The  harder  species  naturally  keep  better  than 


METHODS   OF   COLD   STORAGE.  389 

the  softer  ones.  Grapes  lose  more  of  their  flavour  when  kept  at 
a  temperature  of,  say,  32°  Fahr.,  than  they  do  when  kept  at 
40°  Fahr.  An  important  point  is  to  carefully  pick,  select,  and  pack 
the  fruit,  and  it  is  to  be  noted  that  a  single  rotten  grape  will  taint  a 
whole  lot. 

Black  currants  can  be  kept  sound,  fresh,  and  clear  for  ten  days, 
after  which  the  fruit  begins  to  wrinkle. 

Red  currants  can  be  kept  sound  for  six  weeks.  Temperature 
26°  to  36°  Fahr. 

Cherries  can  be  preserved  for  from  ten  days  to  a  fortnight  at  a 
temperature  of  36°  Fahr. 

Strawberries  can  be  preserved  in  good  condition  for  fifteen  days, 
and  even  longer  if  special  precautions  are  taken,  such  as  surrounding 
the  fruit  with  cotton  wool,  or  placing  it  in  sieves  covered  with  the  same 
material.  The  best  temperature  is  found  to  be  30°  Fahr.  Peaches 
will  keep  in  prime  condition  for  a  month  or  six  weeks.  The  same 
remarks  as  regards  selection  apply  equally  in  these  cases,  as,  indeed, 
they  do  more  or  less  to  all  fruits. 

Apples  must  not  be  kept  in  too  dry  an  atmosphere,  as  if  this  be 
done  they  will  be  wilted  or  withered,  and  their  appearance  spoilt ;  this 
is  more  especially  the  case  when  they  are  kept  at  a  comparatively  high 
temperature.  On  the  other  hand  too  moist  an  atmosphere  and  high  a 
temperature  will  cause  the  apples  to  burst.  The  storage  of  apples 
may  be  effected  either  in  barrels  or  boxes,  or  in  bulk,  first-rate  results 
being  obtainable  with  all  provided  proper  precautions  as  to  tempera- 
ture and  moisture  are  taken. 

A  process  for  preserving  fruit  has  been  invented  and  patented 
by  Mr  A.  W.  Lawton,  which  is  said  to  have  proved  completely  satis- 
factory in  an  experimental  trial  of  twenty-one  days  with  tomatoes,  pine- 
apples, and  grapes. 

The  process  is  founded  upon  the  belief  that  fruit  is  provided  with 
breathing  cells,  which  breathe  air  in  a  similar  manner  to  the  human 
being,  absorbing  oxygen  and  exhaling  carbonic  acid,  or  the  exact 
reverse  of  ordinary  plant  life.  The  oxygen,  when  inhaled,  combines 
with  the  sugar  or  carbon  which  is  contained  in  the  fruit,  thereby 
causing  self-consumption,  or  loss  of  substance.  In  order  to  prevent 
this  taking  place,  the  atmosphere  supplied  to  the  fruit  under  this  pro- 
cess is  deprived  of  most  of  its  oxygen,  by  which  means  it  is  claimed 
that  the  breathing  cells  of  the  fruit  become  partially  closed,  and  thus 
the  further  ripening  of  the  fruit  is  suspended. 

The  apparatus  employed  is   shown  in  Fig.   281,   and   comprises   a 


390       REFRIGERATION    AND    COLD    STORAGE. 

chimney  or  flue  A,  a  stove  B,  an  air  filter  c,  and  an  air-tight  storage 
room  D  having  a  hermetically  closing  door  E.  As  soon  as  the  fruit 
has  been  placed  in  the  room  D  it  is  sealed  up,  the  atmospheric  air 
driven  out,  and  replaced  by  a  sterilised  atmosphere  produced  and  main- 
tained in  the  following  way  : — By  means  of  an  ordinary  blower  or  fan 
F,  air  is  forced  through  a  stove  B  containing  red-hot  coke,  whereby  the 
oxygen  is  consumed  and  any  germs  or  animalcula  destroyed.  The 
gases  thus  produced  are  then  filtered  by  passing  through  the  air  filter 
c  and  cooled  before  entering  the  chamber  by  passing  over  refrigerating 
coils. 

Whilst  superintending  the  transportation  of  a  shipment  of  fruit  on 
board  the  S.S.  "Para,"  preserved  by  this  process,  Mr  Law  ton  lost  his 
life  through  an  accidental  explosion  of  a  spare  store  of  chemicals,  which 


D 

Fig.  281.— Lawton's  Apparatus  for  Preserving  Fruit.     Diagrammatical  View. 

lamentable  accident  also  resulted  in  the  injury  of  several  other  persons, 
and  in  considerable  damage  to  the  vessel. 

Among  a  few  of  the  claims  put  forward  by  the  inventor,  mention 
may  be  made  of  the  following,  viz.,  that  fruit  can  be  picked  ripe,  con- 
sequently perfect,  and  can  in  that  state  be  conveyed  to  this  country 
from  any  part  of  the  world,  and  stored  on  arrival  here.  When  finally 
exposed  for  sale  it  will  keep  for  a  long  period.  And  furthermore, 
that  the  process  is  simple  and  comparatively  inexpensive,  and  that  it 
can  be  applied  to  existing  refrigerating  installations  in  conjunction 
therewith.  See  also  Marine  Refrigeration,  pages  419,  420. 

VEGETABLES. 

Green  vegetables  generally  should,  like  green  fruit,  not  be  allowed 
to  wither. 

Sound  onions  may  be  maintained  in  good  condition  in  cold  storage 


METHODS    OF   COLD    STORAGE.  391 

for  a  number  of  months  (six  or  seven),  but  care  must  be  taken  that 
when  placed  in  the  store  they  are  as  dry  as  possible,  and  for  this 
purpose  they  may  advantageously  be  exposed  to  a  dry  cool  wind  so  as 
to  give  up  most  of  their  moisture.  Onions  should  never  be  stored  in 
the  same  room  with  other  goods,  and  on  their  removal  the  room  must 
be  thoroughly  exposed  to  the  air,  well  scrubbed  out,  and  when  dry 
the  walls,  floor,  and  ceiling  should  be  whitewashed.  It  is  also  re- 
commended to  give  the  room  a  good  coat  of  paint  or  enamel  paint. 
Some  American  authorities  hold  that  if  a  room  has  been  once  used 
for  storing  onions  it  should  not  afterwards  be  employed  for  the  storage 
of  eggs,  butter,  or  other  articles  especially  susceptible  to  odours. 

Parsnips  and  salsify  can  be  advantageously  kept  in  cold  storage 
under  the  same  conditions  as  onions,  with  the  exception,  however,  that 
they  will  stand  freezing  without  injury.  Asparagus,  cabbage,  carrots, 
celery,  can  be  kept  with  little  humidity. 

MORGUES  OR  MORTUARIES. 

The  Morgue  at  Paris  comprises  a  chamber  for  the  reception  of 
corpses,  a  chamber  for  storing  corpses,  a  chamber  for  exposing  the 
corpses  to  view,  and  a  hall  for  the  public,  which  latter  is  separated 
from  the  former  chamber  by  a  double  screen  of  glass  kept  transparent 
by  a  continuous  circulation  of  cold  air.  On  their  arrival  the  corpses 
are  received  in  the  reception  chamber,  where  they  are  undressed  and 
washed.  Next  they  are  placed  in  shells  and  subjected  for  from 
twenty-four  hours  to  forty-eight  hours  to  a  temperature  of  -  15°  C., 
after  which  they  are  placed  on  view.  Should  any  of  the  corpses  not 
be  identified  after  a  certain  time,  if  desirable,  they  are  stored  at  a 
temperature  of  -  6°  C.  The  freezing  shells  are  of  metal  with  double 
walls,  and  the  refrigeration  is  effected  by  a  circulation  of  cold  brine. 
Mechanical  ventilation  is  only  employed  to  regulate  the  temperature 
of  the  chambers. 

In  the  following  table  will  be  found  the  temperatures  considered 
best  adapted  for  the  cold  storage  of  various  articles,  as  given  in  the  first 
and  second  editions  of  "Refrigerating  and  Ice-Making  Machinery," 
and  also  those  recommended  by  a  number  of  other  authorities,  arranged 
in  columns  for  convenience  of  comparison  : — 


392       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD    STORAGE. 


B  a 

Oprt 
^2? 


3 


!VV:   :1 


1 

3 


13 


IS 


CO 
CO 


If 

CO  CO 


;:i 


£  111  :  i^  : 

Qv  £*  CD  < 


3 


1% ,  i  ll 


CO  CO  CO 

Ml    :-:J 


».: ;  a 


^ 

;  i 


1O  CO  O 

co  co  TJ< 

i  I  ;  ; 


«5  O 
Tt*  •«* 


^ 

CO        CO 


TEMPERATURES    FOR  COLD   STORAGE.       393 


IS  M 


:  ;T 
g      ^ 


i 


«5 


S8   f 


O        O 
CO        TjH 

I 


i  ;  ;  ;  ;  I  I 
S  85^ 


:! 


CO  (N 

I  I 


dsL 


394       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD    STORAGE. 


3    :J 


i 


Jl     !  i. 

CO         CO  CO  CO  CO 


co       « 

CO         CO 


O 


: 

8 


O                      CO  O  O 

T*                      CO  r^  Tt< 

I    CO      •      •     I  -I  •    I       •      •  IQ      •      •  >O 

lco::l  :  I  :  I     ::co::co 


•     I 

:l 
12 

CO 


gg 


. 


TEMPERATURES    FOR  COLD   STORAGE.       395 


CHAPTER   XVI 
MAKINE    KEFKIGEKATION 

Carbonic  Acid  Machines — Ammonia  Machines — Cold-Air  Machines — Arrangement 
of  Cargo  Holds  and  Stores — Ice-Making  on  Board  Ship — Barges. 

MARINE  refrigeration  offers  considerably  more  difficulties,  both  as 
regards  the  machinery,  and  likewise  with  respect  to  the  installation 
of  the  cold  chambers,  than  is  the  case  with  land  installations. 

As  regards  the  machinery,  in  the  first  place,  the  space  at  command 
is  necessarily  limited,  and  consequently  it  is  absolutely  necessary  that 
the  design  should  be  such  as  to  occupy  the  minimum  of  room,  whilst 
affording  the  maximum  of  efficiency. 

The  agent  or  medium  employed  should  likewise  be  one  of  a  non- 
inflammable  nature,  and  also  one  having  no  deleterious  action  on 
copper,  which  metal  has  to  be  employed  in  the  condenser  in  order  to 
enable  sea  water  to  be  used  for  cooling  purposes. 

With  reference  to  the  insulation,  the  settlement  or  shaking  down 
due  to  the  continuous  vibration  experienced  on  ship-board  has  to  be 
contended  with.  For  this  reason  an  excellent  material  to  use  for 
insulating  purposes  in  marine  installations  is  what  is  known  as  "  Non- 
pareil "  cork,  which  is  largely  employed  in  the  American  Navy.  This 
material  consists  of  granulated  cork,  made  by  compressing  cork  chips 
under  hydraulic  pressure  in  iron  moulds,  and  then  heating  the  mass 
while  in  the  mould  to  a  temperature  of  about  500°  Fahr.  This  treat- 
ment has  the  effect  of  liquefying  the  natural  gum  of  the  cork,  and 
forming  the  interstices  between  the  granules  into  small  closed  air 
spaces.  On  the  cooling  of  the  moulds  the  gum  hardens,  and  the  mass 
becomes,  as  it  were,  a  solid  sheet  of  cork.  The  weight  of  "  Nonpareil " 
cork  is  only  1  Ib.  per  square  foot,  and  it  is  consequently  about  the 
lightest  insulating  material  in  use.  It  is  said  to  be  13  per  cent, 
superior,  as  a  non-conductor  of  heat,  to  hair-felt,  and  40  per  cent, 
superior  to  sawdust.  Slag,  or  mineral  wool,  or  silicate  cotton,  is  also 
used  very  extensively,  and  with  great  success  for  marine  work. 

As  regards  the  most  suitable  system  of  refrigerating  machine  for 

396 


MARINE    REFRIGERATION.  397 

use  on  board  ship,  a  wide  diversity  of  opinion  still  exists.  In  spite 
of  comparing  unfavourably,  as  regards  efficiency,  with  machines  using 
agents  possessed  of  greater  latent  heat,  cold-air  machines  might  still 
be  advantageously  used  for  short  voyages,  and  where  coal  could  be 
obtained  cheap.  There  are  no  chemicals  to  be  carried,  no  danger 
from  bursting  of  pipes  or  joints  giving  out,  and  the  machine  is  com- 
paratively simple  and  easily  managed. 

Of  machines  working  on  the  compression  system,  and  employing 
a  t  refrigerating  agent  of  a  more  or  less  volatile  nature,  carbonic  acid 
machines  offer  advantages  which  have  caused  them  to  be  very  largely 
employed  for  marine  purposes,  a  fact  which  has  been  proved  in  a 
practical  manner  by  Messrs  J.  &  E.  Hall,  Ltd.,  alone  having  fitted 
over  1800  machines  working  on  this  system  on  board  ship. 

The  qualities  which  render  CO2  particularly  suitable  for  use  on 
ship-board  are :  First,  that  this  agent  admits  of  a  much  smaller  com- 
pressor being  employed  relatively  to  the  refrigerating  power  produced ; 
second,  that  having  no  corrosive  action  on  any  of  the  metals,  it  thereby 
allows,  as  above  mentioned,  of  copper  being  used  in  the  condenser ; 
and  third  and  lastly,  but  not  least,  it  is  not  only  non-inflammable,  but 
has  the  power  to  extinguish  fire,  and  is  therefore  perfectly  free  from 
danger  in  this  respect.  As  regards  the  danger  to  life  through  an 
escape  of  this  gas,  its  specific  gravity  being  greater  than  that  of  air 
(CO.,  spec.  grav.  1*529  air  =  1)  causes  it  to  fall  to  the  lowest  level,  and 
in  practice  it  is  found  that  no  danger  is  to  be  apprehended  from  the 
escape  of  a  moderate  quantity  of  CO.,  if  the  space  be  not  unduly 
confined  and  is  fairly  well  ventilated.  For  this  reason  the  Board  of 
Trade's  instructions  to  surveyors,  issued  in  June  1901  re  refrigerat- 
ing machines,  contains  the  following :  "  The  surveyors  are  therefore 
informed  that,  unless  they  are  aware  of  any  special  reasons  to  the  con- 
trary, refrigerating  machines  in  which  carbonic  anhydride  is  employed 
as  the  working  agent  may  be  placed  in  the  engine-rooms  of  steam- 
ships, provided  the  weight  of  the  charge  which  would  be  released  by 
a  breakdown  of  the  machine,  or  of  one  portion  of  a  duplex  machine, 
does  not  exceed  200  Ibs. 

"  When  it  is  proposed  to  fit  a  machine  using  a  greater  charge  than 
this  is  an  engine-room,  full  particulars  of  the  case,  including  size,  and 
method  of  ventilating  the  compartment,  and  weight  of  charge  pro- 
posed, should  be  submitted  for  consideration." 

The  principles  upon  which  the  marine  types  of  refrigerating 
machines  work  are  naturally  precisely  the  same  as  those  employed 
for  service  on  land,  and  therefore  the  differences  are  merely  of  a 


398       REFRIGERATION    AND    COLD    STORAGE. 

structural  nature,  adapted  to  render  them  .more  especially  suitable  to 
the  construction  of  vessels.  It  is  purposed,  therefore,  in  this  chapter, 
to  merely  give  a  few  examples  of  machines  especially  designed  for 
marine  purposes,  referring  readers  for  further  particulars  as  to  the 
special  distinctive  details  of  construction  adopted  by  the  various 
makers  to  the  more  lengthy  and  complete  descriptions  given  of  their 
land  types  of  machines. 

Fig.  282  shows  one  of  J.  &  E.  Hall's  carbonic  acid  machines  of 
the  horizontal  duplex  marine  type,  which  has  been  specially  designed 
for  large  installations  on  board  ship.  This  machine  is  fitted  with  a 
compound  steam  cylinder,  the  high-pressure  cylinder  being  on  one 
side  and  the  low-pressure  cylinder  on  the  other,  a  double-acting  com- 
pressor being  driven  by  a  tail-rod  from  each  cylinder.  The  two 
machines  are  so  arranged  that  either  both  sides  can  be  worked 
together,  or,  if  desired,  one  half,  that  is  to  say,  one  compressor  with  its 
condenser  and  evaporator  can  be  disconnected,  when  the  other  half 
can  be  worked  by  itself.  Each  compressor  delivers  the  compressed 
carbonic  acid  through  an  independent  condenser,  which  is  placed  in 
the  base  of  the  machine  or  built  separately  as  may  be  found  to  be 
most  convenient,  and  in  which  sea  water  is  circulated  round  the 
condenser  pipes  through  which  the  carbonic  acid  passes. 

This  type  of  machine  is  also  built  in  pairs  mounted  on  the  same 
base  or  bed-plate,  with  compound  steam  cylinders,  the  high-pressure 
cylinder  being  located  on  the  one  side,  and  the  low-pressure  cylinder 
on  the  other.  The  two  compressors  are,  in  this  type,  driven  by  tail- 
rods  from  the  steam  cylinders,  and  the  cranks  are  placed  at  right 
angles,  an  arrangement  which  tends  to  ensure  an  even  turning  move- 
ment. Each  compressor  delivers  the  compressed  carbonic  acid  to  an 
independent  condenser,  which  is  usually  placed  in  the  base  of  the 
machine,  and  in  which  sea  water  is  circulated  round  the  condenser 
pipes  through  which  the  carbonic  acid  passes.  In  connection  with 
each  side  of  the  machine  a  separate  evaporator  or  refrigerator  is  pro- 
vided, which  consists,  as  in  the  land  type,  of  coils  of  pipes,  in  which 
the  liquid  carbonic  anhydride  evaporates  or  gasifies,  and  which  coils 
are  enclosed  in  a  steel  casing,  in  which  the  brine  is  circulated  by 
means  of  pumps.  The  brine  thus  cooled  is,  in  one  arrangement, 
circulated  through  electrically-welded  grids  of  piping,  each  containing 
about  200  feet  of  pipe,  which  grids  are  divided  into  sections,  each 
section  having  a  separate  flow  and  return  from  the  evaporator  or 
refrigerator,  and  valves  being  provided  for  regulating  the  quantity  of 
cold  brine  in  each  section  as  required  by  the  temperature  in  the  holds^ 


MARINE    REFRIGERATION. 


399 


Fig.  282.— Hall  Horizontal  Duplex  Marine  Type  of  Steam-driven 
Carbonic  Acid  Compression  Machine. 


400      REFRIGERATION   AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

The  grids  are  placed  on  the  under  side  of  the  decks  over  the  holds  to 


Fig.  283. — Hall  Vertical  Marine  Type  of  Steam-driven 
Carbonic  Acid  Compression  Machine. 

be  refrigerated,  preferably  between  the  deck  beams,  so  as  to  occupy  no 
valuable  space,  and  to  be  protected  from  damage. 


MARINE    REFRIGERATION. 


401 
suitable 


In  another  arrangement  the  brine  is  passed  through   a 
battery  of   pipes,   over  which  air  is  drawn  by  fans,   and   is 
through  the  holds  to  be  cooled. 

In  Fig.  283  is  illustrated  one  of  the  vertical  duplex  marine  types  of 
machines  built  by  the  same  firm.  This  pattern  of  machine  is  especially 
designed  for  preserving  provisions  on  passenger  steamers  and  on  steam 
yachts,  and  for  making  ice.  The  machine  is  fitted  with  compound 
steam  cylinders  and  two  compressors,  in  connection  with  each  of  which 


Fig.  284.— Hall  Small  Marine  Type  of  Steam-driven  Carbonic  Acid 
Compression  Machine.     Vertical  Central  Section. 

latter  is  a  condenser  and  an  evaporator  or  refrigerator,  there  being 
thus  two  entirely  independent  complete  carbonic  acid  machines,  either 
of  which  can  be  disconnected,  and  the  remaining  machine  run  with  the 
compound  engine. 

Smaller  marine-type  machines  (Fig.  284)  are  also  made  by  this  firm, 

having  a  single  vertical  steam  cylinder,  and  the  compressor  arranged 

alongside  of  it,  both  being  fixed  to  a  casting  containing  the  condenser 

coils,  which  latter  are  made  of  copper,  and  behind  which  casting  is 

26 


402       REFRIGERATION   AND    COLD   STORAGE. 

another  secured  to  it,  and  containing  the  evaporator  or  refrigerator 
coils. 

Turning  to  machines  working  on  the  ammonia  compression  system, 
Fig.  285  shows  a  marine  type  of  the  De  La  Yergne  machine.  It  is 
a  vertical  single-acting  compressor,  actuated  by  a  high-pressure 
horizontal  steam  engine,  fitted  with  a  special  governor,  which  admits 


Fig.  285. — De  La  Vergne  Vertical  Single- Acting  Marine  Type  of  Ammonia 
Compression  Machine. 

of  the  steam  supply  being  determined  for  wide  ranges  of  speeds  when 
required,  say  for  any  speed  between  30  and  300  revolutions  per  minute, 
without  interfering  with  the  running  or  stopping  the  machine.  The 
construction  of  the  compressor  cylinder  is  identical  with  that  illustrated 
in  the  enlarged  sectional  view,  Fig.  17. 

In  the  marine  type  of  Linde  machine  a  single  compound  ammonia 


MARINE    REFRIGERATION. 


403 


compressor  is  employed,  which,  as  in  the  case  of  the  land  type  of 
machine,  is  also  driven  by  means  of  a  tandem  compound  engine.  The 
ammonia  condenser  is  situated 
below  the  compressor,  and  is 
fitted  with  sets  of  endless  coils 
or  worms.  By  the  use  of  a 
compound  compressor,  that  is 
to  say,  one  wherein  the  com- 
pression of  the  ammonia  gas 
is  effected  in  two  stages,  the 
loss  from  re-expansion  of  gas 
left  in  the  clearances  is  com- 
pletely got  rid  of,  as  such  loss 
is  experienced  in  the  low 
pressure  compressor  cylinder 
only,  none  taking  place  in 
the  high-pressure  compressor 
cylinder. 

Figs.    286   and    287    show  Fig    286.-Puplett    Horizontal    Marine 

two  ammonia  machines  of  the      Type  of  Steam-driven  Ammonia  Compres- 
horizontal    marine    type,    de-      sion  Machine, 
signed  by  Mr  S.  Puplett,  the 

first  being  a  horizontal  ammonia  compressor  connected  with  a  vertical 
engine,  all   mounted  upon  the  same  bed-plate,  and  the  second  a  corn- 


Fig.  287. — Puplett  Horizontal  Marine  Type  of  Belt-driven  Ammonia 
Compression  Machine. 


pact   form   of  horizontal   belt-driven   ammonia   compressor,  especially 
designed  for  marine  work. 


404       REFRIGERATION   AND   COLD   STORAGE. 


Fig.  288. — Haslam  Vertical  Self-contained  Marine  Type  of  Steam-driven 
Ammonia  Compression  Machine, 


MARINE    REFRIGERATION. 


405 


I 


? 

o 

g 

1 

3 

I 


4o6      REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

Fig.  288  shows  a  vertical  self-contained  marine  type  of  ammonia 
compression  machine  made  by  the  Haslam  Foundry  and  Engineering 
Co.,  Ltd.,  Derby.  As  will  be  seen  from  the  illustration,  the  ammonia 
compressor,  steam  engine,  separator,  condenser,  receiver,  and  water 
pump  are  all  mounted  on  the  same  bed  or  base  plate,  and  the  design 


Figs.  290  and  291. — Kilbourn  Horizontal  Self-contained  Marine  Type 
of  Steam-driven  Double-Acting  Ammonia  Compressor.  Plan  and  Eleva- 
tion, partly  in  Section. 

is  such  that  they  occupy  as  small  an  amount  of  space  as  possible,  and 
form  a  completely  self-contained  apparatus.  The  bed-plate  is  of  cast 
iron,  circular  in  form,  contains  the  ammonia  condensing  coils,  and  is 
made  in  two  parts ;  the  back  part  being  readily  removable  for  giving 
access  to  the  condensing  coils  for  cleaning  and  examination.  The  front 
part  is  strongly  constructed  and  provided  with  ribs,  facings,  and 


MARINE    REFRIGERATION. 


407 


brackets  to  receive  the  steam  cylinder,  ammonia  compressor,  crank- 
shaft, and  other  working  parts  of  the  machine. 

A  water  pump,  shown  on  the  right-hand  side  of  the  illustration, 
and  worked  by  a  disc  crank  on  the  end  of  the  crank  shaft,  is  provided 
for  circulating  w^ater  through  the  condenser,  and  when  desired  a  brine 
pump  is  also  fitted. 

This  machine  is  made  in  sizes  from  half-ton  ice-making  capacity 
per  day  up  to  three  tons  ice-making  capacity  per  day.  The  three- 
ton  machine  will  maintain  from  16,000  to  32,000  cub.  ft.  at 
32°  Fahr.  in  ordinary  storage,  and  requires  9  T.H.P.  in  a  temperate 
climate  and  10J  I.H.P.  in  a  hot 
climate.  Three  hundred  gallons 
of  condensing  water  are  required 
per  hour,  55°  on  and  80°  off. 
The  weight  of  the  machine  is 
103  cwt.,  and  the  dimensions 
6  ft.  8  in.  in  depth,  6  ft.  in  width, 
and  7  ft.  8  in.  in  height. 

Fig.  289  is  an  illustration 
showing  the  latest  horizontal 
marine  type  of  Haslam  compound 
ammonia  compressor.  This  ma- 
chine consists  of  a  compound 
engine,  and  compound  ammonia 
compressors,  the  gas  being  thus 
compressed  in  two  stages.  The 
whole  is  mounted  upon  a  cast- 
iron  bed-plate  which  in  turn  is 
mounted  upon  a  wrought-iron  tank,  which  latter  contains  the  ammonia 
condenser  coils. 

The  system  of  cooling  employed  with  this  machine  is  either  brine 
pipes  placed  in  the  holds,  or  the  air-blast  system ;  an  installation  on  the 
latter  plan,  which  the  above  firm  put  into  the  New  Zealand  Shipping 
Co.'s  steamer  "  Ruapehu,"  consists  of  a  series  of  direct  expansion 
cooling  pipes  or  coils,  placed  in  nests,  over  which  the  air  is  circulated 
by  means  of  a  powerful  fan.  The  air  is  cooled  in  passing  through  the 
coils  to  any  desired  temperature,  is  then  circulated  through  the  holds, 
and  then  returned  again  to  the  fan. 

Figs.  290  and  291  show  in  plan  and  in  elevation,  partly  in  vertical 
section,  a  self-contained  marine  type  of  horizontal  double-acting  am- 
monia compressor  and  vertical  steam  engine,  on  the  Kilbourn  system, 


Fig.  292.— Kilbourn  Horizontal 
Double- Acting  Marine  Type  of  Belt- 
driven  Ammonia  Compressor. 


408       REFRIGERATION   AND   COLD   STORAGE. 


which  is  extensively  used  on    American   steamers.      Fig.   292  shows 
a  belt-driven  Kilbourn  marine  type  ammonia  compression  machine. 
This   double-acting   horizontal    ammonia   compression   machine   is 

driven  by  a  vertical  engine,  which 
is  fixed  upon  the  same  base  or  bed- 
plate in  such  a  manner  as  to  render 
the  complete  machine  very  compact 
in  design,  one  of  sufficient  power  to 
keep  a  storage  capacity  of  22,000 
to  26,000  cub.  ft.  at  a  suitable 
temperature  for  chilled  beef,  40,000 
to  44,000  ft.  for  frozen  mutton,  or 
of  making  about  6  tons  of  ice  per 
day  of  twenty-four  hours,  requiring 
only  a  floor  space  of  10  ft.  by  10  ft., 
including  that  required  for  both  the 
refrigerator  and  the  condenser. 

The  compression  cylinders  are 
enclosed  in  water  jackets,  and  are 
fitted  with  Webb's  patent  arrange- 
ment of  suction  valves.  The  stuff 
ing  boxes  and  glands  are  of  the 
Kilbourn  double  pattern,  that  is, 
each  box  is  formed  with  a  chamber 
placed  centrally  therein,  and  into 
which  oil  is  injected  constantly  for 
sealing  purposes  by  a  small  force- 
pump  fixed  on  the  side  of  the  bed- 
plate, and  worked  from  a  lever 
connected  to  the  compression  pump 
crosshead.  The  steam  cylinder 
piston  rods  are  coupled  by  means 
of  forked  connecting  rods  to  the 
same  crank  pins  as  those  of  the 
compression  pumps. 

Improved  forms  of  gas-tight 
joints  and  of  a  stop-cock  or  valve, 

which  will  be  found  described  on  pages  262  to  264,  and  253,  have  been 
also  devised,  and  were  patented  in  1882  by  the  same  inventor. 

The  arrangement  of  the  machine  illustrated  in  Fig.   292  is  very 
compact,  having  been  designed  with  that  end  more  especially  in  view, 


Figs.  293  and  294.— Marine  Type 
of  Ammonia  Condenser.  Plan  and 
Elevation,  partly  in  Section. 


MARINE   REFRIGERATION.  409 

and  for  which  purpose  the  ammonia  condenser  is  placed  underneath 
the  compressor. 

Figs.  293  and  294  show,  in  plan  and  sectional  elevation,  the  marine 
type  of  condenser  used  in  conjunction  with  these  machines. 

The  cargo  holds  of  the  steamships  Campania  and  Lucania  are 
refrigerated  with  machines  of  the  Kilbourn  type.  The  meat-carrying 
chambers  in  each  of  these  vessels  consists  of  three  chambers  situated 
forward  on  the  orlop  or  lower  deck,  and  having  a  total  capacity  of 
20,000  cub.  ft.,  which  renders  them  able  to  carry  2,700  quarters  of 
beef.  The  chambers  are  very  carefully  insulated,  the  walls  consisting, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  295,  first  of  a  double  thickness  of  tongued  and 
grooved  boards  A,  A,  having  a  layer  of  waterproof  paper  B  between 
them,  next  a  2-in,  layer  of  good  quality  hair-felt  c,  and  another  double 
thickness  of  tongued  and  grooved  boards  D,  D,  with  a  similar  layer  of 
paper  E,  between  them,  and  finally  an  inch  air  space  F  between  the 
latter  and  the  inner  or  iron  deck,  the  whole  being  well  varnished. 


Fig.  295. —Insulation  of  Cargo  Holds  on  board  S.S.  "Campania"  and 
"Lucania."    Transverse  Section. 

The  brine  cooling  pipes,  which  are  of  heavy  2-in.  galvanised  tube  with 
malleable  cast  return  bends,  are  placed  on  the  ceiling  between  the 
deck  beams,  thus  economising  head  room,  and  the  rails  for  the  meat- 
hooks  are  of  1^-in.  galvanised  round  iron,  firmly  clipped  to  the  beams 
supporting  the  decks.  The  meat  hooks  which  are  placed  upon  the 
latter,  for  carrying  the  quarters  of  beef,  are  of  steel  galvanised. 
Thermometer  tubes  from  the  upper  deck  are  provided  to  each  chamber, 
so  that  the  temperature  in  any  part  of  the  chamber  may  be  ascertained 
when  desired. 

Fig.  296  is  a  plan  showing  the  general  arrangement  of  the  machine- 
room.  A  pair  of  compressors  are  employed.  A,  A  are  the  steam- 
engine  cylinders;  B,  B  the  compression  cylinders;  c,  c  the  ammonia 
condensers ;  D,  D  the  liquid  ammonia  reservoirs  ;  E,  E,  the  refrigerators  ; 
F  is  a  brine  circulating  pump  of  the  duplex  pattern ;  G  is  a  manifold 
or  distributing  pipe  to  the  different  cooling  pipes  in  the  chambers ;  H 
is  the  collecting  pipe  at  the  top  of  the  refrigerator.  It  will  be  seen 
that  the  cold  parts  of  the  machine  are  enclosed  in  a  separate  chamber 


410       REFRIGERATION    AND    COLD   STORAGE. 

having  walls  insulated  in  a  similar  manner  to  those  of  the  meat -carry  ing 
stores  or  chambers,  thereby  preventing  as  far  as  practicable  loss  through 
absorption  of  heat. 

The  compressors  are  of  an  ice-producing  capacity  of  12  tons  a  day, 
the  compression  cylinders  being  6  in.  in  diameter  by  12  in.  stroke, 
and  the  steam  cylinders  8  in.  diameter  by  12  in.  stroke. 

The   ammonia   condensers   c,    which   are   more   clearly   shown    in 


Fig.  296. — Plan  of  Refrigerating  Machine-room  on  Cunard  Steamers. 

Figs.  293  and  294,  are  constructed  of  a  cylindrical  form,  the  shells  being 
made  of  wrought  iron,  and  the  covers  of  cast  iron,  and  they  are  fitted 
with  concentric  coils  of  IJ-in.  galvanised  iron  pipe,  connected  together 
at  their  extremities  by  means  of  tee-pieces  made  of  malleable  castings. 
The  ammonia  condensers  are  in  this  case,  moreover,  carefully  lagged 
with  teak  wood.  The  water  for  use  in  the  ammonia  condensers  c  is 
supplied  and  circulated  by  means  of  a  duplex  steam  pump  (not  shown 
in  the  drawing),  located  in  the  forward  boiler-room  of  the  steamship. 


MARINE    REFRIGERATION.  411 

The  ammonia  gas  after  compression  in  the  compressors  B,  and  lique- 
faction in  the  condensers  c,  under  the  combined  pressure  of  the 
pumps  or  compressors  B,  and  the  cooling  action  of  the  condensing 
water  circulating  on  the  exterior  of  the  coils  or  worms  in  the  condensers, 
is  delivered  to  the  reservoirs  D  for  the  liquefied  ammonia,  through  small- 
bore pipes.  From  these  reservoirs  the  liquid  ammonia  is  admitted 
through  suitable  graduated  expansion  or  regulating  valves  to  the  lower 
ends  of  the  expansion  coils  in  the  refrigerators  B,  wherein  the  liquid 
ammonia  again  vaporises  or  gasifies,  abstracting  the  heat  required  for 
this  process  from  the  brine  surrounding  the  expansion  coils,  and  being 
again  returned  to  the  compressors,  and  so  on  ad  infinitum  in  the 
manner  already  described.  The  absolute  working  pressure  in  the 
refrigerators  is  about  30  Ibs.  per  square  inch. 

The  brine  having  been  reduced  to  the  desired  temperature  in  the 
refrigerators,  passes  into  the  system  of  brine  circulating  pipes,  and 
maintains  the  atmosphere  of  the  cold  stores  or  chambers  at  a  tempera- 
ture suitable  for  the  proper  preservation  of  the  meat.  The  circulation 
of  the  brine  is  effected  by  the  brine  pump  F,  which  draws  the  cooled 
brine  from  the  bottom  of  the  refrigerators  E,  and  discharges  it  through 
the  distributing  tee-piece  and  valves,  or  manifold  G,  to  the  different 
sections  of  the  cooling  pipes  in  the  chambers,  and  returns  it  through 
a  similar  tee-piece,  manifold  or  distributor  H  to  the  top  of  the 
refrigerator  to  be  again  cooled.  The  return  brine  pipes  are  each 
fitted  with  a  regulating  valve  and  a  thermometer. 

The  cold  air  or  provision  stores  or  chambers  on  board  of  the 
"  Campania  "  and  "  Lucania  "  are  fitted  up  with  refrigerating  plants,  on 
the  De  La  Vergne  ammonia  compression  system. 

The  refrigeration  is  effected  on  the  brine  circulation,  and  not  upon 
the  direct  expansion  system,  a  solution  of  calcium  chloride  being  the 
agent  or  medium  employed,  and  this  solution  is  reduced  to  a  very 
low  temperature  in  the  usual  manner,  by  the  expansion  of  the  ammonia 
gas  or  vapour,  in  coils  or  pipes  submerged  therein,  and  is  circulated 
by  a  special  pump  through  the  system  of  cooling  or  refrigerating  pipes, 
which  latter  are  fixed  to  the  under  side  of  the  roof  or  ceiling  of  the 
cold  store  or  chamber. 

The  method  employed  for  the  insulation  of  the  store  or  chamber 
is  shown  in  Figs.  297  and  298,  which  are  vertical  sections  through 
the  roof  or  ceiling  thereof.  A,  A  are  the  refrigerating  pipes ;  B,  B 
the  meat  rails ;  c  is  a  filling  of  sawdust ;  D,  D  are  layers  or  skins  of 
tongued  and  grooved  boarding;  E  is  a  layer  of  hair-felt;  and  F,  F 
are  layers  of  tarred  waterproof  paper.  The  brine  pipes  are  divided 


4i2       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

into  two  sections  or  sets,  thereby  admitting  of  any  necessary  repairs 
being  effected  in  one  section,  without  in  any  way  interfering  with  the 
circulation  of  the  cold  brine  through  the  other  section,  and  special 
means  are  also  provided  for  withdrawing  the  brine  from  one  set  or 
section  without  interfering  with  the  working  of  the  other. 

The  ammonia  compressor  is  of  the  vertical  single-acting  type,  and 


Fig.  297. — Insulation  of  Provision  Stores  on  board  S.S.  "  Campania"  and 
"Lucania."     Transverse  Section  through  Ceiling. 

is  actuated  by  a  high-pressure  horizontal  steam  engine.  The  com- 
pressor cylinder  is  4J  in.  in  diameter,  by  9  in.  stroke,  and  the  steam 
engine  is  of  2^  H.P.,  and  is  fitted  with  a  special  governing  arrangement, 
by  means  of  which  the  steam  supply  is  determined,  the  speed  being 
capable  of  variation  within  a  wide  range  (say  between  30  to  300 
revolutions)  without  interfering  with  the  running  of  the  machine. 


Fig.  298. — Insulation  of  Provision  Stores  on  board  S.S.  "  Campania"  and 
"Lucania."     Vertical  Longitudinal  Section  through  Ceiling. 

The  construction  of  the  compressor  is  substantially  similar  to  that 
described  with  reference  to  Fig.  285,  and  the  oil  separator  and  other 
parts  only  differ  from  the  arrangement  shown  in  the  general  view  of  a 
complete  installation  shown  in  Fig.  19,  in  that  the  ammonia  compressor 
is  of  the  single-acting  type,  and  by  reason  of  the  smaller  capacity  of 
the  present  plant,  and  the  absolute  necessity  on  shipboard  for 
economising  every  cubic  inch  of  room  possible.  The  operation  of  the 


MARINE    REFRIGERATION. 


413 


apparatus  is,  however,  in  every  way  identical,  and  the  description  of 
the  complete  installation  will  apply  equally  well  in  this  case. 

The  machine  is  capable  of  making  5  cwt.  of  ice  daily,  in  addition 
to  the  performance  of  the  refrigeration  required  in  the  cold  storage  or 
provision  chamber. 

Fig.  299  shows  an  Enock  electrically  driven  ammonia  compression 
machine,  marine  pattern.  In  this  arrangement,  as  shown  in  the  illus- 
tration, the  ammonia  compression  machine  is  coupled  direct  to  the  spindle 


Fig.  299. — Enock  Electrically-driven  Ammonia  Compression  Machine, 
Marine  Pattern. 


of  a  direct  current  slow  speed  motor  mounted  on  an  extended  bed- 
plate. The  compressor  is  of  the  double  cylinder  pattern,  single  acting, 
with  from  20  to  30  Ibs.  pressure  of  gas  only  upon  the  oil  sealed  packing, 
escape  of  gas  being  thus  practically  an  impossibility,  the  joint  being  made 
on  a  revolving  shaft  instead  of  a  reciprocating  rod.  The  compressor 
is  of  the  Enock  safety  self-oiling  type,  which  will  be  found  described 
in  a  previous  chapter. 

As  has  been  already  mentioned,  in  spite  of  their  inferior  efficiency, 


4H   REFRIGERATION  AND  COLD  STORAGE. 

n  certain  cases  cold-air  machines  can  be  used  to  some  advantage5  on 
board  men-of  war  for  instance,  which  vessels  remain  at  sea  for  some 


Fig.  300.— Hall  Vertical  Marine  Type  of  Steam-driven  Cold-Air  Machine. 

years,  and  a  difficulty  might  be  experienced  in  obtaining  carbonic  acid, 
or  other  volatile  agent. 


MARINE    REFRIGERATION. 


415 


Fig.  300  illustrates  a  Hall  vertical  marine  type  of  steam-driven  cold- 
air  machine,  fitted  with  compound  steam  cylinders,  which  is  the  pat- 


Fig.  301. — Haslam  Vertical  Marine  Type  of  Steam-driven  Cold-Air  Machine. 

tern  ofj'machine   supplied  by  Messrs  J.   &    E.   Hall,   Ltd.,   to  H.M. 
Admiralty,  and  to  other  navies.     Another  marine  type  of  air  compres- 


416       REFRIGERATION   AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

sion  refrigerating  machine,  made  by  the  above  firm,  is  of  a  horizontal 
pattern,  also  fitted  with  compound  steam  cylinders. 

Figs.  301  and  302  show  two  recently  designed  marine  types  of  Has- 
lam  cold-air  machines.  That  shown  in  Fig.  301  is  from  a  photograph 
of  one  of  two  similar  machines  recently  supplied  to  the  Royal 


Fig.  302.— Haslam  Vertical  Marine  Type  of  Steam-driven  Cold- Air  Machine 
and  Ice-making  Apparatus. 

yacht.  Fig.  302  is  a  pattern  which  has  been  supplied  to  the  British 
Admiralty  for  the  manufacture  of  85  Ibs.  of  ice  per  day  of  twelve 
hours  on  warships. 

In  a  marine  installation  the  pipe  or  trunk  for  admitting  the  cold 
air  is  usually  fixed  along  one  side  of  the  cold  store  or  chamber  in  the 
hold,  as  near  the  top  or  ceiling  as  possible,  the  return  pipe  or  trunk 


MARINE    REFRIGERATION.  417 

being  placed  at  the  opposite  side  of  the  chamber.  As  in  land  installa- 
tion, the  inlet  trunk  or  pipe  is  fitted  with  a  number  of  apertures  governed 
by  sliding  doors ;  these  are  only  opened  to  a  very  slight  extent  at  the 
end  nearest  the  machine,  and  gradually  more  and  more  as  they  approach 
the  end  furthest  therefrom,  thus  equalising  the  temperature  in  the 
chamber. 

The  most  important  point  is  to  ensure  the  cold  air  being  thoroughly 
circulated  and  penetrating  every  portion  of  the  chamber,  and  ther- 
mometers should  be  hung  in  different  positions  therein  to  form  a  check 
to  the  deck  pipe  ones.  Where  a  cold-air  machine,  unprovided  with  a 
special  arrangement  for  drying  the  air,  is  used,  the  snow  box  must  be 
cleared  out  repeatedly,  to  prevent  the  passages,  and  also  the  slide 
valve  ports,  from  becoming  blocked  up,  and  the  trunk  or  inlet  pipe 
must  be  cleaned  once  a  day  or  oftener. 

For  marine  purposes  the  cold-air  refrigerating  machine  was  first  in 
the  field,  and  is  still  preferred  before  other  systems  by  many  engineers, 
and  by  the  Admiralty ;  but  owing  to  certain  defects  in  the  earlier 
machines,  other  systems  have  been  tried.  The  difficulty  with  any  new 
system  is  the  necessity  for  carrying  a  considerable  store  of  chemicals, 
and  serious  accidents  have  resulted  from  the  use  of  these  machines  on 
ship  board.*  There  is  also  the  danger  of  running  short  of  these 
chemicals  by  any  accident  to  the  vessels  in  which  they  are  stored.  Now, 
with  cold-air  machines  no  chemicals  are  required,  the  pressures  adopted 
are  low,  and  possibility  of  accident  to  the  machine  is  even  more  remote 
than  accident  to  the  main  propelling  engines. 

A  new  cold-air  machine  has  recently  been  designed  by  Messrs 
T.  &  W.  Cole,  Ltd.,  to  overcome  the  defects  of  the  earlier  machines 
of  this  type,  in  which  each  defect  has  been  combated  with  marked 
success,  as  described  in  previous  chapters. 

Previous  to  storing  the  carcasses  in  the  cold  storage  place,  a  thorough 
inspection  thereof  should  be  made,  and  any  damage  to  the  walls  made 
good.  When  the  cold  storage  space  in  filled,  the  hatches  should  be 
made  tight  by  caulking  with  oakum,  or,  preferably,  they  should  be 
fitted  with  india-rubber  insertions,  which  afford  a  greater  certainty 
of  air-tight  joints  being  made. 

An  arrangement  of  a  small  cold  storage  chamber,  such  as  is  very 
frequently  constructed  on  board  a  large  passenger  steamer,  is  shown 
in  sectional  plan  in  Fig.  303.  The  refrigeration  is  effected  by  means 
of  a  Lightfoot,  Ha'slam,  or  other  cold-air  machine  of  the  vertical  type. 

The  arrangement  of  this  cold  storage  chamber,  which  is  practically 

*  Vide  leading  article  in  The  Engineer,  3rd  January  1902. 
27 


418       REFRIGERATION    AND    COLD    STORAGE. 

similar  to  that  of  those  used  on  the  passenger  steamers  of  the  Peninsular 
and  Oriental  Company,  will  be  very  readily  understood  from  the 
drawing,  wherein  A  is  the  meat  room,  the  temperature  of  which  is 
kept  down  to  about  20°  Fahr.,  and  wherein  are  situated  the  ice-making 
or  freezing  tank  B,  the  ice  cans  or  cases  B1  B1,  and  the  ice  store  c.  D 
is  the  vegetable  room,  which  is  maintained  at  a  temperature  of  about 
40°  Fahr.,  and  in  which  are  placed  the  water-cooler  E,  wine  closet  or 
cooler  F,  and  hanging  room  G. 

It  is,  of  course,  obvious  that  the  ice-making  or  congealing  tanks  or 
boxes,  employed  on  shipboard,  must  be  considerably  modified  in  order 


t  |> '  rmnr*-i-*- »-,*•>  rrmvmtrv**-?*   <,•»»»   ,  r-r-+,   ,   „.,„.„..  ,1,    ,+  ,.f  ,.,..,,,,.  ,-......„,   .  .  .?.    .  V  .    ,  ..  \  ^  > 

'*/.• 


I 


001 


i 


Fig.  303. — Arrangement  of  Cold  Storage  Chamber  on  board  Large  Passenger 
Steamer.     Sectional  Plan. 


to  provide  for  the  motion  of  the  vessel.  In  Fig.  304  is  shown  in  plan, 
and  in  longitudinal  and  tranverse  section,  a  type  of  marine  ice-making 
box  or  tank  designed  by  Mr  Kilbourn,  and  installed  by  him  on  the 
International  Navigation  Company's  vessels  "  St  Louis  "  and  "  St  Paul." 
In  the  left-hand  top  corner  of  the  illustration  is  shown  an  end  view 
of  the  refrigerating  coils. 

Carcasses  should  be  packed  as  close  together  as  possible,  consistent 
with  safety,  a  space  being  left  round  the  sides  for  the  circulation  of  the 
cold  air.  The  space  allowed  for  the  storage  of  a  56-lb.  carcass  in  the 
refrigerated  spaces  on  steamers  is  2-8  cub.  ft. 

The  proper  stowage  of  a  fruit  cargo  in  the  cold  store  or  chamber 


MARINE    REFRIGERATION. 


419 


is  likewise  a  matter  that  must  be  carefully  attended  to,  in  order  to 
ensure  its  arrival  at  its  destination  in  good  condition.  The  essential 
point  to  be  insisted  upon  is  that  clear  spaces  or  clearances  of  at  least 
J-in.  be  left  between  each  tier  of  cases  and  between  the  cases  and 
the  bottom,  sides,  and  ceiling  of  the  chamber.  These  clearances 
can  be  managed  by  the  insertion  of  laths  of  a  suitable  thickness 
between  the  cases.  Passages  should  be  also  provided  for  admitting 
of  inspections  of  the  state  of  the  fruit  being  made  during  the  voyage. 

The  best  temperature  to  maintain  for  fruit  is  one  of  from  45°  to 
55°  Fahr.,  and  this  should  be  evenly  kept  up  throughout  the  entire 
cargo.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  slightest  degree  of  frost 


Fig.  304. — Ice-making  or  Congealing  Tanks  or  Boxes  for  use  on  Shipboard. 
Plan,  Side,  and  End  Elevations,  and  Detail  View 

will  destroy  a  whole  cargo  of  fruit.  It  will  generally  be  found 
sufficient  to  run  the  refrigerating  machine  about  twelve  hours  per  day 
in  hot  latitudes  and  six  hours  per  day  in  cooler  ones. 

It  is  most  important  that  the  temperature  should  not  be  permitted 
to  vary  to  any  great  extent  during  the  voyage,  and  as  considerable 
difficulty  is  experienced  in  attaining  this  end,  it  is  desirable  to  provide 
a  check  upon  those  in  charge.  For  this  purpose  a  thermograph,  or  self- 
registering  thermometer  *  is,  or  ought  to  be,  provided  in  connection 
with  each  chamber  fitted  for  the  carriage  of  fruit,  so  that  an  accurate 
record  may  be  kept  of  the  actual  changes  of  temperature  that  have 
*  For  description  of  thermograph  or  self -registering  thermometer  see  pp.  574,  575. 


420       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

taken  place  during  the  voyage,  and  it  can  be  seen  at  a  glance  on  arrival 
whether  the  fruit  has  been  carried  under  proper  conditions  or  other- 
wise. 

Fig.  305  is  a  transverse  section  of  a  ship  fitted  with  an  arrange- 
ment of  Sir  A.  Scale  Haslam.  Chambers  as  shown,  are  cooled  by  pipes, 
and  are  fitted  with  rails  for  hanging  the  meat  in  the  ordinary  manner. 
Channels  are  provided  by  which  air  can  be  supplied  to  the  chambers 
through  suitable  openings,  and  also  channels  by  which  air  can  be 
drawn  from  the  chambers  through  other  openings.  On  the  right  is  a 


Fig.  305.— Haslam  Method  of  Sterilising  the  Cold  Air  for  use  in  Ships'  Holds. 

fan  for  circulating  the  air  through  a  chamber  heated  by  steam  pipes 
or  by  a  jet  of  steam,  or  by  both,  and  provided  with  a  trap  for  removing 
condensed  water.  The  air  passing  through  this  chamber  is  heated  to, 
say,  300°  Fahr.  and  may  be  treated  to  a  steam  injection,  as  it  is  well 
known  by  experiments  that  to  effectually  deal  with  bacterial  growth 
and  organisms  it  is  necessary  in  many  cases  to  moisten  the  air  with 
steam  at  a  high  temperature,  as  well  as  to  bring  it  in  contact  with  hot 
surfaces  at  a  high  temperature.  The  heated  and  sterilised  air  is  next 
passed  into  a  tower  where  it  is  washed  and  cooled  by  a  cold-water 


MARINE    REFRIGERATION.  421 

spray  supplied  by  a  pump,  and  from  thence  into  another  or  cooling 
tower  in  which  it  is  washed  and  further  cooled  by  a  spray  of  cold  brine 
supplied  by  another  pump.  Baffle  plates  as  shown  are  provided  in  the 
towers  and  also  water  and  brine  outlets.  From  the  latter  tower  the 
cooled  air  passes  to  a  drying  chamber  fitted  with  baffle  plates  and 
water  or  steam  pipes,  the  latter  being  used  if  necessary  to  slightly 
raise  the  temperature  of  the  air  if  it  has  been  made  too  cold  in  the 
cooling  tower.  A  water  outlet  is  provided  in  this  drying  chamber. 
Essentially  the  operation  consists  in  sterilising  the  air  circulated 
through  a  chamber  cooled  by  means  of  cold  pipes  or  surfaces  consisting 
in  heating  the  air,  then  washing  and  cooling  it,  and  lastly  drying  it  by 
passing  it  over  cold  dry  surfaces. 

BARGES. 

An  important  type  of  portable  refrigerator  is  that  adapted  to  meet 
the  requirements  of  barges  which  it  is  desirable  to  maintain  at  a  low 
temperature  without  encumbering  them  with  machinery,  or  rendering 
in  any  way  necessary  the  employment  of  special  labour  to  take  charge 
of  the  same. 

The  frozen  meat,  as  a. rule,  arrives  in  good  condition  on  board  the 
vessels,  and  deterioration  in  quality  usually  takes  place,  as  has  been 
already  mentioned,  during  its  transference  to  the  cold  stores  on  land, 
and  again  during  the  subsequent  delivery  thereof  to  the  retailer,  when 
the  meat  is  exposed  to  temperatures  frequently  much  higher  than  what 
is  required  to  preserve  it  in  good  condition.  The  Fulsome ter  Engineer- 
ing Co.,  Ltd.,  claim  to  have  devised  a  successful  system  of  refrigeration 
for  barges. 

Since  the  beginning  of  1888,  moreover,  the  London  and  Tilbury 
Lighterage  Co.,  Ltd.,  have  had  barges  fitted  with  special  refrigerating 
apparatus  successfully  plying  upon  the  Thames,  the  meat  landed  by 
them  being  invariably  in  good  condition,  and  not  infrequently  at  a 
lower  temperature  then  than  when  first  discharged  from  the  vessel. 


CHAPTER  XVII 
REFRIGERATION  IN  DAIEIES 

Methods  of  using  Mechanical  Refrigeration  in  Dairies — Examples  of  Mechanical 
Refrigerating  Installations  in  Dairies — Milk  or  Cream  Coolers — Ice-cooled 
Creamery  Refrigerators — Air-Circulation  System — Cylinder  System — Insula- 
tion of  Dairy  or  Creamery  Refrigerators — Size  of  Ice  Chambers — General 
Particulars — Materials — Ice  Refrigerating  Machine. 

THE  term  dairy,  used  in  its  widest  sense,  indicates  a  place  where  milk 
is  preserved  and  prepared  for  sale  or  for  family  use,  or  converted  into 
cream,  butter,  cheese,  &c. 

The  various  applications  of  refrigeration  in  the  dairy  are  summed 
up  as  follows  by  Mr  Loudon  Douglas  in  a  paper  read  by  him  before 
the  Cold  Storage  and  Ice  Association  : — (1)  The  cooling  of  town's  milk. 
(2)  The  cooling  of  separated  cream  in  an  auxiliary  creamery  or 
separator  station.  (3)  The  cooling  of  separated  and  ripened  cream  in 
a  main  dairy  or  central  creamery,  as  well  as  cooling  water  to  wash 
butter  whilst  being  worked,  and  cooling  a  butter  store  or  cold  room. 
(4)  Regulating  the  temperature  of  cheese-ripening  rooms  and  cooling 
rooms  in  which  cheese  is  stored.  (5)  To  the  storing  of  eggs,  &c. 

Butter  is  an  unstable  product.  It  is  at  its  best  when  freshly  made. 
Strictly  speaking,  deterioration  begins  at  once,  and  it  will  become 
noticeable  sooner  or  later  according  to  the  conditions  under  which  the 
butter  is  kept.  The  most  important  condition  in  this  respect  is  that 
of  temperature,  because  no  other  condition  has  anything  like  the  same 
influence  in  the  preservation  of  butter.  The  preservation  of  butter 
means  the  checking  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  of  the  processes  of 
fermentation  that  affect  the  flavour,  and  which  are  inevitable  in  all 
butter,  but  it  has  never  been  found  that  even  such  extreme  low  tem- 
peratures will  preserve  the  flavour  indefinitely,  although  it  has  been 
proved  beyond  doubt  that  the  lower  the  temperature  the  longer  it  will 
be  preserved,  other  things  being  equal.  Fortunately  there  is  a  certain 
period  in  the  life  of  all  good  butter  during  which  it  may  be  considered 
to  be  at  its  best.  Assuming  that  the  butter  has  been  well  made,  the 


REFRIGERATION    IN    DAIRIES.  423 

duration  of  this  period  depends  almost  entirely  on  the  temperature  at 
which  the  butter  is  kept. 

Refrigeration  is  used  in  dairies,  both  for  ensuring  an  ample  supply 
of  cold  water  and  for  cooling  stores  or  chambers,  the  former  being  an 
essential  for  successful  manufacture  in  hot  weather,  and  the  latter 
enabling  butter  to  be  kept  in  prime  condition  until  a  favourable  oppor- 
tunity for  disposing  of  it  presents  itself.  Either  mechanical  or  ice 
refrigeration  is  now  employed  in  most  dairies,  mechanically  produced 
cold,  indeed,  being  acknowledged  to  be  absolutely  essential  wherever 
a  large  quantity  of  milk  has  to  be  handled,  whilst  the  small  refrigerating 
machine,  of  comparatively  recent  introduction,  can  be  advantageously 
employed  in  establishments  with  limited  outputs,  except  in  localities 
where  natural  ice  can  be  stored  at  a  figure  as  low  as  between  two 
and  three  shillings  per  ton,  and  artificial  cold  be  so  economically  pro- 
duced by  this  means  as  to  render  mechanical  competition  practically 
impossible. 

There  are  two  methods  of  using  mechanical  refrigeration  in  a  dairy — 
direct  cooling  and  accumulator  cooling.  In  the  first  or  the  direct  cooling 
method  the  machinery  is  capable  of  performing  the  required  refrigerating 
work  without  the  aid  of  brine  storage,  and  is  ready  to  cool  milk  directly 
after  being  started.  This  system  necessitates  a  larger  outlay  at  first, 
but  is  afterwards  the  most  economical  system  to  work.  Tn  the  accu- 
mulator system  a  cold  brine  storage  tank  is  provided,  and  the  refri- 
gerating machine  is  started  to  cool  a  stock  of  brine  some  time  before 
the  milk  is  to  be  cooled.  The  result  of  this  arrangement  is  that  a 
small  machine  is  capable  of  cooling  some  two  or  three  times  the  quantity 
of  milk. 

The  total  expenditure  of  power  is  greater  than  in  the  case  of  direct 
cooling,  but  the  first  cost  is  less.  For  accumulator  cooling  plants  brine 
storage  tanks  should  be  made  narrow  and  oblong  so  as  to  fit  con- 
veniently against  a  wall,  or  round  and  high  so  as  to  occupy  little  floor 
space,  or  shallow  to  go  on  the  top  of  the  cold  room.  In  all  dairies 
where  the  milk  is  not  despatched  soon  after  being  chilled,  a  cold  room 
is  required,  which  also  serves  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  butter,  cream, 
cheese,  or  other  dairy  produce. 

Fig.  306  illustrates  a  complete  milk  cooling  plant,  with  warm  milk 
tank  and  milk  pump,  built  by  A.  G.  Enock  &  Co.  The  machine  is  of 
the  firm's  ammonia  (NH3)  self-contained  type,  in  which  the  condenser 
coil  is  placed  in  the  compressor  jacket,  and  the  gauges  are  mounted 
thereupon.  Where  a  Pasteuriser  is  in  use,  it  is  arranged  to  deliver 
direct  to  the  milk  receiver. 


424      REFRIGERATION   AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

It  is  desirable  that  milk  or  cream  can  be  rapidly  chilled  to  between 
40°  and  50°  Fahr.,  and  modern  competition  renders  it  important  that 
this  operation  should  be  performed  at  as  small  an  expense  as  possible. 


s  & 

if 


* 


The  Enock  double  cooler,  either  of  the  flat,  round,  or  conical  type,  with 
a  water  circulation  from  town  or  farm  supply  in  the  upper  section,  and 
a  brine  circulation  from  the  refrigerating  machine  in  the  lower  section, 
forms  an  efficient  method  of  effecting  the  above  cooling.  New  or 


REFRIGERATION    IN    DAIRIES.  425 

Pasteurised  milk  can  be  reduced  in  temperature  to  6O5°  Fahr.  with 
cooling  water  at  60°  Fahr.  In  the  lower  section  the  brine  circulation 
cools  the  milk  down  to  40°  to  50°,  or  lower  if  required. 

The  plant  shown  in  Fig.  306  operates  as  follows  : — The  cold  brine 
at  25°  to  35°  Fahr.  is  drawn  by  the  brine  pump  from  the  brine  cooling 
tank,  delivered  through  the  lower  section  of  the  milk  cooler,  and  after 
chilling  the  milk,  returns  warm  to  the  brine  cooling  tank,  none  being 
wasted.  The  brine  cooling  tank  contains  the  evaporator  coils  in  which 
the  refrigerating  medium  evaporates,  causing  a  very  low  temperature 
and  absorbing  the  warmth  from  the  brine.  The  refrigerating  gas  is 
drawn  out  of  the  coils  by  the  compressor,  which  compresses  and  dis- 
charges into  another  coil  placed  in  a  tank  of  water  forming  the 
condenser.  The  warmth  in  the  gas  is  "  rendered  sensible  "  by  com- 
pression, and  the  condenser  water  carries  off  this  "sensible  heat," 
causing  the  gas  to  condense  or  liquefy. 

The  liquid  refrigerant  then  passes  through  an  "  expansion "  or 
regulating  valve  into  the  refrigerator  coils,  where  it  again  evaporates 
and  cools  the  brine,  the  operation  of  evaporation,  compression,  and 
liquefaction  being  continuously  repeated. 

In  the  arrangement  (Fig.  307)  an  ammonia  compression  machine  of 
the  Kilbourn  improved  type,  driven  by  means  of  belt  gearing  from  a 
gas  engine,  is  used.  This  cream  cooler  is  fixed  against  the  wall  of  the 
cold  store  or  chamber,  a  portion  of  which  latter  only  is  shown  in  the 
drawing.  The  cream  cooler  is  constructed  of  tinned  copper,  and  is 
fitted  with  small  wrought-iron  coils  without  internal  joints,  similar 
coils  being  likewise  provided  in  the  water-cooling  tank,  a  portion  of 
which  is  shown  on  the  top  of  the  cold  store  or  chamber.  The 
refrigeration  is  effected  on  the  direct  system,  the  ammonia  gas  or 
vapour  being  permitted  to  expand  into  the  coils  of  pipe  in  the  cold 
store  or  chamber  and  of  the  cream  and  water  coolers. 

An  installation  on  the  Hall  carbonic  anhydride  (CO,,)  system  for 
cooling  milk  supplied  to  the  Express  Dairy  Co.,  Ltd.,  London,  is  shown 
in  Fig.  308.  The  plant  consists  of  a  single-acting  compressor  cut  from 
a  solid  steel  forging  mounted  on  a  vertical  cast-iron  base,  the  compressor 
being  of  the  Hall  standard  type  described  on  pages  132  to  138  with  oil 
seal  gland  and  pressure  lubricator,  and  driven  by  a  single-phase 
alternating  current  electric  motor. 

The  condenser  is  contained  in  an  enclosed  casing,  so  that  the  water 
after  passing  through  it,  can  rise  to  an  overhead  storage  tank. 

The  evaporator  coils  are  contained  in  a  specially  enlarged  casing 
having  a  capacity  of  400  gallons  of  brine.  This  enables  the  machine 


426       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 


REFRIGERATION    IN    DAIRIES. 


427 


428       REFRIGERATION   AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

to  be  run  for  about  ten  hours  per  day,  so  that  the  refrigerating 
effect  is  accumulated  and  stored  in  the  cold  brine  which  is  rapidly 
circulated  during  the  time  that  milk  cooling  is  going  on. 

The  plant  is  arranged  to  deal  with  a  total  of  1,000  gallons  of  milk 
per  day,  cooling  being  carried  out  for  one  hour  in  the  morning  and  one 
hour  in  the  afternoon,  500  gallons  being  passed  over  the  cooler  at  each 
time  of  cooling.  The  cooler  is  in  one  section,  through  which  the  brine 
is  circulated  from  the  refrigerating  machine,  and  the  milk  in  passing 
over  it  is  cooled  down  to  about  40°. 

Fig.  309  shows  an  arrangement  for  cooling  milk,  constructed  by 


HUMBOLDT 


Fig.  309. — Installation  for  Milk  Cooling  on  the  Sulphurous  Acid  System. 

the  British  Humboldt  Engineering  Co.,  Ltd.,  London.  The  compressor 
is  on  the  sulphurous  acid  (SO2)  system,  and  one  of  the  company's 
vertical  type  of  machine,  and  is  connected  with  a  milk  cooler  adapted 
for  direct  evaporation. 

A  plant  erected  by  the  Swiss  Co-operative  Society  at  Geneva 
comprises  two  buildings — one  containing  the  machinery,  the  other  the 
dairy  and  cheese  factory.  The  supply  of  milk  is  obtained  from 
societies  of  farmers  in  the  vicinity  of  the  city,  who  have  depots  to 
which  the  milk  is  delivered  morning  and  evening,  and  where  it  is 
cooled  to  the  temperature  of  the  service  water,  and  placed  in  hermeti- 
cally closed  churns  containing  from  30  to  40  litres.  The  following 


REFRIGERATION    IN    DAIRIES.  429 

particulars  of  the  installation  are  given  in  "L'Industrie  Frigorifique": — 
The  milk  collected  at  the  depots  is  delivered  to  the  dairy  in  the  city 
in  the  morning  and  evening.  On  its  arrival  the  milk  is  weighed, 
filtered,  and  after  being  cooled  by  passing  it  through  a  Baudelot 
cooler  (see  Figs.  300  and  301)  having  a  double  circulation  of  service 
water  and  cold  brine,  is  delivered  into  tanks,  in  which  it  is  kept  at 
a  temperature  of  3°  C.  The  cooling  of  the  cold  room  in  which  the 
milk  is  stored  is  effected  by  a  circulation  of  cold  brine  through  pipes 
having  radiating  gills,  and  it  is  maintained  at  -  6°  C.  The  milk  which 
arrives  in  the  morning  remains  in  the  cold  room  until  the  evening; 
that  which  is  received  in  the  evening  is  delivered  on  the  morning 
following.  The  distribution  is  made  in  square  churns  with  rounded 
corners,  having  each  a  capacity  of  from  40  to  45  litres,  and  four  of 
these  churns  are  placed  in  each  hand-cart.  Each  churn  has  a  draw-off 
cock  opened  by  a  special  key,  and  to  prevent,  as  far  as  possible, 
agitation  of  the  milk  during  its  withdrawal  it  is  delivered  through  a 
tube  to  the  bottom  of  the  cans,  and  these  are  thus  filled  from  the 
bottom  upwards.  Provision  is  made  on  the  hand-carts  for  ice  cooling 
during  the  summer. 

Any  milk  not  sold  on  the  rounds  is  returned  to  the  dairy,  where  it 
is  made  into  butter  and  cheese.  The  skim  milk  resulting  from  butter 
making  is  made  into  cheese. 

The  dairy  has  a  sale  for  from  15,000  to  20,000  litres  of  milk  a  day. 
The  power  required  is  from  30  to  40  H.P.,  and  steam  is  also  required 
for  cleansing  purposes.  The  refrigeration  is  produced  by  a  sulphurous 
acid  (SO2)  compression  machine  of  a  capacity  of  25,000  frigories)  about 
99,200  B.Th.IL),  the  brine  being  maintained  at  a  temperature  of  -2° 
to  -5°,  and  the  tank  having  very  large  dimensions  so  as  to  form  an 
accumulator.  The  condensing  water  is  cooled  by  means  of  an  open-air 
evaporative  surface  condenser  situated  on  the  roof  of  the  building. 

It  was  formerly  held  that  the  freezing  of  butter  by  causing  a 
rupture  of  the  fat  globules  produced  a  deterioration  in  the  quality 
of  the  butter  after  thawing,  but  this  idea  has  been  now  abandoned, 
and  was  never  borne  out  by  the  practical  experience  of  butter 
merchants.  In  fact,  for  the  storage  of  butter  for  any  lengthened 
period  of  time  in  hot  climates,  or  for  a  transport  by  rail  over  long 
distances,  freezing  is  usually  advisable,  as  it  has  been  found  that 
butter  so  treated  is  far  superior  to  that  which  has  been  chilled  or  kept 
in  ordinary  cold  storage.  Frozen  butter  both  retains  its  flavour  and 
body  better  than  the  other,  and  what  is  of  considerable  importance,  is 
less  easily  affected  by  bad  odours  or  other  contamination.  This  result, 


430       REFRIGERATION    AND    COLD    STORAGE. 


Cream  Cooler  and  Heater.     Plan. 


however,  depends  to  a  great  extent  upon  the  care  that  has  been 
bestowed  upon  making  the  butter,  viz.,  whether  it  has  been  washed 
quite  clean,  to  what  extent  it  has  been  worked  in  the  butter -worker, 
and  to  the  precautions  that  have  been  taken  in  packing  whilst 

in  a  chilled  condition.  See  also  pages 
437  and  438,  and  ante,  pages  385  and 
386. 

Tt  may  here  be  impressed  on  those 
concerned  in  the  storage  of  butter  that 
the  greatest  precautions  should  be  taken 
to  protect  that  commodity  from  contact 
with  the  gases  due  to  decomposition, 

,    or  with  the  minute  particles  that  may 

Fig.  310.— Sandbach  Combined    ,  .       ,    .        ,  r     .         .     ,  _J 

be  contained  in  the  air  of  the  cold- 
storage  room  or  chamber,  and  which  the 
butter  will  absorb  very  freely. 

An  ordinary  form  of  milk  or  cream 
cooler  consists  simply  in  a  pan  fitted 
with  a  false  bottom,  through  the  space 
or  clearance  between  which  and  the 
real  bottom  a  circulation  of  cold  or 

j  . refrigerated  water  is  maintained.     The 

ftfli  I  coolers  in  most  general  use  are  either  of 

a  cylindrical  form,  such  as  the  Danish 
circular  coolers,  or  they  have  flat  cor- 
rugated sides;  both  types  are  fitted 
with  top  and  bottom  troughs. 

Figs.  310  and  311  show  in  plan  and 
elevation  the  Sandbach  combined  cream 
cooler  and  heater,  which  is  said  to  be  a 
very  good  system  for  the  rapid  ref rigera 
tion  of  cream. 

The  apparatus  consists  essentially  of 
the  following  parts  : — A  ripening  vat  and 
combined  cooler  and  heater,  and  a 
mechanical  agitator  driven  off  the  main 

shafting.  The  cooling  or  heating  apparatus  is  so  designed  that  it  pre- 
sents a  large  cooling  or  heating  surface  in  a  comparatively  small  space, 
and  when  employed  in  the  former  purpose  can  be  used  in  conjunction 
with  any  description  of  refrigerating  machine,  either  for  cooling  cream 
or  for  the  production  of  iced  water. 


Fig.  311. — Sandbach  Combined 
Cream  Cooler  and  Heater.  Ele- 
vation. 


REFRIGERATION    IN    DAIRIES. 


OUTfcET 


Fig.  312  is  a  circular  capillary  cream  cooler.  This  type  of  cooler, 
which  is  much  used  in  Belgian  dairies  and  creameries,  is  made  in 
various  sizes,  the  largest  having  a  cooling  capacity  of  about  200  gallons 
per  hour  from  65°  to  52°  Fahr.  It  can  be  used  with  any  refrigerating 
machine,  and  the  cold  brine  is  pumped  through  the  cooler,  the  cream 
passing  over  the  exterior. 

In  all  large  dairies  the  Pasteurisation  of  milk  is  now  become  part  of 
the  ordinary  routine,  and  this  process  creates  a  demand  for  additional 
refrigerating  machinery,  it  being  absolutely  essential  to   reduce  the 
temperature  after  Pasteurisation  as  rapidly 
as  it  can  possibly  be  effected. 

Cream  coolers  of  the  submerged  type  are 
said  to  reduce  trouble  of  cleansing  to  a 
minimum. 

A  bulletin  entitled  "Creamery  Cold 
Storage,"  written  by  Mr  J.  A.  Ruddick,  the 
Dairy  Commissioner,  Canadian  Department 
of  Agriculture,  goes  very  fully  into  the  sub- 
ject of  ice  cooling  and  contains  much  valuable 
information.  The  following  particulars  are 
abstracted  from  this  source. 

For  small  or  medium-sized  creameries  the 
first  cost  of  installation  and  the  annual  ex- 
pense of  operation  put  the  mechanical  system 
out  of  the  question.  The  following  are  ex- 
amples of  creamery  refrigerators  designed 
by  Mr  Ruddick,  adapted  to  be  cooled  by  ice, 
but  it  will  be  understood  that  the  buildings 
with  certain  simple  modifications  would  be 
suitable  for  the  installation  of  machinery 
for  mechanical  refrigeration. 

Although  it  may  be  possible  to  secure 

rather  lower  temperatures  with  the  cylinder  system  than  can  be 
obtained  with  the  air-circulation  system,  all  things  considered,  a  lower 
average  temperature  is  usually  found  where  the  air-circulation  system 
is  in  use.  Both  the  ice  chamber  and  the  cold-storage  room  are 
thoroughly  insulated.  Figs.  313  and  314  show  plan]]and  section  of  a 
creamery  refrigerator  on  the  air-circulation  system.  It  will  be  seen 
that  there  is  a  connection  between  the  two  rooms  which  provides  for 
the  circulation  of  air  over  the  ice  and  through  the  cold-storage  chamber. 
The  working  of  such  a  refrigerator  is  automatic,  and  requires  only  to 


Fig.  312.— Capillary  Cream 
Cooler.     Elevation. 


432       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD    STORAGE. 


be  regulated  by  the  opening  and  closing  of  the  slides  that  control  the 
circulation  of  air.  The  ice  is  not  covered  as  the  thorough  insulation  of 
the  walls  of  the  ice  chamber  is  depended  on  to  prevent  undue  waste. 


i 

i 

*^  8          S, 
"I          > 
\ 

ffCftf/eefATOff 

—Jf- 

•3 

f  = 

- 

a 

$ 

\ 

Be 

- 

ii  it 

vf 

? 

I 

I    , 

Of 

1 

IM 

c^ 

• 

r 

V? 

§ 

n 

«y*      « 
J/       « 

"r 

i 

-iL 

^    fli 

Ssi 
1 

i^n 

nrna  3Oi  jo  77 

H 

s 

i 

D     T    n     '     n19""*^"     .     *     a;:" 

S5.,4S  tei^  *  . 

I 

fH 

1 

In  this  system  galvanised-iron  cylinders  about  1  ft.  in  diameter 
are  placed  in  the  cold  storage  room  so  as  to  extend  from  the  floor 
to  the  ceiling  and  opening  into  the  room  or  loft  above.  A  row  of 
these  cylinders  should  extend  along  at  least  one-fourth  of  the  wall 


REFRIGERATION    IN    DAIRIES.  433 

space  of  the  storage  room.  The  cylinders  are  filled  from  above  with 
crushed  ice  and  salt,  the  proportion  of  which  may  be  varied  according 
to  the  temperature  desired.  The  larger  the  proportion  of  salt  the 
better  the  results  will  be,  until  the  maximum  is  reached  at  about 
1  part  of  salt  to  3  of  ice.  Drainage  must  be  provided  to  carry  off 
the  water  from  the  melting  ice,  and  the  outlet  should  always  be 
trapped  in  order  to  prevent  the  passage  of  air.  The  ice  for  this 
system  is  usually  stored  in  an  ordinary  ice  shed,  covered  with  sawdust, 
cut  hay,  or  other  insulating  material.  The  cylinders  must  be  kept 
full  in  order  to  secure  the  maximum  of  refrigeration.  The  labour  of 
breaking  the  ice  and  filling  the  cylinders  is  very  considerable  and 
constitutes  one  of  the  chief  objections  to  the  cylinder  system.  Where 
the  refrigeration  depends  upon  the  daily  performance,  by  the  butter- 
maker,  of  this  item  of  labour,  it  is  very  apt  to  be  more  or  less 
neglected.  If  the  cylinders  are  allowed  to  become  partially  empty, 
there  is  a  corresponding  rise  of  temperature  in  the  storage  room,  and 
this  is  what  very  often  occurs.  The  cylinder  system  is  the  cheapest 
to  instal,  because  the  storage  room  only  need  be  insulated,  but  the 
large  amount  of  labour  involved  in  keeping  the  cylinders  properly 
filled,  and  the  cost  of  the  salt,  make  the  operation  of  this  system 
somewhat  expensive.  Where  there  is  plenty  of  cheap  labour  and 
someone  to  take  sufficient  interest  in  the  question  to  see  that  the 
work  is  properly  attended  to,  there  is  no  doubt  but  this  system  will 
give  good  results,  as  far  as  ice  goes,  for  the  storage  of  butter.  Fig.  315 
shows  plan  and  section,  and  Fig.  316  details,  of  a  creamery  refrigerator 
on  the  cylinder  system. 

In  the  construction  of  insulated  walls,  the  best  practice  at  the 
present  time  provides  for  an  outer  and  an  inner  shell,  as  nearly  as 
practicable  impervious  to  air  and  dampness,  with  a  space  between 
to  be  filled  with  some  non-conducting  material.  The  width  of  the 
space  will  depend  on  the  filling  to  be  used  and  the  temperature  to 
be  maintained  in  the  storage  room.  For  a  creamery  cold  storage 
constructed  of  wood  there  is  no  better  material  for  filling  spaces  than 
planing-mill  shavings.  The  weight  of  shavings  required  to  fill  a  given 
space  will  depend  somewhat  on  the-  kind  of  wood  from  which  they  are 
made,  and  also  to  some  extent  on  how  tightly  they  are  packed,  but 
a  fair  average  is  from  7  to  9  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot  of  space.  They  should 
be  packed  sufficiently  to  prevent  future  settling.  See  also  chapter  on 
Insulation,  pages  329  to  365. 

All  inside  sheathing  should  be  of  spruce,  because  of  its  non- 
odourless  character.  The  inside  surface  of  ante-rooms  and  cold  storage 
28 


434       REFRIGERATION    AND    COLD    STORAGE. 


rooms  should  receive  a  coat  of  shellac  or  hard  oil.  This  will  permit 
of  the  walls  being  thoroughly  washed  and  disinfected  to  destroy  spores 
of  mould.  Whitewash  is  also  used  as  an  interior  finish.  It  is  cheap 
and  can  be  renewed  from  time  to  time.  A  little  salt  mixed  with 
whitewash  is  said  to  harden  it,  and  thus  prevent  it  from  rubbing  off 
when  touched. 

If  the  inside  sheathing  of  the  ice  chamber  is  coated  with  paraffin 


SECTION.  ^ 


<^" 


».«•*. 


PLAN. 

Fig.  315.  —Plan  and  Section. 


OCTAIL  or  WALL s. 
Fig.  316.— Detail  Views. 


Creamery  Refrigerator  on  the  Cylinder  System. 

wax,  like  a  butter  box,  the  lumber   will  be  preserved  and  moisture 
prevented  from  getting  into  the  insulation. 

It  is  impossible  to  lay  down  any  rule  as  to  the  total  quantity  of 
ice  required  for  creameries  with  a  given  output,  as  so  much  depends 
on  what  the  ice  is  used  for,  and  also  on  the  nature  of  the  water  supply. 
In  many  creameries,  where  there  is  an  ample  supply  of  cold  water,  no 
ice  is  used  for  cream  cooling,  while  for  others  a  large  quantity  is  pro- 
vided for  that  purpose.  If  a  Pasteuriser  is  used,  the  extra  cooling 


REFRIGERATION    IN    DAIRIES.  435 

required  increases  the  consumption  of  ice  very  considerably.  It  is 
important,  however,  to  estimate  correctly  the  size  of  the  ice  chamber 
required  for  a  cold  storage  on  the  circulation  system.  Where  this 
system  is  used  the  supply  of  ice  for  cream  cooling  purposes  should  be 
kept  separate  from  the  cold  storage  supply.  The  ice  chamber  should 
not  be  opened  during  the  summer  except  for  occasional  examination. 
The  quantities  given  in  the  following  table  will  be  found  to  be  about 
right  for  average  circumstances  : — 


Pounds  of  Butter  made 
during 
Summer  Months. 

Tons  of  Ice  required 
for 
Sutler  Storage  only. 

Size  of  Ice  Chamber 
in 
Cubic  Feet. 

200,000 
100,000 
50,000 

140 
80 
50 

5,000 

3,000 
2,000 

Where  ice  is  required  for  cream-cooling  purposes,  and  it  generally 
is,  about  one-half  the  quantity  given  in  the  table  will  be  required  in 
addition.  This  can  be  stored  in  an  ordinary  ice  shed  and  covered  with 
sawdust. 

Creamery  refrigerators  on  the  air-circulation  and  on  the  cylinder 
systems  consist  of — (1)  An  insulated  ice  chamber,  where  the  ice  is 
kept  without  any  covering.  (2)  A  cold  storage  room,  where  the 
packages  of  butter  for  export  only  shall  be  stored.  (3)  An  ante-room, 
to  receive  retail  butter  and  to  protect  the  storage  room  against  the 
entrance  of  warm  air.  Both  cold  storage  room  and  ante-room  are 
cooled  by  the  circulation  of  the  air  which  passes  over  the  ice  in  the 
ice  chamber.  The  situation  should  be  at  the  north  end  of  the  creamery, 
or  sheltered  from  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  if  possible. 

The  size  will  be  determined  by  the  output  of  the  creamery.  Butter 
should  be  shipped  every  week  wherever  possible,  and  in  this  case  the 
cold  storage  room  should  not  be  much  larger  than  necessary  to  hold 
a  week's  make,  with  convenience  for  handling  the  packages.  A  room 
7  ft.  high  by  8  ft.  sq.  inside  will  hold  conveniently  120  boxes,  piled  six 
high.  The  ante-room  should  be  large  enough  so  that  the  door  can  be 
conveniently  closed  before  opening  the  door  of  the  cold  storage  room. 

As  regards  light,  it  is  not  desirable  to  have  a  window  in  the  cold 
storage  room.  Sufficient  light  can  be  had  from  a  lamp  or  candle  when 
necessary.  A  window  may  be  put  in  the  ante-room. 

Good  insulation  should  be  provided  on  all  sides  of  the  refrigerator 


436       REFRIGERATION   AND    COLD    STORAGE. 


around  cold  storage  room ;  and  ante-room,  whether  adjoining  the  ice 
chamber  or  any  other  part  of  the  creamery,  must  be  equally  well 
insulated. 

Wood. — All  lumber  employed  must  be  thoroughly  dry  and  sound 
without  loose  knots  or  shakes,  and  must  be  odourless.  Spruce  and 
hemlock  are  the  best  in  the  order  named.  Pine  is  not  suitable  for 
inside  sheathing,  on  account  of  its  odour.  All  boards  employed  should 
be  dressed  as  well  as  tongued  and  grooved.  Unseasoned  lumber  must 
be  carefully  avoided.  When  building  in  winter,  fires  must  be  kept 
going  so  as  to  have  all  materials  as  dry  as  possible.  This  is  very 

important,  as  dampness  in 
insulation  destroys  its  effi- 
ciency. 

Paper. — All  papers  used 
should  be  strictly  odourless 
and  damp-proof.  Tar  paper, 
felt  paper,  straw  paper,  rosin- 
sized  paper,  and  all  other 
common  building  papers  are 
not  suitable  and  must  not 
be  used.  Use  double  thick- 
ness of  paper  in  all  cases, 
each  layer  lapping  2  in.  over 
preceding  one.  The  layers 
should  extend  continuously 
around  all  corners.  All 
breaks  to  be  carefully 
covered. 

Shavinys.  —  Shavings 
must  be  thoroughly  dry,  free 
from  bark  or  other  dirt. 

Shavings  from  some  odourless  wood,  such  as  hemlock,  spruce,  or  white 
wood,  to  have  the  preference. 

The  Burnand  ice  refrigerating  machine,  two  types  of  which  are 
shown  in  Figs.  317  and  318,  is  especially  designed  for  use  in 
small  dairies  where  ice  refrigeration  is  used.  The  essential  features 
of  the  apparatus,  shown  in  Fig.  317,  consists  in  a  stout  oak  tub 
joining  an  insulated  receptacle  and  fitted  with  one  or  more  copper- 
coils  according  to  the  capacity  required.  The  space  round  the 
copper  coil  or  coils  is  filled  with  a  freezing  mixture,  such  as 
finely  broken  ice  and  salt,  and  the  temperature  of  the  brine  or 


Fig.  317. — Burnand  Ice  Refrigerating 
Machine  for  Dairies. 


REFRIGERATION    IN    DAIRIES. 


437 


water  pumped  through  the  coil  or  coils  is  thus  reduced  to  the 
required  degree.  The  brine  or  water  enters  the  inner  coil  at  the 
bottom,  and  from  the  top  is  conveyed  to  an  inlet  at  the  bottom  of 
the  outer  coil.  Also,  leaving  this  latter  coil  at  the  top,  it  may  be  con- 
veyed either  to  the  refrigerating  pipes  in  a  cold  store,  to  an  ordinary 
pattern  milk  cooler,  or  to  other  cooling  apparatus,  and  after  performing 
the  duty  required,  returned  to  a  reservoir  in  order  to  be  again  circulated 
through  the  refrigerator.  To  equalise  the  temperature  of  the  liquefied 
freezing  medium,  an  agitator,  as  shown  in  the  drawing,  is  provided. 
In  this  apparatus  the  circulation  of  the  brine  or  water  through  the 
cooling  coils  is  effected  by  means  of  a  power-driven  pump  not  shown, 
and  the  agitator  paddles  are  driven  through  the  bevel  gearing  and  belt 
pulley  from  any  convenient  source  of 
power. 

The  small  milk  cooling  apparatus 
shown  in  Fig.  318  is  intended  to  be 
worked  by  hand  power.  On  the  top 
is  a  reservoir  for  the  milk  to  be  cooled, 
which  communicates  through  a  stop- 
cock with  a  capillary  cooler.  The  cool- 
ing liquid  is  pumped  by  means  of  the 
semi-rotary  hand  pump  shown  from  the 
well  in  the  bottom  of  the  tub  to  the 
cooler,  and  after  passing  through  this 
latter,  it  is  sprayed  on  the  upper  part  of 
the  broken  ice  in  the  tub,  and  returns 
to  the  cold  well  to  be  again  passed  to  the 
cooler,  and  so  on,  until  the  supply  of 
broken  ice  in  the  tub  is  exhausted. 

Dr  Samuel  Rideal  says  that  very  great  caution  has  to  be  exercised 
regarding  the  various  temperatures  required  for  different  classes  of 
dairy  produce  as  well  as  care  in  the  methods  of  preparation  and  storage 
prior  to  refrigeration.  The  cold  storage  of  milk  and  butter  has  been 
already  dealt  with  in  this  chapter,  and  also  to  some  extent  in 
Chapter  XV.  under  the  heading  of  "Proper  Methods  for  Storing  and 
Temperatures  for  the  Cold  Storage  of  Various  Articles." 

In  conclusion  it  may  be  observed  that  in  the  United  States  there 
are  a  considerable  number  of  persons  who  advocate  the  storing  of 
butter  at  a  temperature  of  0°  Fahr.,  claiming  that  butter  is  un- 
desirably affected  by  a  rise  in  temperature  above  that  point.  On 
this  particular  question  considerable  diversity  of  opinion  seems  to 


Fig.  318.— Burnand  Small  Ice 
Milk  Cooling  Apparatus. 


433       REFRIGERATION    AND    COLD    STORAGE. 

exist.  Mr  Arthur  G.  Enock,  M.I.M.E.,  who  has  had  a  very  extensive 
experience  in  the  subject  of  dairy  refrigeration,  in  reply  to  a  query 
put  to  him  some  time  ago  by  the  author  as  to  the  proper  cold  storage 
temperature  for  butter,  said  that  from  his  own  experience  he  thought 
that  there  can  be  no  hard  and  fast  rule  for  butter  as  such,  because 
various  butters  require  different  treatments,  and  again  different  tem- 
peratures, according  to  the  treatment  they  have  received  since  being 
made.  His  experience  of  fresh  Colonial  butter,  made  in  Australia,  with 
chilled  water  by  chilled  cream  from  Pasteurised  milk,  is  that  the  lowest 
temperature  necessary  to  keep  it  in  first-rate  condition  for  an  indefinite 
period,  as  far  as  practical  commerce  is  required,  is  20°.  But  if  you  get 
that  butter  made  with  all  care,  and  then  carried  about  for  a  week  or 
ten  days  without  being  placed  in  a  cold  store,  you  may  want  to  bring 
it  down  to  15°  to  hold  it  successfully.  Very  much  the  same  applies 
to  Irish  butter.  With  all  the  conditions  of  manufacture  and  storage 
one  meets  with  between  Ireland  and  this  country,  it  is  Mr  Enock's 
opinion  and  experience  that  24°  is  the  right  temperature,  provided  the 
atmosphere  is  kept  fairly  dry. 

The  employment  of  such  a  degree  as  0°  Fahr.,  or  even  14°,  is 
something  which,  as  far  as  Mr  Enock's  experience  has  gone,  is  unneces- 
sary under  ordinary  conditions,  although  possibly  special  conditions 
might  arise,  for  example,  when  butter  has  to  be  transmitted  by  rail 
for  some  distance.  In  the  South  African  cold  stores  at  the  ports 
butter  used  to  be  carried  down  to  10°,  and  even  to  5°,  but  this  was 
in  preparation  for  transit  for  three  or  four  days  by  ordinary  railway 
waggon,  slightly  insulated,  through  a  very  warm  country.  Such  a 
condition  as  this,  however,  does  not  apply  where  butter  is  simply  held 
in  storage  for  in  and  out  use. 

As  regards  the  question  as  to  whether  butter  taken  from  the  dairy, 
and  put  into  a  storage  somewhat  below  freezing,  would  be  found  to 
maintain  its  quality.  Mr  Enock  thinks  that  it  would  be  found  to  do 
so,  but  that,  at  the  same  time,  a  good  deal  depends  on  how  the  butter 
is  made.  Whether  it  is  washed  quite  clean,  how  much  it  is  worked  in 
the  butter-worker,  and  what  care  is  taken  in  packing  it  while  it  is  in  a 
chilled  condition.  For  use  of  refrigeration  in  artificial  butter  factories 
see  pages  461  to  464. 


CHAPTER    XVIII 

MANUFACTURING,   INDUSTRIAL,  AND   CONSTRUC- 
TIONAL APPLICATIONS 

Chocolate  Manufacture — Breweries — Paraffin  Works — Artificial  Butter  Manufac- 
tories— Tea  Factories — Sugar  Factories  and  Refineries — Blast  Furnaces — 
Wine-Making—Various  other  Manufacturing  and  Industrial  Applications 
— Dynamite  Factories — Manufactories  of  Photographic  Accessories — Dis- 
tilleries— Chemical  Works — India-rubber  Works — Glue  Works — Construc- 
tional Applications — Tunnelling,  Sinking  Shafts,  Laying  Foundations,  &c. 

INDUSTRIAL  AND  MANUFACTURING  APPLICATIONS. 

USES  are  now  made  of  refrigeration  in  many  manufactures  and  indus- 
tries besides  that  of  its  more  legitimate  and  important  application  to 
the  preservation  of  various  provisions  of  a  perishable  nature,  which 
latter  has  been  already  dealt  with  so  far  as  space  would  allow  in  pre- 
ceding chapters.  All  the  systems  hereinbefore  described,  with  the 
exceptions  of  the  first,  or  that  wherein  the  abstraction  of  heat  is 
effected  by  the  more  or  less  rapid  dissolution  or  liquefaction  of  a  solid, 
are,  to  a  greater  or  a  less  degree,  advantageously  applicable  for  this 
purpose. 

Although  the  preservation  of  organic  substances  was  the  first  known 
and  the  most  obvious  use,  the  successful  application  of  artificial  refri- 
geration to  a  process  of  manufacture  is  somewhat  older  than  that  to 
the  preservation  of  provisions,  a  Harrison  ether  machine  having  been 
erected  at  Truman,  Hanbury,  &  Co.'s  brewery  about  1856,  which 
machine  was  stated,  at  a  meeting  of  the  Institution  of  Mechanical 
Engineers  held  in  1886,*  to  be  still  at  work  and  acting  efficiently.  A 
machine  of  the  same  type  was  also  said  to  have  been  put  up  by  A.  C. 
Kirk  in  1861,f  who  employed  it  for  the  extraction  of  solid  paraffin 
from  shale  oil. 

Another  important  application  of  refrigerating  machinery  is  to 
constructional  work,  such  as  the  formation  of  tunnels,  the  sinking  of 

*  Proceedings,  Institution  of  Mechanical  Engineers,  1886,  p.  246. 
t  Ibid.,  p.  231. 

439 


440      REFRIGERATION   AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

shafts,  wells,  laying  of  foundations,  &c.,  in  loose  ground,  in  quicksand 
soils,  or  wherever  the  amount  of  water  is  too  great  to  be  pumped  or  the 
doing  so  would  be  dangerous  or  inconvenient. 


REFRIGERATION  IN  CHOCOLATE  MANUFACTORIES. 

The  application  of  a  refrigerating  machine  to  the  cooling  of  choco- 
late during  the  process  of  manufacture  was  first  made  by  J.  S.  Fry  in 
1882,*  in  which  year  he  employed  one  of  Lightfoot's  double-expansion 
horizontal  cold-air  machines,  and  was  enabled  to  proceed  without 
interruption  throughout  the  whole  year  with  work  that  had  previously 
to  be  suspended  during  the  hot  weather.  Since  that  time  the  use  of 
refrigerating  machines  in  chocolate  works  has  become  almost  universal. 
A  great  saving  in  chocolate  manufacture  is  likewise  effected  by  the 
rapid  solidification  which  is  rendered  possible,  and  the  waste  thus 
avoided ;  and  furthermore,  as  the  chocolate  leaves  the  moulds  readily 
and  intact,  a  considerably  fewer  number  of  the  latter  are  required  to  do 
the  same  amount  of  work. 

The  essential  features  to  be  kept  in  view  in  designing  and  con- 
structing a  chocolate  cooler  may  be  enumerated  as  follows  : — Uniform 
cooling  of  all  the  goods  put  into  the  apparatus ;  reduction  of  labour- 
in  feeding  and  taking  out  the  trays  containing  the  chocolate  to  a 
minimum;  economy  of  cold  air  and  reduction  of  the  required 
refrigerating  power;  and,  lastly,  simplification  of  the  construction  to 
keep  the  outlay  as  low  as  possible,  consistently  with  obtaining  the  best 
results. 

The  patent  chocolate  cooler  shown  in  our  illustrations  Figs.  31 9  and 
320  is  made  by  Messrs  A.  G.  Enock  &  Co.,  Ltd.,  and  is  claimed  by  the 
inventors  to  embody  the  above  qualities  as  far  as  practicable.  The 
cooler  consists  of  an  insulated  box  containing  a  shaft  with  a  six- 
sided  frame  at  each  end.  The  two  frames  are  connected  by  bars 
upon  which  the  chocolate  carriers  hang.  The  shaft  is  rotated  by  the 
hand-wheel  outside  the  cooler  and  an  automatic  stop  arrests  the  shaft 
when  the  trays  come  opposite  the  inlet  and  outlet  slots.  It  will  be 
seen  that  each  tray  of  chocolate  makes  a  complete  circuit  of  the  cooler, 
descending  from  the  warmer  air  at  the  top,  passing  through  the  colder 
air  at  the  bottom  and  returning  to  the  top.  This  method  is  claimed  to 
be  better  than  revolving  the  trays  horizontally  as  it  will  ensure  that 
each  tray  gets  the  same  amount  of  cooling. 

The  trays  are  fed  into  the  slots  shown  at  the  right-hand  side  of  the 

*  Proceedings,  Institution  of  Mechanical  Engineers,  1886,  p.  236. 


MANUFACTURING   APPLICATIONS.  441 


442       REFRIGERATION    AND    COLD    STORAGE. 

cross  section,  Fig.  320,  the  cooler  shown  in  the  illustration  accommodat- 
ing twelve  trays,  each  measuring  30  by  21  in.,  and  after  each  carrier 
has  received  its  two  trays  the  hand-wheel  is  revolved  and  the  next 
carrier  filled,  and  so  on  until  all  the  trays  are  in  place.  When  the  first 
carrier  returns  to  the  top  after  having  made  a  complete  circuit,  two 
fresh  trays  are  put  in  and  the  action  of  putting  them  in  pushes  out  the 
other  two  trays  at  the  left-hand  end  of  the  cooler.  The  work  may  thus 
go  on  continually.  And  as  the  cold  air  naturally  falls  to  the  bottom 
of  the  cooler,  and  as  the  trays  are  both  fed  into  and  discharged  from 
the  cooler  at  the  top,  there  is  no  loss  of  cold  air.  In  the  pattern  of 
cooler  shown  in  the  illustrations  flaps  are  provided  for  closing  the 
openings  through  which  the  trays  pass  in  and  out,  but  in  another 
arrangement  these  apertures  are  automatically  closed  by  narrow  spring 
shutters  which  rise  into  place  after  a  tray  has  been  put  in  or  pushed 
out  of  the  carriers. 

The  insulation  consists  of  6  in.  thick  of  best  silicate  cotton  or  other 
approved  material,  the  walls  of  the  cooler  being  lined  with  white 
enamelled  material  ensuring  perfect  cleanliness  and  absence  of  odours. 
The  cooler  box  is  made  up  in  sections,  and  can  be  bolted  together  and 
set  at  work  by  any  ordinary  carpenter  or  mechanic.  The  smaller  sizes, 
however,  can  be  sent  out  complete  in  one  piece. 

The  cooler  is  complete  with  coils  of  direct  expansion  or  brine 
circulating  pipes,  with  counter  flanges  ready  to  connect  to  new  or 
existing  refrigerating  machinery.  The  cooler  is  capable  of  accom- 
modating trays  of  any  width  from  12  to  22  in.,  which  is  advantageous, 
inasmuch  as  the  trays  employed  by  different  makers  vary  considerably 
in  size.  The  capacities  of  the  machines  vary  from  1  ton  per  day  of 
chocolate  cooled  for  the  smallest  up  to  3  tons  for  the  largest-sized 
machine. 

The  cold-air  machine  is  well  adapted  for  chocolate  cooling,  pro- 
vided only  that  the  air  be  dry,  an  achievement  claimed  by  the 
inventors  for  the  "  Arctic  "  machine,  and  Messrs  Cole  have  applied  it 
to  several  chocolate  factories  with  complete  success.  An  advantage 
of  this  system  is  that  whilst  some  forms  of  refrigerating  machines  only 
very  partially  dry  the  air,  and  that  inside  the  room,  by  deposition  of 
frost  on  brine  pipes,  or  producing  a  current  of  air  over  brine- wetted 
surfaces,  the  "Arctic"  cold-air  machine  acts  upon  the  air  before 
delivering  it  to  the  cold-room,  or  other  apparatus,  and  thus  the 
moisture  is  deposited  outside  of  and  away  from  the  cold-room.  There 
is  also  the  further  advantage  of  there  being  no  brine  pipes  on  which 
to  deposit  frost,  which  may  drop  on  to  the  chocolate  trays,  &c.,  and 


MANUFACTURING   APPLICATIONS.  443 

requires  the  provision  of  special  draining  gutters,  all  of  which  apparati 
are  frequently  more  or  less  imperfect  in  their  action. 

A  rotary  chocolate  cooler  devised  by  Mr  J.  C.  Broadbent  and 
Mr  J.  McRae  is  claimed  to  preserve  the  chocolate  from  any  moisture 
during  the  process  of  becoming  solid.  This  apparatus  consists  of  a  series 
of  chambers  revolving  on  a  central  pivot.  The  cooler  is  cylindrical, 
with  a  diameter  of  about  10  ft.  and  a  height  of  8  ft.  The  outside,  that 
is,  the  case,  is  constructed  of  wood,  and  insulation  is  secured  by  the  use 
of  silicate  cotton.  The  circular  basis  of  the  apparatus  is,  of  course, 
furnished  with  a  like  insulating  substance.  The  upright  steel  axle  is 
2J  in.  in  diameter,  and  round  this  revolve  the  sets  of  shelves.  Every 
set  of  shelves  is  fitted  with  wooden  sides,  so  that  these  form  in  the 
outer  shell  six  perfectly  isolated  and  refrigerating  compartments,  the 
whole  being  furnished  with  a  toothed  revolving  gear  connected  by  a 
hand-wheel  situated  at  the  front  of  the  machine.  The  chambers  are 
provided  with  an  arrangement  of  spaces  for  cooling  by  brine.  These 
have  to  be  put  in  position  when  the  cooler  is  to  be  used,  so  that  none 
of  their  number  can  coincide  with  the  door  space  of  the  cooler  itself. 
The  shelves  of  each  compartment  in  the  cooler  run  2  ft.  9  in.  long  by 
1  ft.  9  in.  wide.  Of  these  compartments  there  are  six,  with  a  space 
of  5  in.  between  each.  The  special  trays  on  each  shelf  are  adjusted 
to  carry  from  10  to  15  Ibs.,  but  where  it  is  required,  by  a  simple 
change,  blocks  of  any  size  can  be  cooled. 

The  ordinary  capacity  of  an  apparatus  of  the  above  dimensions  is 
30  cwt.  a  day,  but  a  much  greater  capacity  can  be  had  when  desired. 
One  of  the  advantages  claimed  for  this  apparatus  is  that  no  fastenings 
are  needed.  It  is  constructed  on  the  wedge  principle,  and  hence  all 
the  doors  close  automatically  tight.  The  apparatus  is  so  arranged 
that  when  the  compartments  revolve,  and  one  of  them  arrives  at  the 
door  space,  and  the  door  is  opened,  elliptical  shutters  are  automatically 
operated  and  cause  the  sides  of  the  compartment  to  fit  so  perfectly 
that  the  rest  of  the  cooler  remains  completely  isolated  from  the  air. 
In  point  of  fact  the  door  may  be  left  open  at  any  time  without  there 
being  the  slightest  change  in  the  temperature  of  any  of  the  other 
compartments.  Then  again  the  top  and  bottom  shutters  of  each 
division  are  absolutely  self-acting — automatic,  in  fact — and  thus  render 
the  compartment  entirely  air-tight.  Another  feature  is  that  the 
upper  and  lower  ends  of  the  several  compartments  are  so  made  that, 
as  the  shelves  rotate,  the  upper  and  lower  divisions  open  on  the 
parallel  lever  system,  and  directly  rotation  ceases  they  shut.  A 
Steinle's  thermometer  keeps  a  record  of  the  temperature  inside  the 


444       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD    STORAGE. 

cooler  and  is  read  on  the  outside.  There  is  also  an  ingenious  plan 
by  which  the  contents  of  the  cooler  are  indicated.  The  circular  top 
is  graduated  by  six  marks  numbered  from  one  to  six,  corresponding 
to  the  six  compartments.  In  order  to  charge  and  uncharge,  the  wheel 
beside  the  door  of  the  cooler  is  simply  turned  until  the  required 
number  coincides  with  a  fixed  pointer  in  the  front.  A  convenient 
arrangement  is  provided  for  marking  the  time  at  which  the  different 
compartments  are  charged,  and  a  timepiece  is  fixed  in  the  middle  of 
a  plate  having  six  dials  furnished  with  movable  hands.  To  facilitate 
occasional  cleaning,  the  top  of  the  cooler  is  equipped  with  a  vapour 
valve,  through  which  an  air  current  can  be  passed  for  that  purpose. 

In  another  apparatus  for  treating  chocolate  an  endless  travelling 
band  or  apron  is  provided  by  means  of  which  the  chocolate  is  traversed 
through  a  refrigerated  compartment. 

REFRIGERATION  IN  BREWERIES. 

One  of  the,  if  not  the  most,  important  of  the  industrial  applications 
of  refrigerating  machines  is  that  of  cooling  water  to  be  used  for 
refrigerating  and  attemperating  purposes  in  breweries.  This  is  more 
especially  required  when  the  supply  of  water  is  derived  from  a  river 
or  other  source  exposed  to  the  heat  of  the  sun,  or  from  the  water 
mains  in  large  towns,  the  water  from  both  of  these  sources  usually 
rising  during  the  summer  months  to  from  65°  to  70°  Fahr. 

Where  a  plentiful  supply  of  well  water  at  a  temperature  of  from 
50°  to  54°  Fahr.  can  be  obtained,  the  provision  of  means  for  artificial 
cooling  becomes  of  minor  importance  for  this  special  purpose,  and  can 
be  dispensed  with. 

When,  however,  the  water  supply  is  at  a  comparatively  high  tem- 
perature, such  as  that  above  indicated,  it  would  of  course  be  totally 
impossible  to  cool  the  worts  down  to  the  ordinary  pitching  tempera- 
tures of  from  57°  to  59°  Fahr.,  or  to  control  the  fermentation  in  the 
tuns  or  squares  with  water  at  such  a  temperature  passing  through  the 
attemperators,  and,  moreover,  on  the  completion  of  the  fermentations 
it  would  be  likewise  quite  impracticable  to  cool  the  finished  beers  down 
to  the  temperature  desirable  for  racking. 

One  of  the  first  operations  is  the  refrigerating  of  the  hot  beer  wort. 

The  usual  practice  is  to  first  slightly  reduce  the  temperature  of 
the  hot  wort  by  exposing  it  in  the  large  tank  known  as  the  cool-bed 
or  cool-ship,  which  is  generally  located  on  the  top  of  a  building  and 
roofed  over,  the  sides  being  only  enclosed  by  lattice-work,  so  as  to 


MANUFACTURING   APPLICATIONS.  445 

allow  a  free  circulation  of  air,  and  then  permit  it  to  flow  slowly  down 
over  the  tubes  or  coils  of  a  "  Baudelot  cooler." 

The  Pontifex-Wood  brine  refrigerator  is  also  successfully  employed 
for  cooling  beer  worts.  This  apparatus  consists  essentially  of  sets  or 
rows  of  copper  or  brass  tubes  arranged  horizontally,  and  secured  at 
their  extremities  in  return  heads.  Through  these  tubes  and  heads  the 
cold  brine  from  the  refrigerator  is  caused  to  flow,  and  the  beer  worts 
to  be  cooled  are  allowed  to  trickle  over  their  exterior  surfaces. 

An  ordinary  refrigerator  for  cooling  hot  beer  wort  consists  of  a 
shallow  vat  wherein  is  mounted  a  continuous  tube  or  pipe,  through 
which  the  cooling  water  is  forced  in  a  direction  opposite  to  that  taken 
by  the  wort.  The  object  of  thus  running  the  wort  in  one  direction 
and  the  water  in  another  is  to  ensure  the  delivery  end  of  the  wort  being 
exposed  to  the  coldest  portion  of  the  stream  of  water.  In  another  form 
the  wort  passes  through  a  coil  of  pipe  arranged  in  a  vat,  through  which 
a  circulation  of  cooling  water  is  kept  up.  A  more  complicated  arrange- 
ment is  that  wherein  boxes  are  arranged  to  project  alternately  from 
opposite  sides  of  a  double-walled  vertical  case ;  through  the  latter,  and 
which  boxes,  the  wort  is  caused  to  take  a  zigzag  course  by  suitable 
check-plates  extending  centrally  into  the  boxes.  The  cooling  water 
takes  a  like  sinuous  or  zigzag  course  on  the  exterior  of  these  boxes. 
A  wort  or  beer-cooler,  employed  in  many  large  breweries,  is  a  large 
shallow,  covered  vat,  fitted  with  a  volute  formed  by  a  wide  strip 
of  metal  set  on  edge  between  the  upper  and  lower  plates  or  heads, 
to  which  it  is  attached  in  such  a  manner  as  to  form  a  helix  with  two 
distinct  spaces.  Through  one  of  these  spaces  the  refrigerating  liquid, 
or  medium,  is  circulated,  suitable  inlet  and  outlet  passages  being 
provided,  and  through  the  other  the  wort  or  beer  to  be  cooled. 

Brotherhood's  refrigerator  consists  of  a  number  of  long  boxes  placed 
side  by  side  or  otherwise,  each  box  having  a  flow  and  return  passage 
for  the  cooling  water,  and  copper  tubes  through  which  the  wort  passes. 
Hollow  covers  at  the  ends  of  the  boxes  afford  communication  between 
one  tier  of  tubes  and  another. 

Mash  tuns  are  likewise  constructed  in  which  the  vertical  shaft 
carrying  the  rake  or  stirrer  is  formed  hollow,  as  also  the  arms  of  the 
side  rake,  which  latter  are  perforated  with  a  number  of  small  holes. 
Through  the  above-mentioned  hollow  shaft  and  perforated  arm  steam 
is  first  passed  to  boil  the  wort,  and  subsequently  air,  reduced  to  a 
low  temperature  in  order  to  cool  or  refrigerate  it.  In  a  refrigerating 
or  cooling  apparatus  on  a  somewhat  similar  principle,  air,  previously 
reduced  to  a  low  temperature,  is  forced  into  the  perforated  false 


446       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD    STORAGE. 

bottom  of  a  vat,  from  whence  it  escapes  through  these  holes  or 
perforations  and  passes  up  through  the  wort  or  beer  contained 
therein. 

Numerous  other  arrangements  are  also  in  use  in  this  country  and 
abroad.  One  of  which,  of  American  origin,  is  as  follows : — First  the 
hot  wort  is  delivered  into  a  trough  of  V  shape  in  transverse  section, 
from  the  bottom  of  which  it  trickles  over  a  series  of  horizontal  pipes 
arranged  in  line  vertically,  and  through  which  the  cooling  water  is 
passed,  the  cooled  wort  being  finally  collected  in  a  U-shaped  trough 
for  delivery  to  the  fermenting  tun. 

An  apparatus  which  is  extensively  used  in  America  for  cooling  or 
refrigerating  hot  beer  wort,  is  that  known  as  the  "  Baudelot  cooler." 


Fig.  321. — "Baudelot  Cooler,"  with  Direct  Expansion  for  Cooling  Hot  Beer  Wort. 

This  apparatus  is  constructed  for  use  both  with  a  brine  circulation  and 
direct  expansion.  In  the  first  arrangement,  shown  in  Fig.  321,  the 
upper  portion,  or  half  of  a  set  of  tubes  or  coils  arranged  horizontally, 
is  cooled  by  the  ordinary  well  or  main  water,  and  the  lower  part 
or  half  thereof  by  mechanical  refrigeration  on  the  direct-expansion 
system.  In  the  second  arrangement,  shown  in  Fig.  322,  the  upper 
part  or  half  of  the  pipes  or  coils  is  similarly  cooled,  but  the  lower 
portion  or  half  is  cooled  by  brine  circulation. 

The  above  Baudelot  cooling  apparatus  is  made  by  the  Frick  Co.,  U.S. 

Another,  and  also  a  very  important,  use  for  a  refrigerating  machine 
in  breweries  is  that  of  cooling  the  air  in  the  fermenting  and  yeast 
rooms,  an  arrangement  for  which  purpose  on  the  brine-circulation 


MANUFACTURING   APPLICATIONS. 


447 


systems  is  shown  in  Fig.  323.  This  cooling  is  necessary  during  hot 
weather,  even  in  cases  where  an  unlimited  supply  of  cold  water  for 
refrigerating  and  attemperating  is  obtainable,  inasmuch  as  the  water 
can  only  be  applied  to  the  cooling  of  the  beer  itself  in  the  fermenting 
vessels,  and  not  to  the  head  of  yeast  above.  The  result  of  this  is  that, 
although  the  fermenting  beers  can  be  well  kept  under  control  by  the 
use  of  the  attemperators,  the  yeast  above  is  frequently  found  to  be 
going  wrong  by  reason  of  the  excessive  temperature  of  the  atmosphere 
of  the  room. 


UPPER  PORTION  OP 

BAUDELOT  COOLED  BY  WE"tU 
OR  HYDRANT  WATER 


Fig.  322.—  "Baudelot  Cooler,"  with  Brine  Circulation  for  Cooling  Beer  Wort. 

In  employing  a  refrigerating  machine  for  this  purpose,  brine  reduced 
in  the  cooler  or  refrigerator  to  about  the  temperature  of  the  latter,  that 
is  from  10°  to  20°  Fahr.,  or  very  much  lower  if  desired,  is  circulated 
through  rows  of  pipes  B,  fixed  over  the  tuns  A,  or  the  squares,  to 
be  cooled  in  the  fermenting  rooms,  and  also  in  the  yeast  rooms,  the 
system  of  pipes  being  reduced  by  the  brine  to  below  freezing-point, 
and  the  atmosphere  of  the  rooms  from  contact  with  the  latter  to  45° 
or  50°  Fahr.,  or  any  other  desired  point.  By  this  means  an  October 
temperature,  that  is  to  say,  one  of  50°  Fahr.  or  less,  can  be  obtained 
during  the  hottest  summer  weather. 


448       REFRIGERATION    AND    COLD    STORAGE. 

Fig.  324  shows  an  arrangement  for  cooling  a  fermenting  room  on 
the  direct  expansion  principle,  fitted  with  the  De  La  Vergne  patented 
pipe  system,  a  detailed  description  of  which  will  be  found  in  a  previous 
chapter. 

The  speed  of  the  flow  of  brine  in  the  first  arrangement,  shown  in 
Fig.  323  through  the  various  circulations,  can  be  regulated  at  will  by 
means  of  stop-cocks  or  valves  provided  on  the  several  branch  mains, 
and  that  of  the  gas  or  vapour  in  the  second  arrangement,  shown  in 
Fig.  324,  by  the  expansion  valve,  and  consequently,  the  temperature 
of  the  fermenting  rooms  can  be  regulated  at  will.  In  simple  arrange- 


Fig.  323. — Arrangement  for  Cooling  Fermenting  and  Yeast  Rooms  in  Brewery  on 
the  Brine  Circulation  System. 

ments,  such  as  the  foregoing,  the  brine  mains  B  and  the  direct 
expansion  pipes  respectively,  cool  the  entire  area  of  the  fermenting 
room,  that  is  to  say,  a  separate  brine  circulation  (Fig.  323)  or  coil 
of  vapour  pipes  (Fig.  324)  is  run  over  each  row  of  rounds  or  tuns, 
and  all  are  cooled  at  once.  Where  a  number  of  large  squares  have 
to  be  cooled,  however,  a  more  elaborate  arrangement  is  preferably 
employed,  and  the  sides  and  tops  of  the  squares  are  boxed  in  or 
enclosed  with  partitions  formed  of  light  boarding,  under  which  a 
separate  circulation  of  brine  or  vapour  pipes  to  each  square  is  fixed. 
The  latter  plan  enables  the  temperature  of  the  air  over  each  square 


MANUFACTURING   APPLICATIONS.  449 

to  be  regulated  separately  and  independently  of  the  others,  and  the 
brine  or  vapour  to  be  shut  off  completely  from  empty  squares,  thereby 
lessening  the  work  of  the  refrigerating  machine.  It  also  further 
economises  the  work  of  the  latter,  inasmuch  as  only  the  air  directly 
over  each  vessel  has  to  be  cooled. 

In  working  a  refrigerating  machine  on  the  brine  circulation 
principle,  for  these  cooling  purposes,  in  a  brewery  of  moderate 
dimensions,  it  is  usually  run  during  the  daytime,  and  when  it  is 
shut  off  at  night,  and  the  fermenting  rooms  are  closed  up,  the  large 
amount  of  cold  stored  up  in  the  brine  in  the  pipes  over  the  fermenting 


Fig.  324. — Arrangement  for  Cooling  Fermenting  Room  on  Direct  Expansion 
Principle  on  the  De  La  Vergne  System. 

vessels,  is,  as  a  rule,  found  to  be  sufficient  to  keep  the  atmosphere  of 
the  rooms  down  to  the  desired  temperature  during  the  night ;  except, 
however,  in  very  hot  weather,  when  the  machine  has  usually  to  be  run 
continuously.  In  very  large  breweries  also  it  has  generally  to  be  kept 
working  day  and  night. 

In  some  instances,  a  refrigerating  machine  is  employed  for  the 
combined  purposes  of  cooling  water  for  use  in  refrigerating  and  attem- 
perating  and  of  cooling  the  air  in  the  fermenting  and  yeast  rooms. 
In  an  arrangement  of  this  description,  at  the  top  of  the  brewery 
building,  or  at  a  sufficient  elevation  to  command  the  refrigerators  and 
29 


450      REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

attemporators,  is  fixed  a  suitable  ice-water  tank,  and  above  this  tank 
a  brine  refrigerator,  which  latter  may  consist  of  horizontal  rows  of 
brass  or  copper  pipes,  through  which  a  branch  circulation  of  cold  brine 
from  the  mains  is  run,  whilst  over  them  the  supply  water  at  60°  or 
65°  Fahr.  or  other  temperature  is  allowed  to  trickle  or  flow  slowly. 
This  water  is  thus  reduced  by  the  cold  brine  within  the  pipes  to  about 
33°  Fahr.,  or  to  any  other  desired  temperature,  after  which  it  is 
passed  into  the  ice  or  cold-water  tank,  from  which  it  is  drawn  through 
pipes  as  required  for  refrigerating  and  attemperating.  This  arrange- 
ment admits,  by  the  simple  opening,  closing,  or  regulating  of  the 


\\\N> 

\v\\\\\\\\\\\\>- 

\\\\\  Y 

v\  v\\\  VXA.X  \  \  \  \\v\\\\\v^ 

5000  c 

I  C 

t  C 
1  t 
I  C 

J  ' 

<5$6Qs& 

\ 

aoooc 

10.  Q  Q_£ 

O  O  Q  Q  O  O 
OOP  OOP 

>OQQ  t 
>OOQC 

yooooq 

3QOOQQ 

Fig.  325.— Frick  Company's  Method  of  Cooling  a  Fermenting  Room  in  Brewery. 

stop-cocks  or  valves,  of  the  whole  or  any  desired  proportion  of  the 
power  of  the  machine  being  applied  to  the  cooling  of  air,  or  to 
the  cooling  of  water,  or  to  both  operations  at  the  same  time. 

Lager  beer  fermenting  rooms  and  store  cellars  can  be  cooled 
by  a  plan  substantially  similar  to  that  shown  in  Fig.  323,  for  cooling 
the  air  in  fermenting  and  yeast  rooms  in  ordinary  breweries.  In  the 
case  of  lager  beer,  however,  where  the  whole  of  the  fermenting  rooms 
are  kept  at  a  temperature  of  about  42°  Fahr.  and  the  stores  at  about 
38°  Fahr.,  a  proportionately  larger  number  of  brine  cooling  pipes 
are  required. 


MANUFACTURING   APPLICATIONS. 


Figs.  325,  326,  and  327  illustrate  a  method  of  cooling  a  ferment- 
ing room,  which,  as  well  as  the  pipe  arrangement  for  vaults  shown  in 
Fig.  328,  are  constructed  by  the  Frick  Company,  U.S.  In  the  arrange- 
ment shown  in  Fig.  325  the  coils  are  suspended  from  iron  floor-beams, 
and  are  located  in  passage-ways  and  at  the  sides  of  the  rooms,  by  which 
means  any  drip  into  the  tubs  is  avoided,  and  free  access  to  each  tub  is 
admitted  of.  Figs.  326  and  327  show  in  side  elevation  and  transverse 
section  the  arrangement  adopted  for  suspending  flat  pipe  coils  from 
ceiling  on  the  iron  floor  beams.  Fig.  328  shows  in  transverse  section 
a  pipe  arrangement  for  a  vault  in  a  brewery,  which  will  be  readily 
understood  from  the  drawing. 

In  Figs.  329  and  330  is  shown,  in  side  elevation  and  plan,  an 
automatic  attemperation  system  with  a  cooling  arrangement  supplied 
by  the  same  firm.  In  this  system  the  ice-water  for  pumping  through 


Figs.  326  and  327. — Arrangement  for  Suspending  Flat  Pipe  Coils  from  Ceiling 
on  the  Iron  Floor  Beams.     Side  Elevation  and  Transverse  Section. 

the  attemperators  and  regulating  the  temperature  of  fermentation  is 
cooled  in  a  cistern  or  suitable  tank,  provided  with  either  a  direct 
ammonia  expansion  or  brine  coil,  supplied  by  the  refrigerating  machine, 
which  is  on  the  ammonia  compression  principle,  the  sweet  or  ice-water 
thus  made  being  forced  through  the  attemperators  in  the  tubs,  each  or 
any  of  which  can  be  shut  off  or  regulated  at  will,  the  pressure  and 
amount  of  cooling  water  being  under  automatic  control  of  a  self-acting 
pump  and  regulator  which  supplies  the  attemperators  and  needs  no 
attention,  whether  one  tub  or  many  be  in  use. 

In  Fig.  331  is  shown  the  arrangement  of  an  apparatus  for  cooling 
water  for  refrigerating  and  attemperating  purposes  in  a  brewery  by 
means  of  an  ammonia  absorption  machine  of  the  Pontifex-Wood  type. 

In  the  illustration  H  is  the  water  service  pipe  from  the  company's 
main  or  from  other  source  of  supply ;  I  is  the  cooled  water  pipe  leading 


452       REFRIGERATION   AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

from  the  cooler  D  up  to  the  ice-water  tank  J,  in  which  the  cooled  or 
refrigerated  water  is  stored  to  be  drawn  off  as  may  be  required  for 
refrigerating  or  attemperating.  A  thermometer  is  fitted  on  the  pipe  I 
at  the  outlet  from  the  cooler,  and  a  regulating  cock  or  valve  on  the  pipe 


Fig.  328. — Pipe  Arrangement  for  Vault  in  Brewery.     Transverse  Section. 

H,  by  which  the  supply  can  be  so  adjusted  as  to  admit  of  the  cooled 
water  being  delivered  at  any  predetermined  temperature.  The  water 
from  the  supply  pipe  H  is  run  direct  through  the  coil  of  the  cooler  D 
of  the  machine  (which  is  placed  on  the  ground  floor  of  the  brewery, 
and  sufficiently  near  the  steam  boilers  to  admit  of  a  supply  of  steam 


MANUFACTURING   APPLICATIONS. 


453 


454      REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 


Fig.  331. — Arrangement  for  Cooling  Water  for  Attemperating  Purposes  in 
Breweries  with  Ammonia  Absorption  Machine. 


MANUFACTURING   APPLICATIONS.  455 

being  obtained  for  use  in  the  generator),  from  whence  it  passes  reduced 
to  a  temperature  of  45°  or  50°  Fahr.,  or  to  any  other  desired  lower 
temperature,  to  the  tank  j,  which  is  at  a  sufficient  elevation  to  com- 
mand the  refrigerators  and  attemperators,  and  from  which,  as  above- 
mentioned,  it  can  be  drawn  off  as  wanted.  The  tank  j  is  fitted  with 
a  suitable  lid  or  cover,  and  is  preferably  constructed  of  wood,  or  of  iron 
lagged  with  wood  and  sawdust. 

A  is  the  condenser,  B  the  separator,  c  the  condenser,  D  the  re- 
frigerator, E  is  the  absorber,  and  G  is  the  economiser.  A  full  description 
of  the  Pontifex-Wood  ammonia  absorption  machine  has  been  already 
given  in  a  previous  chapter. 

In  working  an  arrangement  of  this  description  the  machine  is  started 
in  the  morning  sufficiently  early  to  admit  of  the  ice- water  tank  J  being 
filled  up  by  the  time  the  refrigerators  are  set  to  work.  The  machine 
is  kept  in  operation  until  the  refrigerating  is  done,  and  for  a  sufficient 
length  of  time  after  to  admit  of  the  tank  j  being  filled  up  again,  so 
as  to  provide  a  sufficient  supply  of  ice- water  for  the  use  of  the  attem- 
perators during  the  night  and  until  the  machine  is  again  started  next 
day.  It  is  stated  by  the  makers  that  when  the  tank  j  is  properly  con- 
structed as  regards  insulation,  it  has  been  constantly  found  in  practice 
that  the  rise  in  temperature  of  the  water  is  not  more  than  1°  Fahr.  during 
a  stoppage  of  from  twelve  to  twenty-four  hours.  The  ice-water  from 
the  tank  J  is  forced  through  the  attemperators,  due  provision  being 
made  for  enabling  the  supply  to  each  of  them  being  suitably  regulated, 
or  cut  off  altogether  if  desired,  independently  of  the  others.  The  pump 
for  circulating  the  ice- water  through  the  attemperators  should  be  self- 
acting  and  provided  with  an  automatic  regulating  device,  thereby 
enabling  it  to  act  efficiently  whether  one  or  all  the  attemperators  be  at 
work. 

The  results  obtained  by  the  use  of  an  arrangement  of  the  descrip- 
tion described  are,  in  addition  to  a  marked  improvement  in  the  quality 
of  the  beer,  that  there  is  .a  complete  control  over  the  refrigeration  and 
fermentation,  the  beer  refrigeration  can  be  performed  in  a  very  much 
shorter  time,  and  consequently,  the  day's  work  completed  sooner,  and, 
lastly,  that  the  waste  occasioned  by  the  necessity  for  passing  the 
greatest  possible  quantity  of  the  comparatively  hot  water  through  the 
refrigerators  and  attemperators  is  obviated.  This  latter  item  alone  is 
by  no  means  insignificant,  the  saving  where  water  companies'  water  is 
employed  for  refrigerating  and  attemperating  being  generally  more 
than  half.  In  large  breweries  where  several  machines  are  employed 
they  are  kept  running  continuously  day  and  night. 


456       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

THE  COLD  STORAGE  OF  HOPS. 

Refrigeration  has  been  found  to  be  an  excellent  means  for  keeping 
hops  from  degenerating,  and  to  effect  this  purpose  a  dry,  dark  room, 
thoroughly  well  insulated,  and  maintained  at  a  temperature  of  from 
23°  to  34°,  is  found  to  be  the  best.  Either  artificial  or  mechanical 
refrigeration,  or  ice,  may  be  employed  for  cooling  purposes,  the  first- 
mentioned  being  far  superior.  Before  being  placed  in  the  cold  storage 
room  or  chamber  the  hops  should  be  thoroughly  dried,  sulphurised, 
and  properly  packed. 

Writing  on  the  above  subject  in  La  Revue  Generale  du  Froid, 
M.  A.  Mertus,  Brewery  Engineer  and  Professor  of  Brewing  at  the 
University  of  Louvain,  states  that  hops  should  be  moderately  com- 
pressed and  stored  in  a  temperature  maintained  constantly  between 
freezing-point  and  37°  Fahr.,  with  a  perfectly  dry  atmosphere  frequently 
renewed. 

Brewers  should  use  hops  as  soon  as  possible  after  leaving  cold 
storage,  and  they  should  be  kept  cool  and  dry  and  preferably  in  the 
dark.  Hops  intended  for  small  consumers  should  be  stored  in  bales 
of  not  over  112  Ibs.  weight,  and  be  delivered  as  required. 


AMOUNT  OF  PIPING  REQUIRED  IN  BREWERIES. 

Without  knowledge  of  all  of  the  elements  affecting  the  cold  losses, 
of  course,  only  general  statements  can  be  made.  The  following  data 
given  by  Mr  F.  E.  Matthews  in  an  article  upon  this  subject,  which 
appeared  in  Power,  New  York,  will  be  of  interest  however  : — 

The  logical  way  of  computing  pipe  areas,  says  Mr  Matthews,  is 
first  to  calculate  the  amount  of  heat  entering  through  the  walls  of  the 
cellar,  and  add  to  this  the  amount  of  heat  generated  by  the  fermenting 
wort.  For  a  given  back  pressure  and  known  number  of  hours  of 
operation  of  the  refrigerating  machine,  it  is  then  a  simple  matter  to 
calculate  the  amount  of  pipe  required.  The  estimate  of  the  pipe  area 
is  based  on  the  amount  of  heat  that  will  pass  through  the  metal  of  the 
pipe  due  to  the  difference  between  the  temperature  of  the  brine  or 
ammonia  on  the  inside  and  that  of  the  air  on  the  outside. 

The  amount  of  piping  depends  on  the  wall  area,  insulation 
efficiencies,  and  differences  in  temperature.  When  these  factors  are 
not  all  known,  rough  rules  in  the  form  of  ratios  may  be  used.  A 
fermenting  room,  for  example,  maintained  at  a  temperature  of  from 
36°  to  40°  would  be  piped  according  to  the  practice  of  one  large 


MANUFACTURING   APPLICATIONS. 


457 


builder  of  refrigerating  machines,  on  a  ratio  of  1  to  14 ;  that  is,  1  run- 
ning foot  of  2-in.  direct-expansion  pipe  for  every  14  cub.  ft.  of  space. 

For  piping  the  different  cellars  in  a  brewery  the  following  ratios 
will  offer  at  least  a  rough  guide,  it  being  understood  that  they  may 
not  fit  particular  cases,  and  that  it  is  desirable,  when  it  is  possible  to 
determine  the  areas,  differences  in  temperature,  and  nature  of  the 
insulation  of  each  wall,  floor,  and  ceiling,  to  compute  the  cold  losses 
through  the  walls.  Then,  after  determining  the  ammonia  back 
pressure  and  temperature,  the  required  number  of  square  feet,  and, 
finally,  the  number  of  lineal  feet  of  heat-absorbing  pipes  may  be 
ascertained. 

The  table  will  serve  as  a  guide  in  laying  out  the  piping  for  brewery 
cellars  of  from  10,000  to  40,000  cub.  ft.  in  size. 

RATIO  OP  PIPING  FOR  BREWERY  CELLARS. 
F.  E.  Matthews  in  "Power." 


Kind  of  Service. 

Cubic  Feet  per  Foot  of  Piping,  Rooms  1,000 
to  4,000  Cubic  Feet. 

Tempera- 
ture. 

Fermenting       -         -  -I 

2-in.  direct-expansion  pipe     13  '5  to  14.5 
IJ-in.  brine  pipes        -         -      7  '5         8*5 

}  36°  to  40° 

Storage  cellar  -         -  -j 

2-in.  direct-expansion  pipe     21          26 
l£-in.  brine  pipe          -         -    12          16 

}  32°  „  34° 

Chip  cellar        -         -  -j 

2-in.  direct-expansion  pipe    24          30 
l|-in.  brine  pipe         -         -    14          18 

|  34°  „  36° 

Racking  room  -         -  -! 

2-in.  direct-expansion  pipe     12          15 
l|-in.  brine  pipe         -         -      7            9 

|  34°  „  36° 

The  approximate  allowance  per  ton  capacity  to  be  made  when 
selecting  a  machine  for  refrigerating  beer  wort  is  15  barrels  per  ton 
on  Baudelot  cooler.  One  thousand  gallons  of  sweet  water  per  ton 
from  70°  to  40°.  Climate  construction  and  exposure  of  buildings  to 
be  refrigerated,  character  of  the  insulation,  management  and  method 
of  handling  work,  &c.,  must  of  course  be  considered. 

A  ready  method  of  obtaining  a  rough  estimate  in  tons  of  the 
amount  of  refrigeration  required  in  a  brewery  is  to  divide  the  capacity 
of  the  brewery  in  barrels  by  four. 


ICE-MAKING  IN  BREWERIES. 

Another  obvious  application  of  refrigerating  machines  in  breweries, 
though  one  of  secondary  importance,  is  that  of  making  small  quantities 


458       REFRIGERATION   AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

of  ice,  either  for  use  in  keeping  yeast  cool  or  to  send  out  to  public- 
houses  or  for  private  use.  This  can  be  very  easily  accomplished  with 
machines  having  a  brine  circulation.  If  only  opaque  ice  be  required, 
all  that  is  necessary  is  to  place  galvanised  iron  pails,  moulds,  or  cans 
of  the  shape  of  which  the  blocks  of  ice  are  desired,  and  filled  with 
water  in  the  brine  tank,  and  the  water  will  be  frozen  in  a  few  hours 
into  solid  blocks  of  ice,  which  can  then  be  loosened  by  dipping  in 
warm  water  and  turned  out  of  the  cans,  the  latter  having  a  slight 
taper  to  admit  of  this  being  more  readily  performed.  When,  however, 


Fig.  332. — Triumph  Ice  Machine  Company,  Small  Brewery  with  Refrigerating 
Machinery  working  on  the  Direct  Expansion  System.     Sectional  Elevation. 

clear,  transparent  crystal  ice  is  desired,  it  is  necessary  to  use  de-aerated 
water,  or  to  keep  the  water  in  motion  whilst  freezing,  and  some  special 
apparatus  is  consequently  required,  such  as  will  be  found  described  in 
the  chapter  on  Ice-making. 

In  Fig.  332  is  illustrated  in  sectional  elevation  a  complete  small 
brewery  fitted  with  refrigerating  machinery  on  the  direct  expansion 
system  as  designed  by  the  Triumph  Ice  Machine  Company,  U.S.  This 
cut  gives  a  good  idea  of  the  general  arrangement  of  the  plant  in  such 
a  brewery ;  for  large  breweries  it  will  of  course  differ  to  a  greater  or 
lesser  extent,  depending  upon  the  size,  capacity,  &c. 


MANUFACTURING   APPLICATIONS.  459 

REFRIGERATION  IN  CANDLE  AND  PARAFFIN  OIL  WORKS. 

Further  important  applications  of  refrigerating  machinery  to  manu 
facturing  purposes  are — In  candle  works,  for  the  extraction  of  the 
solid  stearine  and  paraffin ;  and  in  paraffin  oil  works,  for  enabling 
refiners  to  extract  in  an  economical  manner  in  the  presses  a  greater 
quantity  of  paraffin  than  is  obtainable  in  any  other  manner,  and  also  to 
obtain  a  product  of  a  superior  quality. 

The  first  type  of  refrigerating  machinery  used  for  the  extraction 
of  solid  paraffin  was,  as  has  been  before  mentioned,  a  Harrison  ether 
machine,  and  the  mode  of  application  is  described  by  Dr  A.  C.  Kirk 
as  follows  : — 

"In  1861,  when  I  applied  an  ether  machine  to  the  cooling  of 
paraffin  oil  in  order  to  extract  the  solid  paraffin  it  was,  as  far  as  I 
know,  the  first  application  of  a  refrigerating  machine  to  manufacturing 
purposes. 

"  Paraffin  oil  consists  of  a  mixture  of  many  oils  of  various  specific 
gravities,  and  contains  in  solution  many  solid  paraffins  of  different 
melting  points,  some  crystallising  from  the  oil  at  a  low  temperature,  and 
some  at  a  comparatively  high  one.  This  crystallisable  paraffin  has  to 
be  extracted  from  the  oil,  as  much  to  render  the  oil  fluid  at  all  ordinary 
temperatures  as  to  secure  the  valuable  solid  paraffin  which  is  so  largely 
used  for  candle-making. 

"  As  paraffin  and  paraffin  oil  are  very  bad  conductors  of  heat,  it 
was  from  the  first  evident  that  in  cooling  it  artificially  the  heat  to  be 
removed  could  not  pass  through  a  layer  of  any  considerable  thickness 
but  at  a  very  slow  rate.  In  my  earlier  arrangements  pipes,  closed  at 
the  bottom  and  opened  at  top,  depended  vertically  from  an  iron  tube 
plate,  and,  by  suitable  arrangements,  a  current  of  cold  brine  was  main- 
tained through  these  pipes.  The  pipes  hung  down  into  a  wooden  box, 
which  was  filled  with  paraffin  oil,  and,  after  standing  a  certain  time,  the 
oil  was  cooled  and  the  paraffin  was  crystallised  from  its  solution  in  the 
oil,  the  whole  forming  a  pretty  firm  pasty  mass.  An  iron  scraper  plate 
fitted  these  tubes,  and  being  attached  to  the  box  and  drawn  down 
with  it  as  the  box  was  lowered,  forced  this  frozen  paraffin  down  from 
between  the  tubes,  and  it  fell  into  the  bottom  of  the  box. 

"This  arrangement  worked  until  it  was  entirely  burned  down. 
When  it  came  to  be  reconstructed,  I  adopted  a  more  speedy  plan.  I 
used  a  drum,  with  cold  water  circulating  in  it,  or  it  might  be  cold 
brine,  and  as  this  drum  revolved,  the  lower  part  of  its  circumference 
dipped  into  a  small  pan  containing  the  paraffin  solution.  A  coating 


460       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

adhered  to  the  drum,  was  cooled  as  the  drum  revolved,  on  the  opposite 
side  was  scraped  off  continuously  and  fell  into  a  tank  below.  By  this 
means  a  continuous  process  was  substituted  for  an  intermittent  one." 


An  ordinary  arrangement  for  the  extraction  of  solid  paraffin  from 
shale  oil  is  shown  in  Fig.  333,  wherein  A  A  are  the  cooling  drums  or 
cylinders,  B  B  the  troughs  or  receptacles  intended  to  contain  the  oil  to 


MANUFACTURING   APPLICATIONS.  461 

be  treated,  and  c  c  scrapers  for  removing  the  partly  solidified  oil  from 
the  drums  or  cylinders  A. 

The  operation  of  the  apparatus  is  exceedingly  simple,  a  circulation 
of  brine,  first  reduced  to  about  10°  or  12°  Fahr.,  or  other  desired  tem- 
perature, in  the  usual  manner,  is  afterwards  passed  through  the  set  of 
cooling  drums  or  cylinders  A,  entering  each  of  the  latter  at  one  of  the 
hollow  trunnions  or  gudgeons,  and  leaving  at  the  other.  The  lower 
portions  of  the  drums  or  cylinders  A  dip,  as  shown  in  the  drawing,  into 
the  open  shallow  troughs  B,  one  of  which  is  placed  below  each  drum,  and 
in  which  the  oil  to  be  cooled  and  treated  is  placed.  The  surfaces  of 
the  drums  or  cylinders  A  during  their  revolutions  are  immersed  in  this 
oil,  and  become  coated  with  a  thin  film  of  it,  which  is  cooled  by  the 
circulation  of  the  cold  brine  from  the  machine,  and  reduced  in  tempera- 
ture during  the  continuance  of  the  revolution,  until  it  is  finally  removed 
in  a  pasty  condition  by  the  scrapers  c,  one  of  which  is  arranged  to  press 
against  the  periphery  of  each  of  the  drums  or  cylinders.  The  remaining 
oil  is  then  drawn  away  by  plunger  pumps,  and  forced  through  filter 
presses,  which  separate  the  paraffin  wax  crystals  or  scales  from  the  oil. 

The  employment  of  a  refrigerating  machine  of  one  type  or  another 
in  a  works  engaged  in  the  production  of  paraffin  is,  and  indeed  has 
been  for  some  years  past,  deemed  indispensable,  and  but  few  manu- 
facturers now  endeavour  to  do  without  it.  Indeed,  the  development  of 
the  paraffin  industry  dates  from  the  time  when  an  ether  machine  of  the 
Harrison  type  was  first  used  for  this  purpose,  which,  as  already  men- 
tioned, was  in  1861. 

REFRIGERATION  IN  ARTIFICIAL  BUTTER  FACTORIES. 

In  the  manufacture  of  artificial  butter  a  variety  of  ingredients  are 
first  melted  and  amalgamated  together  at  about  blood  heat  in  churns, 
and  the  resultant  mass  is  then  mixed  with  and  run  out  into  ice-cold 
water  contained  in  open  troughs.  This  sudden  application  of  intense 
cold  crystallises  and  granulates  the  artificial  butter,  which  is  then 
skimmed  off,  and  at  the  same  time  it  also  washes  out  the  buttermilk, 
which  otherwise,  by  its  rapid  decomposition,  would  taint  the  butter. 

Primarily,  and  indeed  still  to  a  considerable  extent,  the  means 
adopted  for  reducing  this  w^ater  to  the  requisite  temperature  is  the 
application  of  natural  ice,  which  is  placed  in  tanks  partially  filled  with 
water,  and  by  melting  imparts  its  cold  to  the  latter.  This  plan, 
however,  is  open  to  several  serious  objections,  amongst  which  may  be 
mentioned :  The  excessive  cost  of  the  ice  and  of  the  necessary  labour 


462       REFRIGERATION   AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

for  handling  it ;  the  impossibility  of  thus  obtaining  as  low  a  temperature 
as  is  desirable,  the  best  result  being  the  mean  of  the  two  temperatures 
of  the  ice  and  the  water  ;  the  non-attainment  of  a  regular  temperature 
continuously ;  and,  finally,  that  the  natural  ice  is  always  more  or  less 


Fig.  334.— Refrigeration  Arrangement  in  an  Artificial  Butter  Factory. 
Sectional  Elevation. 


dirty,  and  renders  the  cooled  water  so  also,  and  consequently  soils 
and  spoils  the  colour  and  appearance  of  the  artificial  butter. 

Figs.  334  and  335  illustrate  a  refrigerating  installation  in  an 
artificial  butter  factory. 

In  the  arrangement  shown  in  Fig.  334  a  circulation  of  brine, 
reduced  to  a  low  temperature  (about  20°  Fahr.)  in  the  evaporator  or 


MANUFACTURING   APPLICATIONS. 


463 


refrigerator  of  a  Pontifex-Wood  absorption  machine,  or  of  a  compres- 
sion machine,  is  forced  by  a  brine  pump  through  the  pipe  i  to  the 


bottom  of  the  refrigerator  L,  the  construction  of  which  latter  is  more 
clearly  shown  in  the  enlarged  view  thereof,  Fig.  335.     It  consists  of 


464      REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

sets  or  rows  of  horizontally  arranged  copper  or  brass  tubes,  secured  at 
their  extremities  in  return  heads,  and  through  which  the  cold  brine 
from  the  cooler  passes.  Over  these  tubes  the  supply  water  is  allowed 
to  trickle  into  the  cooled  or  ice- water  tank  M,  from  which  it  is  drawn 
off  as  required  for  the  use  of  the  churns  through  the  pipes  N.  In  this 
manner  a  steady  and  constant  supply  of  clean  cooling  water  at  a  tem- 
perature as  low  as  32 '5°  Fahr.  is  ensured.  The  brine  returns  to  the 
pump  from  the  top  of  the  refrigerator  L  through  the  pipe  J. 

In  factories  where  the  practice  of  using  water  cooled  down  only  to 
39°  or  40°  Fahr.  prevails,  the  brine  refrigerator  L  can  be  dispensed 
with  and  the  water  to  be  cooled  may  be  simply  run  through  the  pipes 
in  the  cooler  as  in  the  arrangement  in  a  brewery  for  cooling  water  for 
refrigerating  and  attemperating,  shown  in  Fig.  331. 

For  holding  artificial  butters  in  cold  storage  for  lengthened  periods 
the  temperatures  recommended  for  both  butterine  and  oleomargarine 
are  20°  to  35°. 

REFRIGERATION   IN   TEA   FACTORIES   FOR  REGULATING  THE  TEMPERA- 
TURE OF  THE  OXIDISING  OR  FERMENTATION  OF  TEA. 

It  is  found  desirable  to  maintain  the  atmosphere  of  the  fermenting 
rooms  in  tea  factories  situated  in  the  low  countries  or  plains  at  the 
same  temperature  as  those  of  factories  situated  in  the  hills,  and  this 
can  be  advantageously  carried  out  by  means  of  mechanical  refrigera- 
tion. A  patent  for  an  arrangement  of  this  description  has  been  obtained 
by  Mr  H.  T.  Armitage,  of  Halton.  By  means  of  this  process  water 
tanks,  cold  cloths,  fans,  &c.,  can  be  dispensed  with,  and  the  oxidation 
or  fermentation  carried  on  instead  in  a  cold  room,  the  temperature  of 
which  need  not  be  reduced  below  45°,  at  which  point  it  has  been 
found  that  fermentation  ceases.  A  plant  erected  by  Mr  Armitage, 
for  the  above  purpose,  consisting  of  a  Schou's  patent  ammonia  com- 
pression machine,  made  by  Tuxen  &  Hammerich,  having  a  cooling 
capacity  sufficient  to  maintain  a  room  of  about  3,800  cub.  ft.  at  40°, 
with  the  temperature  outside  at  about  70°  Fahr.,  and  requiring 
about  2J  H.P.  for  driving  purposes,  is  found  capable  of  cooling  about 
250,000  Ibs.  of  made  tea  per  annum. 

REFRIGERATION  IN  SUGAR  FACTORIES  AND  REFINERIES,  FOR  THE 
CONCENTRATION  OF  SACCHARINE  JUICES. 

Refrigeration  is  used  in  sugar  factories  and  refineries  for  the 
concentration  of  saccharine  juices  and  solutions  by  freezing  or  con- 


MANUFACTURING   APPLICATIONS.  465 

gealing  the  watery  particles,  which  are  then  removed,  leaving  the 
residuum  of  a  greater  strength. 

A  method  of  concentrating  saccharine  juices  by  freezing  or 
congealing  and  decantation,  devised  by  Mr  F.  Monte,  is  thus 
described  in  "La  Sucriere  Indigene  et  Coloniale."  The  freezing 
tank  is  fitted  with  two  twin  coils  placed  alongside  each  other,  and 
in  which  the  refrigerating  liquid  or  medium  is  caused  to  circulate 
alternately  from  the  external  walls  of  the  tank  towards  the  centre 
and  the  reverse,  for  the  purpose  of  producing  layers  of  ice  of  equal 
thickness.  The  different  layers  of  the  liquid  are  reduced  in  temperature 
from  the  top  downwards  to  the  bottom,  one  after  the  other,  the 
temperature  of  the  refrigerating  agent  or  medium  gradually  decreasing. 
In  this  manner  a  larger  amount  of  the  juice  is  frozen  or  congealed 
without  the  formation  of  an  impenetrable  mass  of  ice.  The  coils  of 
pipe  which  serve  as  refrigerating  coils  for  the  concentration  of  the 
saccharine  juices,  are  subsequently  employed  to  cool  the  refrigerating 
liquid  or  medium  itself. 

The  freezing  or  congealing  tank  comprises  a  vessel  having  separate 
coils  of  pipe  placed  at  different  heights  therein,  the  circulations  being 
arranged  to  take  place,  as  already  mentioned,  from  the  exterior 
towards  the  centre.  A  battery  or  set  of  these  tanks  are  connected 
up  in  series  so  that  the  freezing  or  congealing  and  the  concentration 
can  be  carried  out  uninterruptedly,  and  that  the  ice  formed  and 
remaining  after  the  removal  of  the  concentrated  liquid  may  subse- 
quently be  used  to  reduce  the  temperature  of  the  refrigerating  liquid 
or  medium  without  there  being  any  necessity  for  the  removal  of 
the  ice. 


REFRIGERATION  IN  BLAST  FURNACES  FOR  DESICCATING  AIR  AND 
PRODUCING  A  DRY  BLAST. 

Refrigerating  machinery  is  becoming  largely  used  for  desiccating 
the  air  for  use  in  blast  furnaces,  and  producing  a  dry  blast.  To 
remove  the  moisture  from  the  air  the  latter  is  reduced  in  a  suitable 
cooler  to  a  temperature  below  dew  point.  The  surplus  moisture  in  the 
air  is  precipitated  upon  cold  surfaces,  and  the  air  leaves  the  cooler 
nearly  saturated,  and  at  a  comparatively  low  temperature.  The 
percentage  of  saturation  remains  constant  so  long  as  the  temperature 
is  the  same.  In  the  case  of  coolers  of  the  "dry"  type  working  at 
moderately  low  temperatures,  a  portion  of  the  moisture  precipitated  is 
deposited  upon  surfaces  in  a  liquid  state,  and  can  be  drained  off.  The 
3° 


466       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD    STORAGE. 

remaining  moisture  is  precipitated  in  the  form  of  snow,  and  must  be 
removed  from  the  snow  boxes  from  time  to  time.  In  coolers  of  the 
so-called  "  wet "  type,  the  air  is  brought  into  contact  with  an  uncon- 
gealable  brine  bath,  which  absorbs  the  surplus  moisture.  The  brine 
becomes  weak  from  dilution,  and  has  to  be  periodically  reconcentrated 
either  by  the  addition  of  fresh  salt  or  by  evaporation.  An  objection 
to  the  "  wet "  type  of  apparatus  is  the  possibility  of  brine  being  carried 
away  in  a  finely  divided  state  with  the  currents  of  cold  air. 

The  advantages  of  desiccated  air  are  as  follows : — A  reduction  of 
about  15  per  cent,  in  the  consumption  of  coke,  and  an  increase  of  from 
10  per  cent,  upwards  in  the  production  of  iron,  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  furnace,  character  of  the  ore,  and  other  conditions.  The 
furnace  is  more  regular  and  uniform  in  its  operation,  and  will  hold  the 
zone  of  fusion  more  steadily  nearer  the  tuyeres.  The  life  of  the 
furnace  lining  is  also  lengthened,  by  20  to  30  per  cent.,  according  to 
the  working  conditions.  The  use  of  desiccated  air  enables  a  much 
higher  heat  temperature  to  be  employed,  and  also  ensures  an  economy 
of  from  5  to  10  per  cent,  in  the  limestone  used  for  fluxing  purposes. 
There  is  also  found  to  be  a  marked  regularity  in  the  silicon  and  sulphur 
content  of  the  pig  iron,  which  is  a  very  important  point,  and  also  a 
considerable  reduction  in  the  flue  dust  owing  to  the  concentration  of 
the  heat  at  the  tuyere  zones,  which  causes  regular  operation,  and 
prevents  slipping  or  scaffolding  in  the  furnace.  The  flue  dust  may  be 
reduced  as  much  as  50  per  cent,  by  careful  working.  The  use  of 
desiccated  air  also  gives  greater  economy  in  the  working  of  the 
blowing  engines,  the  speed  of  which  may  be  reduced  as  much  as 
15  per  cent. 

Figs.  336  and  337  show  a  large  ammonia  (NH3)  plant  on  the 
Haslam  system,  erected  at  the  Spring  Vale  Furnaces,  Wolverhampton, 
belonging  to  Messrs  Alfred  Hickman,  Ltd.  The  installation  is 
capable  of  desiccating  100,000  cub.  ft.  of  air  per  minute,  entering  the 
batteries  at  90°  Fahr.,  and  reducing  same  to  20°  Fahr.,  with  a  satura- 
tion of  1'3  grains  of  vapour  per  cubic  foot.  This  apparatus,  which 
has  been  in  operation  for  some  time,  is  found  to  give  excellent  results, 
and,  if  required,  a  lower  temperature  than  20°  can  be  obtained.  The 
desiccated  air  is  delivered  to  five  furnaces,  and  also  to  the  steel  works 
for  use  in  the  converters. 

The  installation  comprises  six  duplex  ammonia  compressors  driven 
by  rope  gearing  from  electric  motors.  The  ammonia  condensers  are  of 
the  Haslam  type,  interlaced  and  without  joints  welded  by  electricity. 
The  condensers  are  constructed  to  work  with  high  temperature  con- 


s 

I 

1 


I 


SI 

>j  -*a 

f  J 

.2  PQ 


468       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 


-2   2 

0}    ^" 


s 


MANUFACTURING   APPLICATIONS.  469 

densing  water,  and  the  water  pumps  are  driven  by  electric  motors. 
The  cooling  of  the  air  is  effected  by  a  Haslam  patent  air-cooling 
battery  which  consists  of  galvanised  corrugated  steel  plates  and  direct 
expansion  cooling  pipes  (see  pages  294,  295).  This  battery  is  divided  up 
into  two  sections,  one  for  cooling  water  and  the  other  for  cooling  brine. 
In  the  first  section  the  air  is  cooled  from  90°  down  to  from  36°  to  38°, 
and  here  the  greater  part  of  the  aqueous  vapour  is  extracted.  The  air 
then  enters  the  second  section  at  a  temperature  of  from  36°  to  38°, 
and  is  cooled  by  brine  to  20°,  or  lower  if  required,  and  the  remainder 
of  the  vapour  extracted.  The  advantage  of  this  arrangement  is  that 
the  air  deposits  the  great  part  of  its  moisture  in  the  first  cooler,  and 
only  a  relatively  small  amount  is  extracted  in  the  second  cooler.  A 
special  brine  concentrating  apparatus  is  provided,  so  that  any  water 
accumulating  in  the  brine  can  be  evaporated,  which  admits  of  the 
brine  being  kept  at  a  regular  specific  gravity. 

REFRIGERATION  IN  WINE  MAKING. 

The  following  is  an  abstract  of  an  interesting  article  on  the  use  of 
refrigeration  in  wine  making  which  appeared  in  the  Revue  Generate 
du  Froid,  Paris. 

Substances  contained  in  saturation  in  the  must  of  grapes  become 
indissoluble  when  the  temperature  is  reduced,  and  2  to  3  grammes  of 
cream  of  tartar  have  been  in  this  manner  obtained  per  litre  of  must  of 
Burgundy  wines.  The  gums,  mucilages,  and  albuminous  matters  being 
acted  on  at  the  same  time. 

Precipitations  of  mineral  and  organic  substances  create  an  inductive 
force  acting  on  the  matters  in  suspension,  the  deposit  and  the  clear 
liquid  becoming  separated  in  respectively  varying  volumes,  and  low 
temperatures  having  an  intense  defecating  action.  Cold  augments  the 
supersaturation  of  the  mineral  substances  of  the  must,  which  has  a 
great  affinity  for  them,  whilst  the  combinations  of  air  and  must  are  the 
slower  the  lower  the  temperature.  This  slowness  of  oxidation  is  an 
important  feature. 

The  action  of  cold  may  be  helped  by  that  of  heat.  Clear  clarified 
must  heated  to  60°  forms  a  second  coagulation,  the  precipitation  of 
which  is  aided  by  cold.  The  two  actions  of  refrigeration  and  Pasteur- 
isation may  be  thus  combined,  and  a  clear  must  deprived  of  many 
substances  destined  to  be  afterwards  precipitated  be  obtained. 

In  order  to  multiply  the  ferments,  if  the  Pasteurisers  are  not  dis- 
pensed with  it  is  necessary  to  clarify  and  relieve  the  must  of  the 


470       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

greater  portion  of  its  germs.  The  best  method  consists  in  lowering 
the  temperature  to  4°  or  5°  or  even  to  0°  if  possible,  with  the  addition 
of  from  3  grms.  to  5  grms.  of  liquid  sulphurous  acid  per  hectolitre  of 
must.  The  defecation  of  cold  has  generally  the  result  of  taking  from 
wine  any  earthy  taste. 

Gatherings  of  grapes  changed  or  decomposed  are  greatly  benefited 
by  refrigeration  of  the  must  before  fermentation.  The  oxidising 
substances  which  impregnate  mucilages  are  precipitated  in  the  lees 
with  a  portion  of  the  hurtful  particles,  likely  to  impart  disagreeable 
flavours. 

The  growers  would  find  it  advantageous  to  submit  the  must  of 
white  wines  to  the  action  of  cold  on  coming  from  the  press,  until  it 
turns  limpid.  Fermentation  after  drawing  off  clear  should  be  allowed, 
and  the  ferments  added  will  act  more  efficiently. 

White  wines  ferment  in  large  vats  at  temperatures  exceeding  32° 
to  35°.  A  low  temperature  preserves  the  aroma  produced  by  the 
ferments,  and  refrigeration  by  means  of  water  is,  as  a  rule,  insufficient 
in  practice  for  the  maintenance  of  a  suitable  temperature. 

On  leaving  the  fermenting  vats,  white  and  red  wines  throw  down 
important  deposits.  The  wine  deposits  its  gross  lees  during  the  first 
month.  At  the  end  of  six  months  the  wine  has  made  a  series  of 
deposits  and  assumes  a  limpid  nature.  The  wine-grower  dares  not 
hasten  young  wines.  With  the  help  of  refrigeration,  however,  a  more 
complete  and  regular  clarification  can  be  obtained  than  that  produced 
by  six  months  of  rest.  Besides  which,  the  lees  or  dregs  are  reduced  to 
a  minimum,  and  are  heavy  and  concrete.  The  diminution  of  lees, 
especially  in  the  case  of  raw  wines,  repays  to  a  great  extent  the  cost  of 
refrigeration.  The  wines  thus  freed  may  be  immediately  used,  and 
under  this  head  there  is  a  saving  in  cellarage  for  the  producer.  In  the 
year  1860  the  use  of  cold  for  the  congealing  and  concentration  of  wines 
was  predicted  by  Yergnette  Lamothe  in  Burgundy. 

As  large  quantities  have  to  be  cooled,  it  is  advisable  to  take 
measures  to  recover  the  cold,  and  the  cooled  wine  may  be  used  as  a 
source  of  cold  by  means  of  temperature  exchangers. 

The  must  is  drunk  in  France  under  the  name  of  unfermented  wine, 
"vin  bourru,"  "macadam,"  "  vin  doux."  Towns  like  Paris,  Lyons, 
and  St  Etienne,  receive  entire  train  loads  of  must  from  the  south  or 
special  centres,  such  as  Bergerac.  In  South  America  must  is  consumed 
after  heating  it  over  an  open  fire  to  impart  keeping  qualities  and  to 
give  it  a  special  flavour.  Up  to  the  present  the  practice  has  been  to 
forward  in  tuns  from  Vignoble  the  must  coming  from  the  press.  The 


MANUFACTURING   APPLICATIONS.  471 

tuns  are  first  either  strongly  fumigated,  or  treated  with  bisulphate 
of  potash.  Refrigeration  is,  however,  the  best  means  for  transporting 
must  to  a  distance.  Must  cleansed  with  10  grms.  of  liquid  sulphurous 
acid  per  hectolitre,  Pasteurised  in  the  same  way  as  wine  and  cooled 
to  8°,  may  be  transported  to  any  distance  in  waggons  properly  arranged. 
The  concentration  of  wine  by  means  of  artificial  cold  had  already 
been  suggested  by  Baudoin  and  Schribaux ;  and  M.  Pacottet  again 
in  1895  arrived  at  the  same  conclusions  with  respect  to  the  problem: 
(1)  The  freezing  point  is  lowered  in  correspondence  to  the  alcoholic 
contents,  a  wine  having  7  per  cent,  of  alcohol  commencing  to  freeze 
at  -  2°  with  formation  of  little  crystals  of  ice ;  at  1 1  per  cent,  of 
alcohol  the  freezing  temperatures  falls  to  -  5°  and  -  6°.  Concentra- 
tion by  cold  therefore  calls  for  very  low  temperatures,  and  is  conse- 
quently onerous.  (2)  If  the  crystals  of  ice  be  separated  from  the  rest 
of  the  wine,  drained,  and  then  submitted  to  an  energetic  whirling, 
they  will  be  found  to  retain  quantities  of  alcohol  often  exceeding 
1  per  cent,  and  also  colouring  matters.  (3)  Wine  concentrated  by 
congelation  has  a  turbid  appearance.  After  a  certain  period  of  repose 
it  throws  down  an  abundant  deposit  formed  chiefly  of  organic  matters, 
of  tartar,  and  of  colouring  matters.  If  the  concentration  be  carried 
to  any  length,  the  wine  deteriorates  with  considerable  rapidity,  and 
assumes  at  the  end  of  a  few  months  the  yellow  tint  characteristic  of 
stale  wines.  To  sum  up,  concentration  by  freezing  entails  considerable 
losses  in  alcohol,  of  colouring  materials,  and  of  tartar.  The  concen- 
tration of  musts  by  means  of  cold  is  not  yet  developed  on  an  industrial 
basis.  The  operation  calls  for  special  plant,  and  has  to  compete  with 
concentration  in  vacuum  at  40°  to  44°.  In  a  country  such  as  the 
Argentine,  however,  where  fuel  is  scarce  and  water  power  cheap,  cold 
might  be  used  economically  as  a  concentrating  agent.  Its  use  affords 
the  advantage  of  producing  musts  which  are  less  acid  than  those 
produced  with  heat  as  the  agent. 

VARIOUS  OTHER  MANUFACTURING  AND  INDUSTRIAL  APPLICATIONS. 

Amongst  the  numerous  other  manufacturing  and  industrial  appli- 
cations of  refrigerating  machinery,  mention  may  be  made  of  the 
following  : — 

In  dynamite  factories  for  maintaining  the  dynamite  at  a  low 
temperature  during  the  process  of  nitrating. 

In  manufactories  of  photographic  accessories  for  cooling  the 
gelatine  dry  plates. 


472       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD    STORAGE. 

In  soda-water  works  for  cooling  soda  or  mineral  waters  before 
bottling. 

In  chemical  works  for  the  reduction  of  mother  liquors  at  low  tem- 
peratures, thus  hastening  crystallisation,  and  augmenting  the  amount  of 
crystals  produced,  as  well  as  reducing  the  cost  of  production.  In  addi- 
tion, however,  to  substances  the  crystallisation  whereof  is  facilitated 
by  cold,  it  can  be  also  advantageously  employed  for  the  congelation  of 
various  chemicals,  and  for  other  purposes. 

In  india-rubber  works  for  the  curing  and  hardening  of  blocks  of 
india-rubber,  thereby  facilitating  the  cutting  of  same  into  sheets  for 
the  manufacture  of  various  elastic  articles,  the  material  in  that 
state  admitting  of  it  being  worked  up  in  a  much  superior  manner, 
and,  moreover,  at  a  far  lower  cost.  In  glue  works  for  drying  the 
gelatine,  and  so  admitting  of  the  use  of  less  concentrated  solutions. 
And  also  in  numerous  other  industries,  in  which  it  would  be  im- 
practicable to  carry  out  many  of  the  manufacturing  processes  in  the 
summer  months  without  the  employment  of  some  artificial  means  for 
cooling. 

For  the  purification  of  gas  intended  for  the  inflation  of  balloons  by 
the  removal  of  tarry  matter,  &c.,  therefrom,  and  also  for  drying  the  gas 
by  the  elimination  of  the  greater  portion  of  the  aqueous  vapour  present 
in  ordinary  coal  gas  as  usually  commercially  manufactured,  and  in  this 
manner  greatly  increasing  its  efficiency  for  the  purpose  in  question. 
This  method  has  been  proposed  by  Mr  C.  Lambert. 

In  tropical  and  other  warm  climates  for  cooling  the  atmosphere  of 
hospitals  and  public  buildings. 

For  the  regulation  of  plant  growth  by  retarding  the  growth  of 
bulbs  and  flowering  plants  to  produce  blossoms  at  any  time  of  the  year 
desired,  and  to  fruit  trees,  so  as  to  enable  fruit  to  be  obtained  at  any 
season. 

In  laundries  for  effecting  the  white  bleaching  of  clothes,  and  for 
drying  them,  the  latter  operation  being  performed  by  means  of  a  con- 
densing plate. 

For  freezing  bait  in  northern  waters.  At  the  present  time  a  cold 
store  of  considerable  size  is  being  erected  in  the  Westmanna  Islands 
intended  for  the  preservation  of  herrings  for  use  as  bait  in  the  Iceland 
line  fishing. 

For  the  preservation  of  furs,  and  various  fabrics  such  as  carpets, 
rugs,  silks,  tapestries,  and  upholstered  furniture,  from  the  ravages  of 
moths  and  beetles,  and  in  the  case  of  silks  to  prevent  them  from  losing- 
weight  and  to  preserve  their  gloss  or  lustre.  Furs  should  be  kept  in 


CONSTRUCTIONAL   APPLICATIONS.  473 

dark  chambers  at  a  temperature  of  0°  C. ;  small  articles  in  cases  with 
layers  of  paper  between,  larger  ones  hung  independently. 

For  cooling  the  holds  of  vessels  carrying  live  cattle,  in  which 
manner  a  uniform  temperature  of  about  70°  Fahr.  can  be  maintained 
throughout  the  entire  voyage  (instead  of  its  rising  to  over  100°  as  it 
otherwise  would),  thus  entirely  obviating  the  heavy  losses  of  cattle 
usually  experienced  from  the  high  temperature  and  bad  ventilation. 
It  might  also  be  advantageously  applied,  on  large  passenger  steamers, 
to  cool  and  ventilate  the  saloons  and  state-rooms,  as  also  the  engine- 
rooms,  &c.,  when  in  hot  latitudes. 

And  finally,  for  producing  artificial  surfaces  of  ice  in  inclosed 
places,  so  as  to  provide  skating  rinks  upon  which  this  pastime  may  be 
enjoyed  during  the  mildest  winters,  or  at  any  season  of  the  year.  Such 
an  installation  was  erected  some  years  ago  at  the  Niagara  Hall, 
London,  of  which  the  following  is  a  brief  description  : — 

The  plant  consists  of  ammonia  compression  machines  of  the  De 
La  Vergne  type,  the  ice-making  capacity  of  which  is  of  12  tons  per 
day  each.  The  rink  itself,  when  in  everyday  use,  requires  the  expendi- 
ture of  a  refrigerating  power  equal  to  that  consumed  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  8  tons  of  ice  per  day,  and  the  balance  of  power,  which  is  con- 
siderable, is  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  block  ice,  and  in  main- 
taining the  cold  storage  chambers  in  connection  with  the  rink  at  the 
required  temperature. 

The  congelation  or  freezing  of  the  water  to  form  the  ice  surface 
of  the  rink  is  effected  by  a  network  of  pipes  which  are  laid  upon  the 
floor  of  the  rink,  and  through  which  brine,  reduced  to  a  sufficiently  low 
temperature  in  the  refrigerator  of  the  machine,  is  kept  in  constant  circula- 
tion by  means  of  a  suitable  brine  pump.  The  non-congealable  liquid  or 
brine  employed  in  this  instance  is  a  strong  solution  of  calcium  chloride. 

The  operation  of  the  ammonia  compression  machines  employed  for 
this  purpose  differs  in  no  way  from  the  description  already  given  when 
dealing  with  that  type  of  machine! 

CONSTRUCTIONAL  APPLICATIONS. 

For  the  freezing  of  loose  ground  in  quicksand  soils,  in  order  to 
facilitate  sinking  colliery  shafts,  well-sinking,  tunnelling,  or  putting  in 
foundations,  wherever  the  amount  of  water  is  too  great  to  be  pumped 
or  in  cases  where  the  removal  thereof  would  damage  existing  founda- 
tions, to  avoid  the  necessity  for  expensive  underpinning,  &c.  This 
may  be  effected  either  by  means  of  ammonia  or  cold-air  machines. 


474      REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

In  the  case  of  a  quicksand  in  a  well,  a  coil  of  pipes,  of  a  somewhat 
larger  diameter  than  the  lining  of  the  well,  is  usually  sunk  into  the 
quicksand,  and  the  latter  frozen  by  a  circulation  of  cold  brine  through 
the  coil.  The  necessary  excavation  can  then  be  proceeded  with,  and 
as  soon  as  the  lining  is  put  in,  the  circulation  of  brine  is  stopped  and 
the  coil  withdrawn. 

TUNNELLING. 

During  the  construction  of  a  tunnel  for  foot-passengers  through  a 
hill  in  Stockholm  this  method  was  employed  for  driving  the  tunnel 
through  about  80  ft.  of  loose  ground,  consisting  of  gravel  mixed  with 
clay  and  water,  which  possessed  so  little  cohesion  as  to  render  the 
ordinary  method  of  excavation  impossible.  The  refrigerator  employed 
was  a  cold-air  machine  of  the  Lightfoot  type,  capable  of  delivering 
25,000  cub.  ft.  of  air  per  hour,  and  the  arrangement  consisted  in  form- 
ing the  innermost  end  of  the  tunnel  into  a  freezing  chamber  by  means 
of  a  partition  wall  made  of  a  double  layer  of  wood  filled  in  between 
with  charcoal.  After  the  refrigerator  was  run  continuously  for  sixty 
hours  the  gravel  was  frozen  into  a  hard  mass  to  a  depth  varying  from 
5  ft.  near  the  bottom  of  the  tunnel  to  1  ft.  near  the  top.  The  work 
was  proceeded  with  in  5-ft.  lengths,  the  excavation  commencing  at  the 
top,  and  a  temporary  iron  wall  of  plates  12  in.  square  was  built  up 
against  the  face  from  the  top  downwards  as  the  cutting  away  of  the 
gravel  was  proceeded  with ;  the  arching  of  the  tunnel  was  completed 
as  quickly  as  possible  close  up  to  this  temporary  iron  wall  while  the 
ground  was  still  frozen.  After  being  fairly  started  it  was  found  sum 
cient  to  run  the  cold-air  machine  on  the  average  from  ten  to  twelve 
hours  every  night  except  after  heavy  rains,  when  much  water  perco- 
lated through  the  gravel.  After  two  5-ft.  lengths  had  been  excavated 
the  partition  was  moved  forward.  The  daily  progress  whilst  employing 
the  freezing  process  was  on  an  average  about  1  ft. 

A  full  description  of  the  construction  of  this  tunnel  is  given  in  the 
Engineer  of  9th  April  1886.  And  in  the  issue  of  30th  November 
1883  of  the  same  journal,  will  be  found  an  interesting  account  of  the 
Poetsch  method  of  sinking  colliery  shafts  by  freezing  the  soil  by  means 
of  an  arrangement  consisting  of  a  series  of  vertical  iron  pipes  placed 
in  a  circle. 

SINKING  SHAFTS. 

A  very  interesting  account  of  the  more  recent  applications  of  the 
Poetsch  process  in  France  has  also  been  given  in  a  paper  upon  the 


CONSTRUCTIONAL   APPLICATIONS.  475 

use  of  freezing  machinery  for  sinking  through  water-bearing  strata  by 
F.  Schmidt,*  of  which  an  abstract  is  subjoined. 

The  Poetsch  process  was  first  employed  in  the  Houssu  coalfields  of 
Hainault  in  1885,  having  been  introduced  into  France  at  a  later  date, 
viz.,  1890,  and  since  extensively  employed  for  sinking  pits  through  the 
Tertiary  and  Cretaceous  strata  above  the  coal  measures  at  Vendin-Sens, 
Dourges,  Courrieres,  Vicq-Anzin,  and  Flines-lez  Raches,  the  pits  being 
respectively  82  and  84,  47,  45,  102  and  102,  and  70  m.  in  depth. 

The  latter  was  the  most  difficult  undertaking.  The  permeable 
strata  to  be  got  through  were  70  m.,  blue  marls  affording  a  bearing 
for  tubing  at  72  to  79  m. ;  the  Tertiary  sands  and  clays  were  25  m.  and 
the  chalk  about  50  m.  in  thickness.  At  the  junction  of  these  forma- 
tions a  heavy  sheet  of  water  was  encountered,  which  gave  from  a 
single  bore-hole  a  flow  of  1,200  cub.  m.,  which  rose  to  2  m.  above  the 
surface ;  a  second  one  in  the  lower  portion  of  the  chalk  between  65  and 
70  m.  also  overflowed.  Two  brick  towers  were  constructed  round  the 
mouth  of  the  pit — viz.,  an  inner  one  of  6  m.  and  an  outer  one  of  11  m. 
in  diameter,  and  rising  the  one  1*6  m.  and  the  other  2 '6  m.  above  the 
level  of  the  surface — with  the  object  of  arresting  these  feeders,  but 
were  found  to  be  ineffectual  and  incapable  of  maintaining  the  water 
level  constant  by  reason  of  a  lateral  flow  joined  to  subsidence  which 
was  set  up  in  the  overlying  strata  of  sand,  the  arresting  of  which 
necessitated  the  sinking  of  a  special  bore-hole  so  as  to  trap  the  spring 
at  a  distance  of  25  m.  eastward  from  the  pit,  by  which  means  a  steady 
head  of  1*6  m.  of  water  was  got  in  the  towers,  and  the  freezing 
operation  could  be  commenced. 

The  freezing  circuits  were  twenty-two  in  number,  contained  in  bore- 
holes 75  m.  deep,  one  of  which  was  located  in  the  centre  of  the  pit, 
which  was  4'2  m.  in  diameter,  the  remaining  twenty-one  being 
arranged  in  a  ring  6  m.  in  diameter.  An  ammonia-compression 
machine  of  the  Fixary  type  was  used  for  the  production  of  the 
necessary  cold ;  it  was  driven  by  a  500  x  900  mm.  single-cylinder 
engine,  making  eighty  revolutions  per  minute,  and  capable  of  producing 
cold  equal  to  1  ton  of  ice  made  per  hour. 

In  thirty-eight  days  from  the  1st  September  1894,  upon  which 
date  the  freezing  machine  was  started,  the  ice-wall  was  completed,  and 
the  sinking  commenced  on  the  25th  October,  the  relief  or  special  bore- 
hole being  stopped  for  good  on  the  5th  November.  At  the  upper 
strata  the  ground  was  broken  up  by  means  of  picks  and  wedges,  but  at 
a  lower  level  blasting  by  means  of  compressed  powder  was  employed. 

*  Bulletin  de  la  Societt  de  V Industrie  Mindrale,  vol.  ix.,  1895,  pp.  273-416. 


476       REFRIGERATION    AND    COLD    STORAGE. 

The  central  tube  was  disused  and  removed  as  the  sinking  progressed. 
When  a  depth  of  14*8  m.  was  reached  two  oak  seating  rings,  the  one 
22  x  24  cm.  and  the  other  22  cm.  square,  were  secured  in  position  for 
the  first  line  of  tubbing,  which  was  composed  of  segments  of  oak  1 6  cm. 
to  a  height  of  2 '6  m.  above  the  surface  level,  with  a  16  cm.  backing  of 
concrete  increased  to  70  cm.  near  the  surface.  A  second  seating  with 
curbs  of  22  x  24  cm.  and  22  x  20  cm.  was  fixed  at  25-93  m.,  and  a  third 
at  43-82  m.,  which  latter  had  three  seating  rings  respectively,  of 
22  x  28  cm.,  22  x  24  cm.,  and  22  x  22  cm.  in  section,  the  tubbing  rings 
being  of  18  cm.,  with  the  same  thickness  of  concrete  behind.  By  April 
1895  the  pit  was  sunk  to  a  depth  of  70  m.,  and  on  the  1st  May  the 
building  of  the  tubbing  was  completed.  Light  was  provided  by  incan- 
descent electric  lamps  supplied  with  electricity  from  a  dynamo  situated 
in  the  same  building  as  the  freezing  machine. 

The  cost  of  sinking  in  frozen  ground  per  meter  was  as  follows : — 

Francs. 

Freezing  -     1,550 

Sinking  150 

Tubbing  650 

Concreting  and  sundries  50 


2,400  per  metre. 

The  Poetsch  method  of  sinking  has  been  also  lately  successfully 
employed  at  the  coal-field  of  Ligny-les-Aire  in  a  sinking  through  a 
permeable  covering  of  about  86  m.,  and  in  the  repair  of  the  cylinder 
pits  of  the  Fontinette  Canal  lift.  These  pits,  which  were  of  4  m. 
in  diameter,  were  sunk  by  compressed  air  and  tubbed  with  cast  iron 
between  1883  and  1887.  In  1893,  however,  owing  to  an  irregular 
subsidence  of  the  ground,  they  became  leaky,  and  it  was  decided  to 
replace  the  iron  lining  by  one  of  brickwork  of  80  cm.  in  thickness, 
thus  reducing  the  diameter  from  the  original  4  m.  to  3*7  m.,  with 
a  considerable  increase  in  the  bottom  bearing  of  the  press,  which  was 
to  consist  of  a  cylindrical  block  of  brickwork  5-307  m.  in  diameter 
and  2  m.  in  height.  In  the  carrying  out  of  these  repairs  it  was 
decided  to  adopt  the  freezing  process  in  preference  to  using  compressed 
air,  so  as  to  avoid  any  chance  of  disturbing  the  ground,  and  thus 
causing  damage  to  the  neighbouring  buildings. 

The  work  was  commenced  at  the  right-hand  press,  the  boat-cradle 
being  secured  at  its  highest  level  by  means  of  two  supporting  girders 
of  40  m.  in  depth;  the  piston  was  disconnected,  and  twenty  bore- 
holes arranged  on  a  circle  of  6-307  m.  in  diameter,  or  99  cm.  apart, 


CONSTRUCTIONAL   APPLICATIONS.  477 

and  one  placed  centrally,  were  provided  for  freezing.  These  bore-holes 
were  about  2  m.  deeper  than  the  bottom  of  the  new  foundation,  and 
lined  with  tubes  of  150  mm.  in  bore  and  of  5  mm.  in  thickness, 
formed  of  steel.  The  freezing  tubes  were  likewise  of  steel  and  125 
mm.  in  diameter,  and  the  inside  brine  supply  pipes  of  iron  and  33  mm. 
in  diameter;  the  collecting  rings  were  of  100  mm.  bore  by  5*050  m. 
diameter  on  the  admission,  and  5*7  m.  diameter  on  the  return  circuit. 

Mr  Schmidt  does  not  think  that  the  methods  of  working  proposed 
by  Mr  Gobert  and  Mr  Koch  are  likely  to  afford  as  favourable  results 
as  are  obtainable  by  the  original  method.  The  first  of  these  gentlemen 
proposes  to  volatise  the  liquefied  ammonia  in  the  freezing  circuits ; 
and  the  latter  depends  entirely  upon  gaseous  expansion. 

The  paper  also  contains  descriptions  of  the  combined  method  of 
freezing  and  fire-setting  in  frozen  ground  used  for  prospecting  for 
gold  in  the  alluvial  deposits  of  the  Siberian  rivers  during  the  winter. 

The  following  extracts  are  taken  from  an  account  of  Mr  Gobert's 
system  *  given  in  "  The  Colliery  Manager's  Handbook  "  : — 

This  is  a  modification  of  the  Poetsch  congelation  method,  and  is 
specially  applicable  to  the  sinking  of  shafts  through  shifting  sands 
and  water-bearing  strata. 

Fig.  338  is  a  vertical  section  and  Fig.  339  a  plan  showing  the 
refrigerating  plant  and  the  shaft  to  be  sunk,  the  two  being  as  near 
each  other  as  possible,  and  the  shaft  being  lightly  roofed  over  as  a 
protection  from  the  weather.  The  power  of  the  steam  engine  required 
varies  with  the  diameter  and  depth  of  the  shaft  to  be  sunk,  and  need 
not  exceed  40  H.P.  unless  the  shaft  is  deep.  The  steam  engine  and 
compressor  are  placed  horizontally  side  by  side  and  connected  to  the 
same  shaft,  with  a  fly-wheel  and  pulley  for  belting  between  them. 

Liquid  ammonia  is  forced  by  the  compressor  through  the  series  of 
wrought-iron  tubes  of  the  condenser,  first  to  the  reservoir,  which  acts 
as  a  kind  of  governor,  and  then  by  the  lower  of  the  two  pipes  seen  in 
the  vertical  section  to  the  system  of  congelation  tubes  round  the  shaft. 
Great  heat  results  from  compressing  the  gaseous  into  liquid  ammonia, 
and  in  order  to  abstract  it,  the  condensers  have  a  relatively  large 
surface,  and  cold  water  is  caused  to  circulate  freely  round  them. 
This  water  is  kept  in  a  state  of  agitation  by  means  of  the  small  water 
wheels  with  floats,  shown  in  the  drawings,  driven  by  belts  off  the 
pulley  on  the  main  shaft. 

*  For  further  description  and  illustration  of  the  system  see  "The  Colliery 
Manager's  Handbook,"  by  Caleb  Pamely,  M.E.,  published  by  Crosby  Lockwood 
&  Son,  London. 


478       REFRIGERATION    AND    COLD    STORAGE. 


The  machinery,  by  means  of  the  upper  of  the  two  pipes  seen  in 
the  vertical  section,  exhausts  gaseous  ammonia  from  the  congelation 
tubes,  sunk  vertically  beneath  the  surface  of  the  earth  round  the  site 


of  the  shaft,  and  forces  it,  condensed  into  a  liquid  form,  first  through 
the  apparatus  for  separating  the  oil  (see  Fig.  339),  and  then  into  the 
condenser. 


CONSTRUCTIONAL   APPLICATIONS. 


479 


The  compressor  piston  is  freely  lubricated  with  mineral  oil,  and 
some  of  the  ammonia  comes  into  contact  with  and  is  absorbed  by 
it.  The  mixture  might  choke  the  tubes  of  the  condensers,  and  pos- 


sibly even  reach  the  congealing  tubes,  if  the  two  substances  were  not 
separated.  This  is  effected  chiefly  by  the  oil-separator,  but,  as  an 
additional  precaution,  a  space  is  provided  at  the  bottom  of  each 
congelation  tube  for  the  reception  of  any  oil  that  may  be  carried 


480      REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

there.  The  oil  retained  in  the  separator  is  not  effectually  separated 
from  the  ammonia,  but  is  slightly  mixed  with  it.  This  ammonia,  how- 
ever, is  recovered  in  the  purifier,  where  it  is  driven  off  by  distillation. 
The  distillation  is  effected  by  means  of  a  worm  through  which  steam 
from  the  boiler  circulates;  the  ammonia  vapour  is  led  by  a  small 
curved  pipe,  seen  in  Fig.  338,  into  the  main  pipe  leading  the  gaseous 
ammonia  from  the  shaft  to  the  compressor. 

Over  the  centre  of  the  area  forming  the  intended  shaft  are  two 
pipe-rings,  the  lower  of  which  is  in  connection  with  the  ingoing  pipe, 
and  receives  the  liquid  ammonia,  and  afterwards  distributes  it  by  the 
radial  pipes  to  the  vertical  congelation  pipes  sunk  in  a  circle  below  the 
surface  of  the  earth.  The  upper  ring  is  in  connection  with  the  return 
pipe,  and  forms  a  receiver  for  the  collection  of  the  gaseous  ammonia 
from  separate  orifices  in  the  same  congelation  tubes  after  it  has  by 
evaporation  in  these  tubes  produced  the  desired  refrigerating  effect. 
The  gaseous  ammonia  is  drawn  from  the  upper  ring  pipe  to  the  con- 
denser through  the  return  pipe. 

The  liquid  ammonia  is  not  allowed  to  fall  to  the  bottom  of  the  tube 
and  collect  in  a  mass,  but  in  order  to  cause  the  evaporation  of  the 
greatest  possible  amount  of  liquid  in  a  given  space  of  time,  the  small 
pipe  for  leading  the  freezing  liquid  through  the  tube  is  made  to  assume 
either  a  wavy  or  a  spiral  form,  as  shown  in  Figs.  340  and  341,  in  which 
A  represents  the  congealing  tube,  B  the  pipe  for  leading  the  freezing 
liquid,  and  c  small  holes  for  allowing  the  liquid  to  escape  into  the  tube, 
at  points  more  or  less  frequent,  as  may  be  desired.  The  injecting  pipe 
is  led  down  nearly,  but  not  quite,  to  the  bottom  of  the  congealing  tube 
and  both  pipe  and  tube  are  closed  at  the  bottom.  The  entrance  of  the 
congealing  liquid  into  the  injecting  pipe  is  carefully  regulated,  and 
descends  slowly  in  a  thin  stream,  the  flow  being  retarded  by  the  waves 
or  spirals,  and  giving  up  a  part  of  itself  at  intervals. 

The  source  of  heat  necessary  for  evaporating  the  liquid  is  the  higher 
temperature  of  the  surrounding  strata,  and  this  heat  passes  not  only 
through  the  thickness  of  the  congealing  tube,  but  also  across  the  frozen 
wall  which  soon  surrounds  it.  By- this  arrangement  the  liquid  to  be 
evaporated  escapes  into  the  congealing  tube  at  all  depths  simul- 
taneously, and  the  whole  source  of  heat  available  is  thus  utilised  at 
the  same  time  for  evaporating  the  freezing  liquid.  In  other  words,  the 
refrigeration  is  effected  simultaneously  at  all  points. 

The  diameter,  number,  and  arrangement  of  the  holes  in  the  inject- 
ing pipe,  and  also  the  pitch  of  the  spirals  or  undulations,  are  varied  in 
accordance  with  the  depth  in  order  to  produce  a  greater  freezing  effect 


CONSTRUCTIONAL   APPLICATIONS.  481 


-P 


93mjn 


\9-44in. 


Fig.  340.  Fig.  341.  K     342. 

Gobert  Congelation  Method  of  Sinking  Shafts.     Details  of  Construction. 
31 


482       REFRIGERATION   AND   COLD    STORAGE. 

at  special  points,  or  a  uniform  freezing,  in  accordance  with  the  require- 
ments. A  congelation  may  therefore  be  arranged  to  have  the  frozen 
column  of  larger  diameter  at  the  bottom  than  at  the  top,  on  the  sup- 
position that  the  measures  are  of  uniform  consistency,  in  order  that  its 
stability  may  be  maintained  while  the  shaft  is  being  sunk  through  it. 

The  arrows  in  Figs.  338  and  339  show  the  course  of  the  ammonia 
in  its  passage,  as  a  liquid,  from  the  compressor  to  the  condensers, 
and  then  on  to  the  congelation  tubes,  and  also  its  return,  in  a  gaseous 
state,  from  the  congelation  tubes  to  the  compressor,  to  be  again 
liquefied,  and  so  on.  The  same  ammonia  serves  indefinitely,  with  the 
addition  of  a  small  quantity  to  compensate  for  waste. 

The  process  requires  a  large  quantity  of  cold  water  for  use  at  the 
condensers,  but  this  must  not  be  drawn  from  any  point  so  near  the 
site  of  the  shaft  as  to  create  a  current,  which  might  oppose  and  retard 
the  congelation  by  licking  or  washing  the  congelation  tubes,  thus 
depriving  them  of  their  refrigerating  effect,  which  would  be  carried 
away  instead  of  going  into  the  surrounding  sand. 

When  the  wet  sand  or  loose  material  has  been  frozen  round  the 
tubes,  sinking  may  be  commenced  with  a  small  windlass  placed 
between  the  collecting  and  distributing  rings  and  the  circumference 
of  the  circle  of  congelation  tubes.  The  men  enter,  and  the  excavated 
material  is  removed,  laterally,  near  the  surface,  between  two  congelation 
tubes,  where  also  access  is  obtained  for  the  segments  of  tubbing. 

More  important  winding  apparatus  must,  of  course,  replace  the 
windlass  when  the  sinking  has  reached  a  depth  of  2  or  3  fathoms ; 
then,  if  the  arrangements  have  been  made  judiciously  and  due 
precautions  taken,  the  frozen  mass  will  be  so  large  as  to  require 
slighter  refrigerating  power  to  maintain  it  than  that  required  for  its 
production.  This  allows  of  the  removal  of  one  or  two  radial  pipes 
for  distributing  the  ammonia  in  order  to  allow  of  more  space  for  the 
working  of  a  winding  engine. 

A  great  advantage  claimed  for  the  Gobert  modification  is  that  if 
the  congelation  tube  be  surrounded  with  water  and  there  be  a  defective 
joint,  the  water  will  simply  enter  the  tube,  on  account  of  the  pressure 
therein  being  less  than  that  outside.  If  such  an  accident  occurs  at 
all  it  is  usually  after  congelation  has  proceeded  for  some  time  and  the 
tube  is  already  surrounded  with  ice ;  there  will  then  be  no  interruption 
in  the  work.  The  liquid  ammonia  always  enters  the  tubes  at  a  tem- 
perature above  freezing-point,  and  in  practice  varies  from  between 
20°  and  35°  Cent.  (68°  to  95°  Fahr.).  The  cold  produced  is  due  to 
the  liquid  ammonia  becoming  volatilised  in  the  tubes. 


CONSTRUCTIONAL   APPLICATIONS.  483 

It  is  of  course  impossible  to  entirely  guard  against  leaky  joints. 
The  thrust  of  the  superincumbent  measures  severely  tries  them,  but 
special  attention  has  been  given  to  the  design  of  the  joints  in  order 
to  increase  their  power  to  resist  the  strains  to  which  they  may  be 
subjected.  The  method  of  connecting  the  ends  of  congelation  tubes 
has  been  by  screwing  one  end  into  another  without  internal  sockets. 
The  thinning  of  these  tubes  at  the  joints  frequently  causes  them  to 
break  in  being  withdrawn  from  the  ground. 

The  form  of  joint  used  by  Mr  Gobert  is  shown  in  Fig.  342.  Its 
chief  feature  is  an  internal  collar,  or  ring,  shown  by  crossed  hatchings 
in  the  section.  This  collar  has  an  outside  flange  of  the  same  outside 
diameter  as  that  of  the  tubes  which  it  serves  to  connect.  The  flange 
is  undercut  on  both  sides  so  as  to  be  of  dovetailed  section.  Each  end 
of  a  tube  is  also  bevelled  or  curved  off  so  as  to  afford  with  the  collar 
flange  a  groove  wider  inside  than  out,  holding  and  compressing  the 
lead  ring  or  washer  instead  of  forcing  it  outwards,  thus  affording  an 
absolutely  tight  joint  when  the  ends  of  the  tubes  are  screwed  on  to  the 
collar.  In  some  cases,  especially  for  joining  the  smaller  size  of  tubes, 
the  internal  collar  is  made  without  a  flange,  and  then  only  one  lead 
washer  is  used  placed  between  the  ends  of  the  tubes,  which  must  be 
bevelled  and  curved  just  the  same  as  when  the  collar  is  flanged. 
On  the  tubes  being  screwed  up,  they  squeeze  the  washer  between  them, 
just  as  the  gland  of  a  stuffing-box  compresses  the  packing.  The  outer 
lines  of  the  section,  Fig.  342,  shows  the  form  and  extent  to  which  a 
tube  was  covered  with  ice  after  having  been  immersed  for  thirty-two 
hours  in  a  tank  filled  with  water;  the  ice  weighed  62  kilogs.  (137  Ibs.) 
at  the  end  of  the  operation.  If  the  tube  had  been  immersed  in  wet 
sand  instead  of  clear  water,  the  congelation  would  have  been  more 
rapid.  One  of  the  two  smaller  tubes  shown  at  the  top  of  the  congela- 
tion tube  serves  to  introduce  the  liquid  ammonia,  while  the  other 
carries  off  the  gas  to  the  upper  ring-pipe. 

Instead  of  ammonia,  any  other  liquid  susceptible  of  easily  assuming 
the  gaseous  state,  such  as  liquid  carbonic  acid  or  liquid  anhydrous 
sulphurous  acid,  may  be  employed  with  a  suitable  modification  of  the 
engine. 


CHAPTER   XIX 
ICE-MAKING 

Various  Methods  of  Ice-Making — The  Can  System — The  Wall  or  Plate  System — 
The  Stationary  Cell  System — Miscellaneous  Arrangements  for  Making  Clear 
or  Crystal  Ice  by  Agitation — Holden  System  of  Ice-Making — Water  De- 
aerating  or  Distilling  Apparatus — Vacuum  System  of  Ice-Making  -Imitation 
of  Natural  System — Ice  Factories — Ice-Elevating  and  Conveying  Machinery 
— Ice-Making,  General  —  Brine  —  Storing  Ice  —  Ice-Crushing  or  Breaking 
Machinery. 

THE  specific  gravity  of  ice  made  from  de-aerated  water  is,  according  to 
De  Mairan,  -926;  its  specific  heat  is  -504;  at  a  temperature  of  32° 
Fahr.  1  cub.  in.  =  -033449  lb.,  1  cub.  ft.  =  57 -789872  Ibs. ;  1  Ib.  = 
29-896259  cub.  in.,  or  -0174  cub.  ft.  The  equivalent  of  1  ton  of  ice  is 
318,080  thermal  units,*  that  is  to  say,  that  this  is  the  amount  of  heat 
that  would  be  required  to  convert  1  ton  of  ice  at  a  temperature  of  32° 
Fahr.  into  1  ton  of  water  at  a  temperature  of  32°  Fahr. ;  or,  on  the 
other  hand,  it  is  the  amount  of  heat  that  is  necessary  to  extract  from 
1  ton  of  water  at  a  temperature  of  32°  Fahr.  in  order  to  convert  it  into 
1  ton  of  ice  at  a  temperature  of  32°  Fahr.  The  amount  of  heat  that 
would  have  to  be  abstracted  from  1  ton  of  water  at  60°  Fahr.  to  form  1 
ton  of  ice  at  32°  is  382,144  units. 

When  the  manufacture  of  artificial  ice  first  assumed  the  proportions 
of  an  industry  no  great  thought  was  given  to  the  quality  of  the  pro- 
duct, and  consequently  all,  or  the  greater  part,  of  the  ice  so  made  was 
opaque. 

Soon,  however,  a  demand  for  a  superior  article  arose,  and  it  became 
necessary  to  introduce  means  for  the  production  of  clear,  transparent, 
crystal  ice ;  the  result  being  numerous  inventions  and  patented  devices 
of  more  or  less  efficacy. 

The  reason  why  the  blocks  of  ordinary  artificial  ice  are  formed 
opaque  is  that  the  rapidity  of  the  freezing  process  prevents  the  air 
contained  in  solution  in  the  water  from  escaping,  and  this  opacity  in- 

*  A  thermal  unit  is  that  amount  of  heat  necessary  to  raise  the  temperature  of 
1  lb.  of  water  1°  by  the  Fahrenheit  scale  when  at  39 '4°.  Mech.  eq.,  778  pounds. 

484 


ICE-MAKING.  485 

creases  towards  the  centres  of  the  blocks,  and  is  less  in  hot  climates 
than  in  colder  ones  because  the  quantity  of  air  held  in  the  water 
decreases  as  its  temperature  is  raised.  Not  only  is  this  opacity  objec- 
tionable by  reason  of  the  less  pleasing  appearance  of  the  ice,  but  also 
on  account  of  the  far  inferior  keeping  qualities  of  the  article. 


VARIOUS  METHODS  OF  ICE-MAKING. 

Five  methods  may  be  employed  for  preventing  this  opacity  and 
forming  clear,  transparent,  crystal  ice,  viz.,  by  freezing  the  water  slowly 
at  comparatively  high  temperatures ;  by  agitating  the  water  in  cans, 
moulds,  or  cases  during  the  process  of  freezing,  so  as  to  admit  of  the 
escape  of  the  contained  or  imprisoned  air ;  by  forming  thin  slabs  of 
ice  on  what  is  known  as  the  wall  or  plate  system ;  by  freezing  water 
in  shallow  stationary  cells ;  and  finally  by  de-aerating  or  depriving  the 
water  of  its  air  before  placing  it  in  the  moulds  or  cells. 

The  first  of  these  plans,  besides,  at  best,  only  producing  blocks  of 
ice  partially  clear,  was  so  extremely  slow,  and  required  the  use  of  such 
a  large  number  of  cans  or  moulds,  and  correspondingly  large  tanks,  as 
to  thereby  render  the  first  cost  of  the  apparatus  ruinously  high,  and 
it  was  consequently  soon  abandoned  altogether;  a  modification  of  the 
same  method  wherein  the  temperature  of  the  liquid  or  medium  used 
for  abstracting  the  heat  from  and  freezing  the  water  was  gradually 
decreased,  having  likewise  experienced  the  same  fate. 

The  second  method  or  agitation  can  be  more  or  less  successfully 
carried  out  in  a  number  of  different  ways,  but  has,  likewise,  certain 
drawbacks ;  for  instance,  complication  of  mechanism,  increased  first 
cost  of  plant,  &c.  IP- 

The  third  and  fourth  methods,  or  the  wall  or  plate  and  shallow 
stationary  cell  systems  are  also  objectionable,  by  reason  of  the  extent 
of  the  plant  required  and  the  slowness  of  the  process. 

The  fifth  method,  or  that  wherein  the  water  is  first  de-aerated,  that 
is  to  say,  the  air  is  expelled  from  the  water  before  it  is  placed  in  the 
cans,  moulds,  or  cases,  is,  all  things  considered,  perhaps  the  most 
satisfactory,  and  is  in  extensive  use  in  many  works  where  large 
quantities  of  ice  are  made. 

As  the  refrigeration  of  cold  stores  or  chambers,  so  also  the  manu- 
facture of  ice  with  modern  machines  may  be  divided  into  two  main 
systems,  that  is  to  say,  the  one  wherein  brine  previously  reduced  in 
temperature  in  the  cooler  or  refrigerator  of  the  machine  is  used  for 


486       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

freezing  the  water,  and  the  other  wherein  the  freezing  or  congelation  is 
effected  by  the  direct  expansion  of  the  refrigerating  agent. 

It  will  be  readily  seen  that  the  latter  system  enables  a  very 
considerable  amount  of  apparatus,  essential  in  the  first,  to  be  entirely 
dispensed  with ;  prevents  the  loss  of  efficiency  due  to  a  second  trans- 
mission of  heat ;  and,  moreover,  avoids  the  mess  and  inconvenience  so 
frequently  occasioned  by  a  careless  or  unskilful  use  of  the  brine  solution. 

Much  greater  difficulties,  however,  have  to  be  surmounted  before 
the  direct-expansion  system  can  be  successfully  applied  to  ice-making 
than  is  the  case  with  the  cooling  or  refrigerating  of  cold  stores  or 
chambers.  In  the  latter,  indeed,  all  that  is  required  to  ensure  com- 
plete success  is  a  perfectly  gas-tight  system  of  pipes,  and  as  a  pipe  of 
no  very  great  diameter  forms  the  safest,  surest,  and  least  expensive 
method  of  imprisoning  or  confining  a  gas  of  a  searching  nature,  it  con- 
sequently follows  that  no  insurmountable  difficulty  is  here  experienced. 
But  the  freezing  or  congelation  of  water  is  quite  another  matter,  and 
requires  straight  surfaces,  as  it  is  not  only  very  difficult  to  remove  the 
ice  that  becomes  formed  round  pipes,  but  a  very  considerable  portion 
of  it  is  also  wasted  in  so  doing.  Hitherto  attempts  to  construct  straight 
surfaces  with  sufficiently  gas-tight  joints  have  proved  more  or  less  a 
failure. 

Amongst  the  numerous  different  methods  devised  for  agitating  the 
water  whilst  it  is  freezing,  mention  may  be  made  of  the  following : — 
The  insertion  into  the  can  or  case  of  a  metal  or  other  bar  which  has 
imparted  to  it  a*  vertical  reciprocating  motion  through  a  revolving 
shaft  and  cam  or  wiper,  or  by  a  crank  on  the  shaft,  or  the  placing  in 
the  can  or  case  of  a  wooden  or  other  paddle  which  is  moved  to  and 
fro,  or  of  an  endless  screw  or  spiral  which  is  rotated  by  any  suitable 
mechanism.  The  introduction  into  the  can  or  case  of  a  pipe  extending 
to  within  a  short  distance  of  the  bottom  thereof,  and  through  which  a 
current  of  cold  air  is  forced,  which  rising  in  bubbles  through  the 
water,  produces  a  circulation  in  the  latter.  The  imparting  of  a  rocking 
or  oscillating  motion  to  the  can  or  case  itself  during  the  freezing 
operation. 

The  main  objection  to  those  arrangements  wherein  some  form  of 
agitator,  or  the  above  mentioned  air  tube,  is  inserted  into  the  can  or 
case  is  the  necessity  for  withdrawing  them,  at  or  near  the  termination 
of  the  freezing  operation,  to  prevent  them  from  being  frozen  into  the 
blocks  of  ice. 

In  the  last-named  method,  the  gear  for  imparting  motion  to  a  large 
number  of  cans  or  cases  is  found  to  be  exceedingly  cumbersome,  and 


ICE-MAKING. 


487 


has  besides  to  be  disconnected,  to  allow  of  their  being  lifted  from  the 
ice-making  tank  or  cistern  to  remove  the  finished  blocks  of  ice 
from  the  cans. 

THE  CAN  SYSTEM. 

Fig.  343  shows  a  patented  arrangement  of  Pontifex  and  Wood's 
for  making  clear  or  transparent  pyramids  of  ice  suitable  for  table 
decoration,  Ac.  -The  ice-making  box  or  tank  A  is  formed  of  iron, 
wood-lagged,  and  the  intervening  space  is  filled  with  sawdust.  The 
ice-moulds  or  cases  B  are  made  of  galvanised  wrought-iron,  and  are  of 
a  suitable  pyramidical  form ;  and  the  agitators  c  consist  of  spirals  or 
endless  screws,  which  are  kept  constantly  revolving,  during  the 
freezing  of  the  block,  by  gut  or  other  bands  D, 
gearing  on  pulleys  E,  fixed  upon  the  vertical 
spindles  carrying  the  spirals  or  endless  screws, 
and  upon  a  horizontal  shaft  F,  supported  in 
bearings  in  brackets  secured  to  the  side  of  the 
tank,  to  which  latter  shaft  rotary  motion  is 
imparted  through  belt  gearing  from  any  avail- 
able source  of  power,  as  shown  in  the  drawing. 
When  the  block  is  nearly  frozen  solid  the 
agitators  must  be  withdrawn,  for  which  pur- 
pose the  brackets  carrying  the  spiral,  or  endless 
screws,  are  so  secured  to  the  tank  as  to  be 
readily  removable  therefrom.  Fig.  343. Pyramid 

By  arresting  the  freezing  action  before  the     Ice-making  Box  or  Tank, 
block  is  frozen  quite  solid  the  central  hollow     Vertical  Section. 
can  be  filled  up  with  fruit,  flowers,  or  other 

objects,  and  afterwards  the  congelation  completed,  thus  producing 
very  beautiful  effects. 

Fig.  344  is  a  perspective  view  showing  a  can  ice-box  with  agitators, 
which  is  the  oldest  and  simplest  method  of  making  clear  or  crystal 
ice.  The  construction  of  the  apparatus,  which  is  of  the  Pontifex- 
Wood  improved  type,  will  be  apparent  from  the  drawing.  The 
agitators  c,  which  are  very  readily  removable,  are  operated  through 
rods  running  upon  rollers,  to  which  rods  a  reciprocating  motion  is 
imparted  from  a  rocking  shaft  G,  mounted  at  one  end  of  the  tank, 
through  suitable  connecting  rods.  The  ice-making  tank  A  is  similar  in 
construction  to  that  shown  in  Fig.  343,  but  is  of  larger  dimensions, 
and  is  filled  with  brine,  a  circulation  of  which  is  kept  up  from  the  coils 
of  pipes  in  the  cooler  of  the  refrigerating  machine  by  a  brine-pump,  in 


488       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

the  usual  manner.  The  ice-cans  or  moulds  B  are  formed  of  galvanised 
iron,  and  the  blades  of  the  agitators  c  are  of  wood.  To  remove  the 
finished  blocks  of  ice  from  the  moulds  or  cans  they  are  dipped  for  a 
few  seconds  in  a  tank  containing  warm  water,  which  may  be  derived 
from  that  running  to  waste  from  any  convenient  source.  The  sizes  of 
the  blocks  of  ice  made  vary  from  2  ft.  x  2  ft.  x  6  in.  in  thickness  up  to 
3  ft.  6  in.  x  3  ft.  6  in.  x  12  in.  in  thickness,  and  in  weight  from 
1  cwt.  up  to  6  cwt.,  according  to  the  dimensions  of  the  cans  employed. 
Fig.  345  is  a  vertical  longitudinal  section  showing  the  "  Eclipse  " 
can  ice-box  made  by  the  Frick  Co.  The  interior  arrangement  of  the 
trunk  and  ammonia  evaporating  pipes  or  coils,  ice-moulds  or  cans, 


B 


Fig.  344. — Box  or  Tank  for  Making  Ice  on  the  Can  System. 

frame-work  for  holding  the  cans  in  position,  with  the  wooden  covers, 
are  all  clearly  shown  in  the  engraving. 

Puplett's  agitators  for  liberating  the  air  from  the  water  during 
freezing  are  also  reciprocated  by  crank  mechanism.  They  are,  more- 
over, so  arranged  that  as  the  ice  grows,  and  it  becomes  necessary  or 
desirable  to  reduce  the  width  of  the  paddles  or  agitator  blades,  the 
latter  can  be  feathered  by  giving  them  a  quarter-turn  in  +  shaped 
slots. 

This  system  of  making  clear,  crystal,  transparent  ice  has,  as  already 
stated,  several  objectionable  features,  which  may  shortly  be  summed  up 
as  follows : — 

The  blades  of  the  agitators  occupying  the  centres  of  the  cans  or 
moulds  whilst  the  blocks  are  freezing,  have  to  be  withdrawn  at  the 


ICE-MAKING. 


489 


finish,  in  order  to  prevent  their  becoming  frozen  into  the  blocks,  conse- 
quently the  spaces  occupied  by  them  during  their  traverse  have  to  be 
congealed  without  agitation,  with  the  result  that  each  block  has  a 
narrow  core  of  semi-transparent  or  almost  opaque  ice  in  the  centre, 
which  to  a  slight  degree,  spoils  its  appearance,  although  the  keeping 
qualities  of  the  ice  are  not  affected  thereby.  If,  however,  any  im- 
purities are  contained  in  the  water  they  become  frozen  up  in  the  blocks 
and  show  through  them,  to  the  considerable  detriment  of  their 
appearance. 

The  unavoidable  freezing  of  the  blocks  at  different  speeds  frequently 
results,  with  careless  watching,  in  some  of  the  agitator  blades  or  paddles 


Fig.  345. — "  Eclipse"  Can  Ice-making  Box.     Vertical  Longitudinal  Section. 

getting  frozen  in  prematurely,  and  broken  off.  The  cans  or  moulds 
are  sometimes  filled  too  full  of  water,  which,  in  consequence  of  the 
expansion  due  to  freezing,  runs  over  into  the  brine  solution  and  dilutes 
it,  in  some  cases  to  such  an  extent  as  to  cause  it  to  freeze  or  congeal 
at  the  ordinary  working  temperature  of  the  machine. 

The  additional  weight  of  the  cans  or  moulds  which  have  to  be 
lifted  with  the  blocks  of  ice  entails  an  extra  expenditure  of  labour,  and 
the  constant  handling  thereof  renders  their  lives  short  and  necessitates 
a  large  stock  and  frequent  repairs  and  renewals. 

To  obviate  the  first  of  these  objections,  wooden  frames  have 
been  sometimes  placed  in  the  centres  of  the  moulds  or  cans,  inside 
which  the  agitators  are  adapted  to  work,  a  block  of  ice  being  frozen 


490       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

up  at  each  end.  This,  however,  gives  rise  to  further  serious  objections, 
the  wooden  frames  having  to  be  removed  from  the  moulds  or  cans 
with  the  ice  blocks,  detached  therefrom  by  means  of  chisels,  and 
again  replaced  in  the  moulds,  and  a  certain  quantity  of  dirty  water  has 
moreover  to  be  pumped  out  of  each  of  the  latter  before  the  with- 
drawal of  the  ice  block  and  frame  therefrom,  both  of  which  operations 
entail  much  additional  labour.  The  unequal  rate  of  freezing  of  the 
blocks  causes  some  of  them  to  come  out  of  an  uneven  shape  and 
under  their  proper  weight  owing  to  the  large  holes  in  their  centres. 

Every  apparatus  for  making  ice  on  this  system  should  be  fitted 
with  an  arrangement  for  automatically  supplying  to  each  can  or  mould 
a  sufficient  predetermined  charge,  and  no  more.  In  the  absence  of 
this,  however,  a  gauge  should  be  used,  and  the  greatest  care  in  filling 
the  cans  should  be  exercised.  The  moulds  or  cans  should  not  be  filled 
to  more  than  within  6  in.  of  the  top. 


Fig.  346. — Propeller  for  Circulating  or  Agitating  Brine  in  Ice- 
making  Tank  or  Box.     Side  Elevation. 

On  the  other  hand,  again,  the  can  system  has  several  well-defined 
advantages  which  certainly  deserve  full  consideration.  For  instance, 
the  first  cost  of  the  simple  apparatus  is  low  as  compared  to  many 
others ;  the  blocks  of  ice  produced  being,  as  a  rule,  of  an  uniform  given 
size  and  weight,  the  necessity  for  weighing  them  is  dispensed  with  and 
they  are  very  convenient  to  load  and  pack  ;  should  a  can  become  leaky 
it  can  be  placed  on  one  side  for  repairs  and  a  spare  one  inserted  in  its 
place  without  delay ;  and,  lastly,  the  construction  of  every  part  of  the 
apparatus  is  so  simple  that  it  can  be  made  or  repaired  by  any  ordinary 
engineer  without  special  knowledge  of  ice-making  machinery. 

The  cold  brine  in  the  ice-making  tank  or  box  is  circulated  or 
agitated  by  means  of  a  duplex,  centrifugal,  or  other  suitable  pump, 
or  by  means  of  a  propeller.  The  latter,  one  form  of  which,  made  by 
the  "Triumph"  Machine  Company,  is  shown  in  Fig.  346,  is  the 
cheapest  arrangement,  and  is  sufficiently  effective.  The  shaft  of  the 
above  propeller  is  made  of  the  best  bronze  metal,  with  three  bearings 


ICE-MAKING. 


491 


fitted  with  ring  oilers.  The  bearings  are  of  double-brace  make.  This 
propeller  may  be  operated  by  belt-gearing  from  a  small  engine,  or  by 
an  electric  motor,  or  any  other  available  source  of  power. 

Fig.  347  is  a  brine  strainer  of  a  pattern  made  by  the  Frick 
Company,  and  the  construction  of  which  is  obvious  from  the  drawing, 
which  shows  it  in  vertical  central  section. 

Many  ingenious,  but  mostly  complicated  and  expensive,  mechanical 
arrangements  have  been  also  devised  for  facilitating  the  handling  of 
the  cans  or  moulds,  and  so  lessening  the  labour  of  moving  them,  a 
brief  description  of  some  of  the  best  and  simplest  of  which  will  be 
found  at  the  end  of  this  chapter. 

The    Freezing    Time  Required  for   Can  Ice. — With  brine  at   14° 


Fig.  347. — Brine  Strainer,  Frick  Pattern.     Vertical  Central  Section. 

the  average  time  of  freezing  different-sized  blocks  of  can  ice  is, 
according  to  Mr  F.  E.  Matthews  writing  in  Power,  New  York,  as 
shown  in  the  following  table  :  — 

TIME  REQUIRED  FOR  FREEZING  CAN  ICE. 


Size  of  Can. 

Weight  <jf  Ice. 

Freezing  Time. 

Inches. 

Pounds. 

Hours. 

6  by  12  by  26 

50 

15  to  25 

8        16    ,    32 

100 

30  ,    50 

8        16    ,   42 

150 

30  ,    50 

11        22    ,   32 

200 

50  ,    72 

11        22    ,   44 

300 

50  ,    72 

11        22    ,   57 

400 

50  ,    72 

492       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

While  no  exact  rule,  says  the  same  authority,  can  be  formulated 
for  expressing  the  freezing  time  in  terms  of  difference  in  temperature 
between  the  brine  and  the  freezing  water  in  the  can,  because  of  the 
fact  that  the  heat  transmitting  surface  of  the  freezing  water  is 
decreasing  and  the  insulating  effect  of  the  ice  forming  is  increasing, 
it,  nevertheless,  has  been  claimed  by  some  that  the  time  required  for 
freezing  can  ice  with  brine  at  the  usual  temperature  varies  directly 
as  the  square  of  the  thickness  of  the  cake  of  ice.  On  this  basis  the 
relative  time  of  freezing  6-in.  and  11 -in.  blocks  would  be  as  36  is  to 
121,  or,  allowing  50  hours  for  the  latter,  the  former  should  freeze  in 
14-9  hours. 

In  1885  Carl  Linde  patented  an  invention  designed  to  overcome 
the  objection  to  having  to  remove  the  agitators  when  the  freezing  of 
the  blocks  of  ice  is  nearly  completed,  by  providing  suitable  means 
whereby  a  horizontal  flow  of  water  is  determined  throughout  the 
whole  depth  of  the  mould  from  one  end  to  the  other  during  congelation 
by  external  mechanism. 


Fig.  348. — Arrangement  of  Freezing  Tank  on  Can  System,  showing  cause  of 
Brine  Foaming. 


THE  FOAMING  OF  BRINE. 

Trouble  is  sometimes  experienced  with  brine  foaming  when  drawing 
the  ice  in  plants  on  the  can  system.  When  this  foam  is  thick  it  is 
liable  to  get  into  the  cans  when  replaced  in  the  ice-making  tank  and 
spoil  the  water  for  the  purpose  of  ice-making.  Foaming  may  be  caused 
by  too  large  a  number  of  cans  being  drawn  from  the  ice-making  tank 
together,  and  the  level  of  the  brine  therein  consequently  falling  below 
that  of  the  suction  to  the  brine  pump,  thus  allowing  the  ingress  of 
air.  Fig.  348  shows  the  arrangement  of  piping  in  tank. 


ICE-MAKING. 


493 


THE  WALL  OR  PLATE  SYSTEM. 

Tn  the  plate  or  wall  system  which  was  invented  by  Twining  and 
Harrison  in  1850-56,  one  or  more  hollow  or  cellular  plates  or 
walls  of  sheet  or  cast  iron  are  fixed  in  a  properly  insulated  tank,  which 
contains  the  fresh  water  to  be  frozen,  and  a  circulation  of  cold  brine  is 
kept  up  through  these  hollow  plates  or  walls.  The  brine  is  either 
cooled  in  a  brine-cooler  or  refrigerator  by  evaporating  coils  connected 
to  the  gas-pump  or  compressor,  in  the  case  of  an  ammonia  compression 
machine,  or  to  the  absorber  in  an  ammonia  absorption  machine,  in  the 
usual  or  ordinary  manner;  or  the  refrigerating  coils  may  be  placed 
within  the  hollow  or  cellular  walls  or  plates  themselves.  In  a  short 


Fig.  349.— Box  or  Tank  for  Making  Ice  on  the  Plate  or  Wall  System. 

time  ice  will  begin  to  form  on  both  sides  of  the  plate,  and  layers  of  ice 
become  gradually  built  up  thereon.  To  remove  these  layers  or  slabs 
of  ice,  the  cold  brine  is  withdrawn,  and  warm  or  tepid  brine  passed  into 
the  hollow  or  cellular  plates  or  walls  when  the  slabs  are  melted  or 
thawed  off  and  detached  therefrom. 

In  Fig.  349  is  illustrated  an  improved  ice-making  tank  or  box  on 
the  wall  or  plate  system,  also  designed  by  Pontifex  and  Wood.  The 
construction  and  operation  of  an  apparatus  of  this  type  has  been 
already  briefly  described  at  the  commencement  of  this  chapter.  The 
hollow  or  cellular  walls  H,  which  are  formed  of  galvanised  iron,  are,  as 
will  be  seen  from  the  drawing,  fixed  vertically  to  the  hollow  cast-iron 
ends  of  the  tank  A.  The  agitators  c  are  similar  in  construction  to  those 
shown  in  Fig.  246,  and  are  reciprocated  in  a  like  manner,  The  cold 


494      REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

brine  is  circulated  through  the  hollow  ends  and  hollow  or  cellular  walls, 
and  suitable  cocks  and  connections  are  provided  which  admit,  when  the 
freezing  is  finished,  of  the  cold  brine  being  completely  drained  out  of 
the  hollow  or  cellular  walls  into  the  cold  brine  tank,  and  warm  brine 
being  introduced,  by  a  small  pump,  from  a  warm  brine  tank  heated  by 
a  coil  of  pipes,  so  as  to  melt  or  thaw  the  ice  slabs  off  the  walls  or  plates 
and  leave  them  ready  for  removal. 

The  hollow  or  cellular  walls  are,  moreover,  so  constructed  as  not 
to  feach  quite  to  the  bottom  of  the  ice-making  tank,  and  in  this  space 
all  the  impurities  voided  by  the  water  settle.  The  freezing  is  gene- 
rally continued  until  the  slabs  of  ice  extend  to  within  a  quarter  of  an 
inch  of  the  blades  of  the  agitators,  when  the  cold  brine  is  shut  off  and 
turned  on  to  another  tank  from  which  the  ice  has  been  just  removed. 

The  agitators  are  lifted  out,  and  the  slabs  of  ice,  which  when  melted 
off  the  walls  or  plates  are  generally  14  ft.  in  length,  3  ft.  in  depth,  and 
from  6  to  10  in.  in  thickness,  are  sawn  into  convenient  lengths,  and 
raised  from  the  surplus  water  in  the  ice-making  tank,  in  which  they 
remained  floating,  by  means  of  an  overhead  traveller,  by  which  they 
are  deposited,  either  directly  into  a  cart  for  removal,  or  upon  a  plat- 
form from  which  they  are  dragged  or  otherwise  delivered  into  the  ice 
store.  When  the  slabs  are  detached  from  the  walls  or  plates,  the  hot 
brine  is  shut  off  and  completely  drained  out  of  the  latter,  the  water 
again  filled  up  to  the  usual  level,  the  agitators  are  replaced,  and  the 
circulation  of  cold  brine  is  again  turned  on. 

The  water  must  be  entirely  run  out  of  the  tank  about  once  every 
week,  and  the  sediment  and  dirt  at  the  bottom  thoroughly  cleared  out. 

The  most  recent  method  adopted  by  the  Pulsometer  Engineering 
Co.,  Ltd.,  is  an  arrangement  for  the  production  of  ice  on  the  direct 
expansion  system.  In  this  the  freezing  coils  are  covered  by  two  plates 
immersed  in  the  water  to  be  frozen,  the  liquid  ammonia  is  allowed  to 
expand  in  the  freezing  coils,  and  the  ice  is  formed  on  the  surfaces  of 
the  plates.  The  releasing  or  thawing-off  of  the  ice  is  effected  by  allowing 
the  hot  gas  from  the  condenser  to  flow  into  the  coils.  The  ice  produced 
by  this  system  is  generally  8  in.  thick  and  8  ft.  by  6  ft.,  but  can  easily 
be  made  up  to  blocks  1 7  in.  by  8  ft.  by  6  ft. 

The  quality  of  the  ice  produced  by  this  latter  method  is  said  by  the 
makers  to  more  nearly  resemble  the  finest  quality  of  Norway  ice  than 
anything  else  yet  produced,  and  owing  to  there  only  being  one  transfer 
of  heat  the  economy  is  increased. 

This  system  of  pipes,  valves,  and  receivers  is  made  of  wrought  iron 
or  wrought  steel,  no  cast  iron  or  cast  steel  being  employed  on  account 


ICE-MAKING.  495 

of  the  danger  involved  by  the  use  of  these  materials.  The  pipe  joints 
are  of  an  improved  type,  being  remarkably  simple  and  perfectly  gas- 
tight.  With  the  object  of  getting  over  the  trouble  caused  by  coil 
condensers  and  refrigerators  becoming  blocked  with  oil,  an  arrangement 
is  provided  whereby  the  oil  can  easily  and  certainly  be  withdrawn  from 
the  machine,  thus  keeping  the  coils  clean. 

An  apparatus  for  making  ice  on  this  system,  invented  by  Mr  J.  H. 
Laurenson  and  Mr  W.  T.  Thorne,  consists  in  so  disposing  and  arrang- 
ing the  slabs  within  a  tank  containing  the  water  to  be  frozen  that 
when  the  refrigerant  is  circulated  therethrough  the  water  between 
adjacent  slabs  is  frozen  into  complete  blocks,  instead  of  the  ice  being 
formed  into  blocks  about  and  around  the  heat-exchanging  units  from 
which,  after  being  thawed  off,  the  blocks  have  had  to  be  disengaged  by 
"barring,"  the  joints  of  the  units  being  apt  to  be  damaged  in  this 
operation  and  the  appearance  and  keeping  qualities  of  the  blocks  not 
being  so  good  by  reason  of  the  holes  left  therein.  Means  are  also 
provided  in  this  invention  for  causing  an  air  agitation  of  the  water 
between  the  slabs  and  for  so  arranging  the  trunk  and  branch  connect- 
ing pipes  for  the  refrigerant  medium  to  the  slabs  that  the  medium 
may  either  be  circulated  from  the  compressor  through  the  condenser 
and  slabs  back  to  the  compressor  suction  for  freezing,  or  alternatively 
direct  from  the  compressor  outlet  by  a  reversed  flow  through  the  slabs 
and  back  to  the  compressor  suction  for  thawing  off;  or  again,  the 
medium  after  passing  direct  from  the  compressor  and  being  reversed 
through  one  or  more  slabs  for  thawing  may  be  short-circuited  direct 
to  the  normal  freezing  inlets  of  other  slabs  and  expanded  therethrough 
for  freezing  before  finally  passing  to  the  compressor. 

The  ice  generally  made  by  this  class  of  apparatus  is  of  very 
superior  quality,  being  of  great  purity,  and  of  a  most  attractive, 
brilliant,  clear  appearance,  and  it  is  in  great  demand  for  use  in 
restaurants,  clubs,  &c.,  fetching  a  higher  price  than  other  makes. 

There  are,  however,  certain  drawbacks  to  its  use,  the  principal  one 
of  which  is  that  the  ice  cannot  be  obtained  in  blocks  of  uniform  size 
and  weight  without  an  expenditure  of  considerable  labour  in  cutting 
them  into  shape.  In  case  of  any  necessity  for  repairs  arising,  more- 
over, the  whole  of  one  of  the  ice-making  tanks  or  boxes  has  to  be 
shut  off,  and  is  thrown  out  of  use.  The  plate  or  wall  system,  besides, 
is  necessarily  very  slow,  from  the  fact  of  the  freezing  process  going 
on  on  one  side  only,  instead  of  from  four  opposite  sides  conjointly, 
as  in  the  can  system,  wherein  the  four  surfaces,  growing  gradually 
together  in  the  centre,  finally  unite  into  a  solid  block  of  ice  the 


496       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD    STORAGE. 

width  of  the  can.  If,  therefore,  a  slab  or  block  of  ice  of  an  equal 
thickness  is  to  be  formed  on  a  plate  or  wall  congealing  only  from  one 
side,  the  time  occupied  in  freezing  it  will  be  quadrupled.  To  ensure 
the  quality  of  the  product,  moreover,  care  must  be  taken  to  use  pure 
water.  Mr  F.  E.  Matthews,  dealing  with  this  subject  in  Power  of 
New  York,  says  that  the  principal  inorganic  impurities  to  be  guarded 
against  are  the  salts  of  iron  which  give  a  reddish  discoloration,  and 
the  carbonates  and  sulphates  of  lime  and  magnesia  which  produce 
a  slight  cloudiness.  Unless  large  quantities  of  magnesium  carbonate 
or  carbonate  of  iron  are  present  the  effects  of  these  impurities,  as 
well  as  that  of  air,  can  be  overcome  by  increased  agitation.  In  the 
case  of  carbonates  of  either  magnesia  or  iron,  increased  air  agitation 
may  tend  to  increase  the  discoloration  through  the  hydrating  of  the 
former  and  the  oxidising  of  the  latter.  This  difficulty  may  be  over- 
come, however,  by  the  substitution  of  mechanical  for  air  agitation. 

The  advantages  over  the  can  system  may  be  enumerated  as 
follows : — The  ice  made  is,  as  above  mentioned,  of  a  very  superior 
quality.  The  liability  of  any  of  the  agitator  blades  becoming  frozen 
in  and  broken  off  is  very  slight.  Only  the  ice  itself  having  to  be 
handled,  the  weight  to  be  manipulated  is  considerably  reduced.  The 
ice-making  tanks  can  be  shut  off  when  the  ice  is  finished,  and  left  until 
it  is  convenient  to  remove  the  ice,  thus  admitting  of  night-shifts  of 
labourers  being  dispensed  with.  Owing  to  there  being  no  parts,  like 
the  movable  cans  or  moulds,  liable  to  rapid  deterioration,  less  expendi- 
ture on  repairs  is  required.  No  possibility  exists  of  the  brine  solution 
being  weakened  by  the  accidental  spilling  of  water  into  it,  as  in  the 
former  system. 

THE  STATIONARY  CELL  SYSTEM. 

Transparent  ice  is  also  formed  in  deep  cells  provided  with  agitators. 
In  the  latter  case  a  number  of  cellular  or  hollow  walls  of  wrought  or 
cast  iron  are  fixed  in  a  suitably  insulated  tank  or  cistern,  the  water 
to  be  frozen  being  placed  between  these  walls  and  the  refrigerated 
brine  circulated  through  the  hollow  walls  of  the  cells  therein.  The  ice 
gradually  forms  on  the  outside,  and  increases  in  thickness  until  the 
two  opposite  layers  meet  and  join,  but  the  freezing  may  be  stopped 
at  any  time  and  the  ice  removed.  This  latter  operation  can  be  very 
conveniently  effected  by  passing  brine  at  a  higher  temperature  through 
the  cells. 

The   stationary   cell    system,    when   employed    to   make    clear   or 


ICE-MAKING.  497 

transparent  ice  without  agitation,  or  using  water  that  has  been 
deprived  of  its  air,  consists  of  a  number  of  shallow  pan-shaped  cells 
having  hollow  walls,  through  which  a  circulation  of  cold  brine  is  kept 
up.  The  ice  is  removed  therefrom  as  in  the  plate  or  wall  system. 

The  plan  wherein  stationary  cells  are  employed  consists  in  the 
provision  of  fixed  or  stationary  shallow  pans  or  moulds  having  hollow 
walls,  the  intervening  spaces  being  open  at  the  top.  These  cells  or 
moulds  are  filled  with  water,  and  a  circulation  of  cold  brine  is  passed 
through  the  hollow  walls  and  the  water  frozen,  after  which  the 
cold  brine  is  stopped  off  and  completely  drained  out  of  the  hollow 
walls,  and  warm  brine  is  caused  to  circulate  therethrough,  melting 
or  thawing  off  and  loosening  the  blocks,  which  can  then  be  easily 
removed  from  the  cells  or  moulds,  which  are  then  refilled  and  the 
operation  repeated.  In  this  system  an  entire  tank  has  to  be  emptied 
at  once,  as  in  the  plate  or  wall  system ;  therefore,  in  order  to  make 
the  operation  continuous,  at  least  two  tanks  must  be  provided. 

If  the  cells  are  constructed  deep  in  proportion  to  their  width,  that 
is  to  say,  substantially  similar  in  form  to  the  moulds  or  cases  used  in 
the  can  system,  then  the  freezing  or  congealing  of  the  water  will  be 
as  rapid  as  in  the  latter,  but  agitation,  de-aerated  water,  or  other  means 
will  have  to  be  used  if  crystal  ice  is  required.  If,  however,  they  are 
made  shallow,  and  pan-shaped,  then  the  freezing  being  almost  entirely 
done  from  the  bottom  will  be  extremely  slow,  as  it  is  in  the  plate  or 
wall  system,  where  the  formation  of  ice  is  also  effected  upon  one 
side  only. 

The  advantage  of  forming  the  cells  shallow  is  that  clear  transparent 
crystal  ice  can  be  made  in  them  without  agitation  or  using  water  for 
freezing  that  has  been  de-aerated  or  deprived  of  its  air.  The  slowness 
of  freezing  is,  however,  on  the  other  hand,  a  great  drawback,  and  is 
the  chief  objection  to  the  use  of  the  shallow  stationary  cell  system ; 
as  the  congelation  of  a  block  of  ice  on  this  plan,  of  equal  thickness 
to  one  formed  in  a  deep  can  or  mould  or  in  a  deep  stationary  cell, 
takes  about  four  times  as  long,  it  is  evident  that  the  apparatus 
requisite  for  an  equal  output  must  become  cumbersome  and  expensive. 
Fig.  350  is  a  perspective  view  showing  a  Pontifex-Wood  patent  cell 
ice-making  tank  or  box,  the  main  novel  feature  in  which  is  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  agitators  externally  to  the  spaces  where  the  blocks  or  slabs 
of  ice  are  formed.  The  apparatus  consists  in  a  tank  A,  with  a  gal- 
vanised wrought-iron  hollow  or  double  bottom,  two  galvanised  cast- 
iron  hollow  cross  walls  or  partitions  I,  and  a  number  of  short  galvanised 
cast-iron  longitudinal  hollow  walls  J,  fixed  at  right  angles  to  the  cross 
32 


498       REFRIGERATION   AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

walls,  and  so  that  there  is  a  space  or  clearance  left  between  their 
adjacent  ends  in  the  middle  of  the  tank,  and  between  the  other  ends 
and  the  extremities  of  the  tank,  in  which  open  spaces  are  placed  the 
agitators  c.  The  movements  of  the  latter  give  an  impulse  to  the 
water,  causing  it  to  rush  in  waves  between  the  longitudinal  walls  and 
wash  out  all  the  impurities  thrown  off  or  voided  by  the  water  during 
the  freezing  process,  which  impurities  settle  at  the  bottom  of  the  open 
spaces.  In  this  arrangement  the  two  layers  of  ice,  gradually  growing 
in  thickness  between  each  two  longitudinal  walls,  at  last  meet  and 
freeze  together,  so  as  to  form  a  solid  block  or  slab  of  ice  of  a  given 
size  and  weight. 

To  remove  the  blocks  of  ice  they  are  first  loosened  or  melted  off 


Fig.  350.  —  Pontifex-Wood  Cell  Ice-making  Tank  or  Box. 

in  a  similar  manner  to  that  employed  in  the  ordinary  plate  or  wall 
system,  after  which  they  are  gently  started  away  from  the  cross  walls 
to  enable  the  ice-grips  to  grasp  each  end,  or  have  loops  frozen  in,  and 
are  then  lifted  out  by  an  overhead  traveller  in  the  usual  way. 

The  only  ones  of  the  hereinbefore -mentioned  objections  to  which 
this  arrangement  seems  open  are  that  when  an  ice-making  tank  or  box 
is  in  need  of  any  repairs  it  has  to  be  completely  shut  off,  and  the  capa- 
city of  the  apparatus  is  thus  reduced  for  the  time  being,  and,  owing 
to  the  space  occupied  by  the  agitators  being  lost  for  ice-making 
purposes,  the  size  of  the  apparatus  required  for  a  given  output  has 
naturally  to  be  somewhat  increased. 

The  advantages  claimed   by  the  inventors    are   as    follows  : — The 


ICE-MAKING.  499 

blocks  of  ice  are  produced  of  a  uniform  size  and  weight,  and  are 
convenient  to  manipulate,  load,  and  pack.  The  ice  is  of  superior 
purity  and  appearance,  and  the  slabs  are  of  great  thickness  and 
durability.  There  is  no  liability  to  breakage  of  any  of  the  blades  of 
the  agitators.  There  are  no  cans  or  moulds  to  handle  or  repair.  The 
walls  are  fixed,  and  the  general  arrangement  is  of  very  great  strength 
and  practically  indestructible.  Only  the  actual  ice  itself  has  to  be 
handled,  therefore  less  weight  has  to  be  moved  in  comparison  with  the 
can  system.  No  cutting  up  and  consequent  waste  or  weighing  of  the 
ice  is  required,  as  in  the  wall  or  plate  system.  When  an  ice  tank  or 
box  is  finished,  it  can  be  shut  off  by  simply  turning  the  cocks  and  left 
till  it  is  convenient  to  remove  the  ice.  Thus  all  the  tanks  or  boxes 
can  be  set  so  as  to  be  completed  during  the  day,  and  no  night-shift  of 
labourers  is  required.  And,  finally,  the  water  cannot  spill  into  the 
brine  and  weaken  it,  as  it  does  in  the  can  system,  unless  considerable 
care  be  exercised. 

The  sizes  of  the  blocks  of  ice  made  in  these  boxes  run  from  3  ft. 
6  in.  by  3  ft.  6  in.  by  9  in.  in  thickness  up  to  3  ft.  6  in.  by  3  ft.  6  in. 
by  1  ft.  9  in.  in  thickness,  and  the  weight  likewise  varies  in  a  corre- 
sponding ratio  from  about  4J  cwt.  up  to  10  J  cwt.  each.  Very 
thick  blocks  are  not,  however,  found  to  be  commercially  successful, 
inasmuch  as  they  take  too  long  a  time  to  freeze  or  congeal. 

Where  clear  ice  is  required  in  blocks  of,  say,  5  cwt.,  the  Pulsometer 
Engineering  Co.,  Ltd.,  use  a  special  form  of  tank,  composed  of  hollow 
cells  forming  squares  the  size  of  the  blocks  required,  the  water  in 
which  is  agitated  during  freezing.  The  result  is  a  block  of  ice  almost 
perfectly  clear  and  weighing  about  5  cwt. 

As  in  the  ordinary  wall  or  plate  system,  every  plant  working  with 
the  above-described  ice-making  tanks  or  boxes,  in  order  to  render  the 
process  continuous,  must  have  a  set  comprising  two  or  more  of  the 
latter.  Thus  a  4-ton  plant  has  two  boxes,  a  6 -ton  three  boxes,  a  9-ton 
three  boxes,  a  15-ton  either  three  or  four  boxes,  and  a  24-ton  either 
six  or  eight  boxes. 

MISCELLANEOUS  ARRANGEMENTS  FOR  MAKING  CLEAR  OR  CRYSTAL 
ICE  BY  AGITATION. 

Hill's  method  of  making  clear  or  crystal  ice  (British  Patent  No. 
16253  of  1889)  is  shown  in  Figs.  351  and  352,  which  represent  respec- 
tively a  plan  of  the  ice-making  tank  or  box  partly  in  horizontal  section 
and  with  the  lid  or  cover  removed,  and  a  vertical  section  on  the  line 


500       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

x-x  of  the  previous  figure.  The  apparatus  comprises  a  vessel  or  tank 
p,  which  is  provided  with  a  lid  or  cover  (Fig.  352),  and  with  a  jacket 
or  casing  Q,  the  intervening  space  between  the  jacket  or  casing  and 
the  tank  p  being  filled  with  any  suitable  non-conducting  material  as 
at  Q1.  When  clear  ice  is  to  be  made,  the  liquid  to  be  frozen  is  con- 


Fig.  351.— Hill's  Method  of  Making  Clear  or  Crystal  Ice.     Plan  of  Box  or  Tank. 

tinuously  circulated  in  the  vessel  or  tank  p  by  means  of  a  rotating 
screw  R  or  other  suitable  device.  Into  the  vessel  or  tank  p  project 
freezing  vessels  or  chambers  s,  so  that  the  water  in  the  vessel  or  tank 
p  will  be  frozen  on  the  exterior  of  the  chambers  s,  and  the  hollow 


Fig.  352. — Hill's  Method  of  Making  Clear  or  Crystal  Ice.     Transverse  Section 
on  line  x-x,  Fig.  351. 

blocks  of  ice  thus  formed  can  be  very  readily  removed  therefrom.  For 
this  latter  purpose  the  chambers  s  are  made  slightly  conical  or  taper 
from  their  outer  to  their  inner  ends,  and  rings  s1  are  fitted  loosely 
thereon  to  further  facilitate  the  removal  of  the"  hollow  blocks  of  ice. 
Either  the  direct  expansion  or  brine  circulation  may  be  used  for  freez- 


ICE-MAKING. 


501 


ing  purposes.  In  the  first  case  the  liquid  ammonia  is  forced  into  the 
chambers  s  through  a  pipe  s2,  and  is  then  allowed  to  expand  and  return 
to  the  absorber  of  an  absorption  machine,  the  weak  liquor,  which  can- 
not be  vaporised  without  the  application  of  heat,  being  allowed  to 
return  to  the  ammonia  boiler  through  a  pipe  s3.  In  the  second  case 
brine  reduced  to  a  very  low  temperature  by  any  suitable  process  is 


s 

S 

T 

T 

s 

S 

T 

T 

s 

I                     y 
1 

&. 


Fig.  353.  —Modified  Arrangement  of  Hill's  Method  of  Making  Clear  or  Crystal 
Ice.     Horizontal  Section. 


[ 

03 

0 

El 

0 

0 

r 

0 

a 

a 

a 

0 

0 

T 

s 

Fig.  354.— Modified  Arrangement  of  Hill's  Method  of  Making  Clear  or  Crystal 
Ice.     Transverse  Section  on  line  x'-x',  Fig.  353. 

caused  to  circulate  through  the  chambers  s  for  the  further  purpose  of 
freezing  the  water  on  the  exterior  thereof. 

To  ensure  the  proper  circulation  of  the  water  to  be  frozen  in  the 
vessel  or  tank  p,  partitions  T  are  provided  in  the  latter,  which  are  so 
arranged  that  they  can  be  readily  removed  to  permit  the  withdrawal  of 
the  hollow  blocks  of  ice  from  the  chambers  s. 


502       REFRIGERATION   AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

In  another  arrangement,  shown  in  horizontal  section  in  Fig.  353 
and  in  vertical  transverse  section  on  the  line  x'-x  of  the  latter  in  Fig. 
354,  a  series  of  the  freezing  chambers  s  at  each  side  of  the  tank  P  are 
provided,  leaving  a  space  between  them  of  slightly  greater  length  than 
the  blocks  of  ice  to  be  produced,  so  that  the  blocks  from  one  series 
of  chambers  can  be  first  removed  and  then  those  from  the  other  series, 
and  space  in  the  ice  box  or  tank  is  thus  economised.  Several  rows  or 
series  of  the  freezing  chambers  placed  one  above  another  in  the  freezing 
or  ice  vessel  or  tank  may  be  employed  as  shown  in  Fig.  354. 

Figs.  355  and  356  show  in  plan  and  elevation  the  Haslam  patent 
air  agitation  ice-making  plant.  A  is  an  air  compressor  of  the  water 
displacement  type  which  works  without  oil  or  lubricant,  and  partly 
cools  the  air  during  compression.  B  is  a  surface  cooler  further  cooled 
by  water  round  the  tubes,  c  are  similar  coolers  using  brine  as  the 
cooling  medium,  by  means  of  which  the  air  is  cooled  almost  to  the 
temperature  of  the  brine  in  the  ice  tank.  The  cooling  causes  the 
moisture  in  the  air  to  condense  on  the  surfaces,  and  this  avoids  freezing 
up  the  pipes  which  conduct  air  to  the  ice  moulds  or  cans.  D  is  a  small 
pump  for  circulating  brine  through  the  coolers  c.  The  moisture  in  the 
air  is  deposited  on  the  cooler  tubes,  making  a  formation  of  hoar  frost. 
This  would,  in  time,  cause  an  obstruction  to  the  passage  of  the  air,  but 
by  a  simple  arrangement  of  change  over  valves  the  coolers  c  are  used 
alternately,  so  that  one  cooler  is  thawing  off  whilst  the  other  is  in  use 
for  finally  cooling  the  air.  The  cold  dry  air  enters  at  the  bottom  of  the 
cans  by  a  specially  constructed  nozzle,  and  this  produces  the  desired 
agitation  of  the  water  to  be  frozen.  E  represents  the  ice-making  tank 
with  its  cooling  coils  and  moulds.  F  is  a  tank  containing  tepid  water 
into  which  the  ice  moulds  are  dipped  in  order  to  free  the  blocks,  and 
G  is  the  can  tip  for  discharging  the  ice  on  to  the  platform.  The  ice 
cans  are  lifted  out  a  row  at  a  time  by  an  overhead  travelling  crane. 
When  a  row  of  cans  is  filled  with  water  and  placed  in  the  tank,  all 
that  has  to  be  done  is  to  connect  a  rubber  hose  with  the  main  and 
open  the  air  valves. 

An  apparatus  for  making  transparent  ice,  invented  by  Mr  R.  J. 
Berryman,  Washington,  U.S.,  consists  in  a  tank  having  receptacles 
partly  submerged  in  a  fluid  cooled  by  refrigerating  pipes  or  hollow 
plates.  The  freezing  action  is  stopped  before  the  water  is  completely 
frozen,  and  the  receptacles  are  subjected  to  the  action  of  a  thawing 
medium  without  being  removed.  Air  or  ozone  is  discharged  in  jets 
from  pipes  arranged  longitudinally  in  the  containers  so  that  the  inside 
faces  of  the  plates  of  ice  are  straight  and  parallel.  The  unfrozen 


ICE-MAKING. 


503 


504      REFRIGERATION   AND   COLD   STORAGE. 


Fig.  357.— Oscillating  Ice- 
making  Tank  or  Box. 


water  containing  the  impurities  is  drawn    off  through   apertures    in 
the  bottom  of  the  containers. 

In  Figs.  357  to  363  are  shown  a  few 
amongst  the  many  other  arrangements  for 
the  manufacture  of  clear  or  crystal  ice  by 
agitation  which  have  been  devised. 

An  arrangement  for  ensuring  the  pro- 
duction of  clear  or  crystal  ice  by  the  im- 
parting of  an  oscillating  movement  to  the 
tank  or  box  A,  in  which  the  ice  moulds  or 
cans  are  suspended,  is  shown  in  Fig.  357, 
which  depicts  an  end  view  of  the  apparatus. 
The  tank  is  suspended,  as  will  be  seen  from 
the  illustration, 
upon  trunnions  K, 

supported  in  bearings  in  standards  K1,  and 

an  oscillating  or  rocking  motion  is  imparted 

to  it  by  means   of   an  eccentric   L  upon  a 

rotating  shaft  M.     The  cold  brine  or  other 

freezing  medium  is   admitted   through   the 

trunnions  K,  which  are   formed   hollow  for 

that  purpose,  to  the  bottom  of  the  tank  A. 
The  finished  ice  can  be  removed  by  the 

substitution  of  warm  for  the  cold  brine  to 

thaw  off  the  blocks,  and  by  inclining  the 

tank  sufficiently  to  admit  of  their  sliding  out. 
In   another    type   of   apparatus    of   this 

class,  each  of  the  cans  or  moulds  is  supported 

in   the    freezing    tank    on    central    pins   or 

trunnions   resting   in   fixed   bearings.      An 

oscillating   movement   is   imparted  to  each 

can  by  forks  on  a  rocking  shaft  engaging 

other  pins  placed  near  its  upper  end. 

Numerous  arrangements  for  agitation  by 

means  of  a  piston  or  pump  of  some  descrip- 
tion have  been  designed,  some  few  of  which 

are  shown  in  Figs.  358  to  363  by  way  of 

examples. 

The  first  of  these,  or  that  shown  in  Fig. 

358,  consists  of  a  partially-submerged  plunger  pump  N,  the  ports  of 

which  are  inclined  as  shown  in  the  drawing,  so  as  to  set  up  currents  in 


B 


Fig.  358. — Arrangement 
for  Agitation  of  Water  in 
Ice  Cans  by  means  of  par- 
tially submerged  Double- 
ported  Plunger  Pump. 
Sectional  Elevation. 


ICE-MAKING. 


505 


the  necessary  directions,  shields  or  guards  o  being  fixed  above  the 
water  level  to  prevent  the  latter  from  splashing  out  of  the  can  or 
mould  B. 

In  the  illustration  the  pump  N  is  shown  arranged  vertically,  but 
it  can  also  be  fixed  to  work  horizontally. 

The  second  arrangement  of  pump  agitator  illustrated  in  Fig.  359 
has  the  refrigerating  tanks  placed  in  series  in  such  a  manner  that  the 
brine  can  pass  from  one  to  the  other  through  the  passages  provided 
for  that  purpose.  The  pump  N  is  shown  at  the  right-hand  side  of  the 
figure,  and  consists  of  a  barrel  and  plunger  or  piston  worked  off  a 
crank.  The  water  is  forced  by  this  pump  at  each  downward  stroke 
of  the  plunger  along  a  channel  or  passage  beneath  the  moulds  or  cans 
B,  and  passes  up  the  latter  through  holes  or  apertures  B,  provided  in 
their  bottoms. 


Fig.  359.  — Arrangement  for  Agitation  of  Water  in  fixed  Ice  Cans  by  means  of  a 
Plunger  or  Piston  Pump.     Vertical  Longitudinal  Section. 

On  the  completion  of  the  congelation  of  the  water  in  the  moulds, 
the  cold  brine  is  drawn  off  from  the  tank,  and  warm  water  or  air 
is  introduced  through  suitable  pipes,  so  as  to  thaw  off  the  blocks 
of  ice,  and  admit  of  their  withdrawal.  The  moulds  or  cans  are  con: 
nected  together  by  tie-bars,  and  a  number  of  them  are  arranged  in 
one  frame. 

In  another  arrangement  shown  in  Fig.  360,  in  which  the  water  in 
removable  moulds  or  cans  is  agitated  by  the  action  of  pumps,  the 
moulds  B,  which  are  of  thin  sheet  metal,  and  arranged  transversely 
in  a  brine  tank  A,  are  each  divided  by  a  non-conducting  partition  into 
two  compartments  communicating  through  suitable  openings.  The 
larger  of  these  compartments  is  that  in  which  the  water  is  frozen,  the 
smaller  one  forms  a  pump  barrel  N,  and  in  it  a  piston  or  plunger  N1 
is  reciprocated.  The  plunger  rods  are  coupled  to  a  bar  arranged 


506       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD    STORAGE. 

longitudinally,  its  ends  working  between  suitable  guides,  and  an  up- 
and-down  motion  is  imparted  to  it  from  a  rocking  shaft  Q. 

Figs.  361,  362,  and  363  illustrate  types  of  pump  or  piston  agitators, 
in  which  the  water  in  the  tanks  themselves  is  intended  to  be  frozen,  no 
separate  ice  cans  or  moulds  being  employed.  In  the  first  arrangement 
(Fig.  361)  the  tank  A,  containing  the  water  to  be  frozen,  is  fitted  with  a 
second  bottom  as  broad  as  the  tank,  but  with  a  clearance,  as  shown 
in  the  illustration,  which  represents  a  longitudinal  vertical  section 
through  it  at  each  end.  In  the  clearance  between  the  two  bottoms  of 
the  tank  is  mounted  an  agitator  R,  as  broad  as  the  tank  A,  and  to 
which  reciprocating  motion  is  imparted  by  connecting-rods  from  cranks 
on  a  rocking  shaft  Q.  The  freezing  is  effected  by  narrow  longitudinal 


B 


Fig.  360.— Arrangement  for 
Agitation  of  Water  in  Remov- 
able Ice  Cans  or  Moulds  by 
means  of  Plunger  Pumps. 
Transverse  Section. 


Fig.  361. — Arrangement  for  Agitation  of 
Water  to  be  frozen  in  Ice-making  Tank  or 
Box  by  Long  Horizontal  Agitator.  Trans- 
verse Section. 


brine  cells  j1,  suspended  from  the  edges  of  the  tank  at  their  upper 
ends,  and  resting  on  the  second  or  false  bottom  at  their  lower  ends. 
These  brine  cells  are  alternately  connected  at  the  ends  through  unions, 
or  tubes,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  admit  of  the  brine  being  passed 
through  the  whole  series,  a  four-way  cock  supplying  or  withdrawing  it 
in  either  direction  to  other  tanks  or  to  the  refrigerator. 

Steam  can  be  passed  through  the  cells  to  admit  of  their  removal 
after  freezing  is  completed. 

In  the  arrangements  shown  in  Figs.  362  and  363,  pump  chambers 
N,  and  plungers  or  pistons  N1,  are  employed,  that  in  the  first  being 
arranged  vertically  at  the  side,  and  that  in  the  second  horizontally 
beneath  the  tank  A,  The  plunger  or  piston-rod  is  so  mounted  as  to 


ICE-MAKING. 


507 


have  a  certain  movement  in  the  plunger  or  piston,  so  that,  on  the 
up  or  backward  stroke  of  the  latter,  it  will  operate  to  open  a  valve  and 
admit  of  the  water  passing  through,  whilst  on  the  downward  or  forward 
stroke  it  will,  on  the  contrary,  close  the  valve  so  that  the  water  will  be 
driven  through  the  openings.  In  this  arrangement  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  water  is  only  driven  in  a  downward  or  one  direction,  but  it  can  be 
also  so  arranged  as  to  drive  it  in  an  upward  or  in  both  directions.  The 
piston  or  plunger-rods  in  both  arrangements  are  operated  by  bell  crank 
levers  s.  Several  of  the  above  cuts  are  reproduced  from  articles  by 
the  author  which  appeared  in  Modern  Machinery,  of  Chicago. 


Fig.  362.  —  Arrange- 
ment for  Agitation  of 
Water  fto  be]  frozen  in 
Ice-making  Tank  or  Box 
by  means  of  Vertical 
Plunger  Pump.  Trans- 
verse Section. 


Fig.  363. — Arrangement  for 
Agitation  of  Water  to  be  frozen 
in  Ice-making  Tank  or  Box  by 
means  of  Horizontal  Plunger 
Pump.  "*}.  Transverse  Section. 


Mr  T.  B.  Lightfoot  designed  and  patented  in  1885  a  combined 
refrigerating  and  ice  tank  in  which  the  cans  or  moulds  are  arranged 
between  coils  or  pipes,  through  which  a  vaporised  freezing  medium  is 
caused  to  circulate,  the  moulds  or  cans  and  pipes  being  surrounded 
by  brine  or  other  uncongealable  fluid  not  mechanically  circulated. 


THE  HOLDEN  SYSTEM  OF  ICE-MAKING. 

A  system  of  ice-making  which  is  used  to  a  considerable  extent 
in  the  United  States  is  that  invented  by  Mr  D.  L.  Holden  (who  may 
be  said  to  be  one  of  the  pioneers  of  the  ice-making  industry  in  that 
country),  which  he  terms  the  "regealed  ice  machine."  The  method 
of  procedure  is  substantially  as  follows : — The  cold  is  obtained  by 
the  expansion  of  the  liquid  ammonia.  Centrally,  in  a  water  tank  or 
reservoir,  is  located  a  horizontal  metal  cylinder,  the  extremities  of 


508       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD    STORAGE. 

which  form  hollow  gudgeons  extending  to  the  outside  of  this  tank,  and 
are  provided  with  suitable  means  through  which  rotary  motion  can  be 
imparted  to  the  cylinder.  The  liquid  ammonia  anhydride  is  delivered 
into  the  above-mentioned  cylinder  at  one  of  its  ends,  and  forms  a  thin 
layer  upon  the  inner  wall  of  the  revolving  cylinder,  in  which  it  expands, 
vaporises,  and  is  carried  off  from  the  other  end.  Upon  the  exterior  of 
the  cylinder  a  thin  coating  of  ice  is  formed,  which  is  constantly 
removed  by  a  set  of  scrapers,  and  this  ice,  floating  in  the  water,  is 
conducted  by  a  worm  or  other  conveyor  to  two  cylinders,  in  which  a 
piston  operates,  to  subject  it  to  a  pressure  of  50  Ibs.  per  square  inch 
for  the  purpose  of  expelling  all  excess  of  water  and  air  bubbles. 

An  installation  on  this  system  requires  a  far  simpler  apparatus  than 
that  which  has  to  be  provided  for  carrying  out  the  process  of  ice- 
making  by  means  of  any  of  the  systems  usually  employed,  and  it  has 
moreover,  according  to  the  inventor,  the  further  advantage  of  enabling 
work  to  be  started  with  comparatively  little  delay  as  compared  with 
that  entailed  by  other  plants,  which  in  some  cases  require  one  or  more 
days'  preparation.  As  the  thin  layer  or  coating  of  ice  is  constantly  and 
rapidly  formed  on  the  external  surface  of  the  internally  cooled  metal 
cylinder,  the  process  is  more  expeditious  than  is  the  case  when  the 
freezing  or  congelation  of  the  water  takes  place  in  a  mould  or  can, 
where  the  formation  of  ice  at  the  sides  considerably  retards  the  process 
and  renders  it  very  slow. 

WATER  DE-AERATING  OR  DISTILLING  APPARATUS. 

The  last  of  the  plans  mentioned  for  making  clear  or  transparent  ice, 
or  that  wherein  the  water  to  be  frozen  is  first  de-aerated  or  deprived  of 
its  air,  is  usually  carried  out  in  an  apparatus  working  on  the  can 
system,  but  the  water  so  treated  may  be  used  in  the  cell  or  any  other 
system  with  equally  favourable  results. 

The  process  of  de-aerating  the  water  is  one  of  the  utmost  simplicity, 
and  the  product  is  found  to  answer  admirably,  the  ice  produced  being 
of  prime  quality. 

The  methods  used  for  extracting  the  air  from  the  water  are  either 
by  subjecting  it  to  a  long-continued  boiling,  by  exposing  it  to  a  high 
vacuum,  or  by  distilling  it  under  exclusion  of  the  atmosphere. 

In  order,  however,  to  economise  fuel,  it  is  a  not  unusual  practice 
to  utilise  the  exhaust  steam  from  the  engine  for  the  purpose  of  ice- 
making,  as  has  been  already  mentioned ;  and  as  this  exhaust  steam 
contains  an  admixture  of  more  or  less  of  the  lubricating  oil  from  the 


ICE-MAKING. 


509 


engine  cylinder,  it  must  be  deprived  of  this  before  being  thus  used. 
This  is  very  easily  accomplished  by  passing  the  exhaust  steam  through 
steam-filters  of  very  simple  construction,  and  after  the  steam  has  been 
thus  filtered  it  is  condensed,  and  the  resultant  water  is  again  thoroughly 
filtered  so  as  to  as  completely  as  possible  deodorise  it.  The  can  ice 
produced  from  this  de-aerated  or  air-freed  water  still  contains  a  very 
thin  stratum  or  core  of  porous  ice  in  the  centre,  but  it  is  insignificant 
and  not  sufficient  to  injure  the  appearance  of  the  blocks  to  any  appre- 
ciable extent. 


CO.DVWTC01HH.Cr 


Fig.  364.— Plan. 


Fig.  365.— Vertical  Section. 
Oil  Separator  and  Condensed  Water-Cooler,  Triumph  Ice  Machine  Co. 

The  Klein  oil  separator  or  collector  consists  of  a  number  of  dished 
perforated  plates  set  zigzag  fashion  in  a  cylindrical  or  a  rectangular 
casing.  The  Triumph  Ice  Machine  Co.'s  oil  separator  and  condenser 
water  cooler  is  shown  in  plan  and  vertical  section  in  Figs.  364  and  365. 
The  distilled  water  runs  round  one  channel,  formed  with  corrugated 
walls,  whilst  the  cool  water  passes  in  the  opposite  direction.  This 
corrugated  construction  gives  a  very  large  amount  of  cooling  surface 
whilst  occupying  a  comparatively  small  casing. 

Fig.  366  is  a  diagrammatical  view  showing  an  apparatus  employed 


510      REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD    STORAGE. 

by  the  Frick  Company  for  making  distilled  water  from  the  exhaust 
steam  from  the  driving  engine. 

Another  method  of  utilising  the  exhaust  or  waste  steam  for  de- 
aerating  or  producing  water  freed  of  its  air  by  employing  it  for  the 
evaporation  or  distillation  of  other  water  in  a  suitable  still  or  apparatus, 
as,  for  example,  a  triple-effect  distilling  apparatus,  or  in  a  single-effect, 
or,  for  very  large  plants,  a  multiple-effect  evaporator  of  the  Yaryan 
type. 

The  operation  of  the  ordinary  type  of  triple  effect  is  shown  in  the 
diagram,  Fig.  367. 

The  triple  effect,  which  is  a  modification  of  a  vacuum  pan,  or  rather 
a  modified  arrangement  of  vacuum  pans,  is  the  invention  of  Mr  Rilleux, 
a  Franch  gentleman,  and  was  primarily  intended  for  use  in  factories 


Fig.  366.—  Apparatus  for  Making  Distilled  Water  from  Exhaust  Steam. 
Company.     Diagrammatical  View. 


Frick 


making  beetroot  sugar.  Double-effect  apparatus  of  this  type  is  also 
constructed,  and  in  some  instances  the  number  of  effects  is  increased 
to  four  (quadruple  effects),  which  is  the  usual  limit  in  this  system. 

In  the  diagram,  A,  A1,  A2  indicate  the  three  pans  or  vessels  forming 
the  effects,  in  the  upper  parts  of  which  are  spaces  to  receive  the  steam 
or  vapour  evaporated,  and  the  lower  part  of  each  pan  or  vessel  being 
fitted  with  two  tube  plates  or  diaphragms,  which  are  set  with  suitable 
tubes  c,  to  allow  the  water  to  be  evaporated  to  obtain  access  and  to 
circulate  below  the  lower  tube  plate  and  above  the  upper  tube  plate  ; 
and  the  space  between  these  tube  plates  and  round  the  exterior  of  the 
tubes  constitutes  the  calandria  or  heating  chamber  B. 

The  upper  portion  of  the  pan  or  vessel  A  is  connected  with  the 
heating  space  or  calandria  of  the  pan  or  vessel  A1,  and  the  upper  portion 
of  the  latter  is  connected  with  the  heating  space  or  calandria  of  the 


ICE-MAKING.  511 

pan  or  vessel  A2  by  means  of  pipes  E,  fitted  with  safes  or  traps  E1,  and 
the  upper  portion  of  the  pan  or  vessel  A2  is  connected  through  the  pipe 
E  with  a  condenser. 

The  lower  or  water  spaces  of  the  pans  or  effects  are  connected 
together  by  pipes  F. 

The  calandria  of  the  pan  or  vessel  A  is  heated  by  either  waste  steam 
or  of  live  steam  delivered  through  the  pipe  G,  whilst  the  steam  or 
vapour  evaporated  from  the  water  in  the  pan  or  vessel  A  is  employed  to 
heat  the  calandria  of  the  pan  or  vessel  A1,  and  that  from  the  latter  the 
calandria  of  the  pan  or  vessel  A2,  the  steam  or  vapour  evaporated  from 
the  water  in  the  latter  passing  to  the  condenser  through  the  pipe  E. 


Fig.  367. — Diagram  Illustrating  Operation  of  Triple-Effect  Evaporating 

Apparatus. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  second  effect  or  pan  forms  a  condenser 
to  the  first,  and  the  third  a  condenser  to  the  second,  the  third  being 
in  connection  with  a  surface  condenser,  which  may  be  employed  to  heat 
the  feed-water,  and  thus  form  a  heat  interchange!-. 

The  condensation  water  from  the  calandria  of  the  first  pan  or 
effect  A  is  delivered  by  the  steam  pressure  into  a  hot  well,  that  from 
the  calandrias  of  the  second  and  third  pans,  as  well  as  that  from  the 
surface  condenser  connected  with  the  latter,  is  delivered  by  suitable 
pumps  into  the  distilled-water  receiver.  H  is  a  pipe  for  charging 
the  apparatus  with  the  water  to  be  distilled  or  evaporated.  I  is  a  pipe 
connected  by  branches  to  a  well  in  the  bottom  of  each  pan.  L  is  a 


512       REFRIGERATION    AND    COLD    STORAGE. 

pipe  connecting  the  upper  part  of  the  heating  space  of  the  calandria 
B  of  the  second  pan  A1  with  that  of  the  third  pan  A2.  G1  is  a  pipe  by 
which  the  water  resulting  from  condensation  in  the  calandria  B  of  the 
first  pan  A  is  discharged  into  a  hot  well ;  and  L1  are  pipes  by  which 
the  condensation  water  from  the  calandrias  B  of  the  pans  A1  and  A2  is 
delivered  to  the  distilled -water  receiver.  L2  is  a  pipe  for  removing  the 
excess  of  vapour  from  the  calandria  B  of  the  third  pan  A2. 

The  vacuums  maintained  in  the  three  vessels  or  effects  A,  A1,  A2 
will  be  respectively  about  4  in.,  14  in.,  and  24  in.,  and  the  tempera- 
tures, taking  the  vessels  or  effects  in  the  like  order,  will  be  about 
200°,  180°,  and  130°  Fahr. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  economy  of  the  triple-effect  apparatus 
is  due  to  the  fact  of  its  being  largely  self-heating,  as  the  calandria 
of  the  first  vessel  or  effect  is  the  only  one  heated  by  extraneous  means, 
the  calandria  of  the  second  effecJb  being  heated  by  the  latent  heat 
of  the  steam  or  vapour  from  the  boiling  water  in  the  first  effect,  and 
the  third  effect  being  heated  from  that  of  the  second  effect.  Thus, 
neglecting  the  loss  of  heat  due  to  radiation,  a  double  effect  is  twice, 
and  a  triple  effect  is  three  times,  as  economical  in  steam  consumption 
for  heating  purposes  as  a  single  effect. 

The  Haslam  distilling  apparatus  is  constructed  upon  the  triple- 
effect  principle,  and  comprises  a  first  boiling  pan,  a  second  boiling  pan, 
a  condenser,  a  feed-water  heater,  and  a  distilled-water  receiving  tank 
or  vessel.  When  no  exhaust  or  waste  steam  is  available  the  plant  also 
includes  a  suitable  steam  boiler. 

Fig.  368  is  a  perspective  view,  partly  in  section,  illustrating  a 
complete  single-effect  distilling  apparatus  of  the  Yaryan  type,  which 
is  made  in  various  sizes,  adapted  to  produce  from  3  tons  to  48  tons 
of  distilled  water  per  twenty-four  hours.  The  apparatus  consists 
essentially  of  a  cylindrical  evaporator,  having  a  horizontal  body  or 
shell  of  wrought  iron,  with  a  separator  similarly  constructed  at  one 
end,  and  a  number  of  straight,  solid-drawn  tubes  (according  to  the 
capacity  of  the  machine)  so  fixed  in  tube  plates  provided  at  both  ends 
of  the  shell  or  body  as  to  be  capable  of  being  readily  withdrawn  when 
necessary  for  cleaning  purposes.  These  tubes  are  connected  at  their 
ends  by  return  heads,  so  as  to  throw  them  into  sets  or  series,  thus 
practically  forming  coils  of  pipe  of  any  desired  length.  The  water  to 
be  distilled  is  passed  through  these  coils  or  sets  of  pipes,  the  exhaust 
steam  being  admitted  to  the  space  round  them,  and  the  steam  or 
vapour  from  the  evaporating  coils  passes  through  the  separating 
chamber,  which  is  fitted  with  baffle  or  check  plates,  one  of  which  is 


ICE-MAKING. 


513 


shown  in  the  drawing,  to  the  condenser,  which  latter  also  forms  an 
interchanger  and  heats  the  water  to  be  distilled. 


The  distinctive  feature  of  this  system  is  film  evaporation,  that  is, 
the  blowing  of  the  whole  mass  of  the  liquid  to  be  evaporated  into  spray, 
33 


REFRIGERATION  AND  COLD  STORAGE. 

and  its  rapid  motion  through  the  sets  or  series  of  tubes  during  the 
process.  This  latter  point  is  of  great  importance,  and  is  the  chief 
reason  of  the  great  efficiency  of  this  type  of  apparatus.  The  result  is 
due  to  the  fact  that  there  is  a  very  considerable  gain  in  absorption  of 
heat  by  the  liquid  under  treatment  as  its  velocity  increases,  owing  to 
the  fact  that  new  particles  of  the  liquid  are  being  constantly  brought 
into  contact  with  the  heated  surfaces,  and  naturally  the  more  rapid  its 
motion  over  the  latter  the  more  frequently  will  this  occur. 

When  in  operation  there  will  be  a  vacuum  of  from  12  in.  to  15  in. 
in  the  separator,  and  the  steam  pressure  in  the  evaporator  should  be 
about  15  Ibs.  per  square  inch ;  the  latter  may,  however,  be  increased  to 
about  40  Ibs.  per  square  inch. 

The  feed  taken  from  the  circulating  discharge  is  usually  drawn 
into  the  tubes  by  reason  of  the  vacuum  in  the  separator.  If,  however, 
condensation  is  carried  out  at  atmospheric  pressure,  it  is  forced  in 
owing  to  the  head  of  water  due  to  the  height  of  the  circulating  dis- 
charge or  to  a  loaded  valve. 

The  advantages  of  a  triple-effect  or  an  apparatus  of  this  type  for 
producing  pure  distilled  water  for  ice-making,  are  obvious,  inasmuch  as 
it  admits  of  its  being  obtained  free  from  the  slightest  trace  of  oil  by 
the  use  of  exhaust  or  waste  steam  only,  and  that  without  any  necessity 
for  filtering.  The  dispensing  with  filtering  is  of  some  importance,  as 
each  time  the  distilled  water  is  passed  through  a  new  filter  it  takes  up 
a  considerable  quantity  of  air,  and  consequently  until  all  the  air  has 
become  expelled  from  the  filter  the  water  is  in  no  way  superior  to 
ordinary  undistilled  water,  and  the  ice  made  from  it  is  opaque  and 
porous.  The  condensed  exhaust  steam,  after  having  performed  its 
duty  in  the  evaporator,  may  be  either  run  into  a  hot- well  to  be  used  for 
boiler-feeding  purposes,  or  it  may  be  run  to  waste. 

Fig.  369  illustrates  one  of  the  Mirrlees,  Watson,  &  Yaryan  Co/s 
larger  forms  of  distilling  apparatus,  which  is  suitable  for  installations 
turning  out  considerable  quantities  of  ice  per  twenty-four  hours.  As 
will  be  seen  from  the  drawing  it  is  a  sextuple  or  six-effect  apparatus. 
On  the  right  are  situated  the  air,  circulating,  brine,  fresh  water,  and 
feed  pumps,  which  are  all  driven  off  one  engine,  and  are,  with  the 
latter,  the  only  moving  parts.  Next  is  placed  the  distilling  condenser 
(between  two  heaters  in  which  the  feed-water  becomes  partially  heated 
on  its  way  to  the  evaporator) ;  and,  finally,  on  the  left,  six  separators 
placed  in  a  vertical  column,  with  the  corresponding  six  effects  arranged 
horizontally  in  the  rear. 

In  operation  there  will  be  a  pressure  of  from  40  to  60  Ibs.  in  the 


ICE-MAKING. 


515 


first  effect,  and  a  vacuum  of  about  27  in.  in  the  distilling  condenser, 
the  apparatus  being  so  proportioned  that  this  difference  of  pressure 
will  distribute  itself  automatically  between  the  several  effects.  The 


Fig.  369.— Complete  Sextuple-Effect  Distilling  Apparatus  on  the  Yaryan  System. 

feed  for  the  evaporator  being  taken  from  the  circulating  water  of 
the  distilling  condenser,  a  certain  amount  of  heat,  which  would  other- 
wise be  rejected,  is  utilised  at  the  very  commencement  of  the  operation, 


5i6       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD    STORAGE. 

and  the  efficiency  of  the  apparatus  is  further  increased  and  heat  econo- 
mised by  a  multiple-effect  system  of  heating  the  feed  before  reaching 
the  evaporating  vessel.  The  first  stage  of  heating  the  feed  referred  to 
is  effected  by  exposing  it  to  the  vapour  given  off  by  the  water  evapo- 
rated in  the  last  effect  while  this  vapour  is  on  its  way  to  the  distilling 
condenser,  and  then  to  the  vapour  from  the  several  effects  constituting 
the  evaporating  apparatus,  until  it  receives  its  final  increment  of  heat 
from  the  steam  employed  to  heat  the  first  effect,  into  which  the  feed 
enters  at  or  about  the  boiling-point  of  that  effect. 

The  feed  entering  the  first,  passes  down  through  all  the  effects  of 
the  apparatus.  The  water  resulting  from  the  condensation  which  takes 
place  on  the  different  heating  surfaces,  together  with  that  from  the 
last  effect,  being  eventually  delivered  as  cold  distilled  water.  Usually 
the  water  resulting  from  the  condensation  of  the  steam  employed  to 
heat  the  first  effect  is  separated  from  that  produced  in  the  remainder 
of  the  apparatus,  as  being  likely  to  be  slightly  contaminated,  and  is 
reserved  for  feeding  the  boiler  supplying  steam  to  the  apparatus,  pump- 
ing engines,  &c.  In  the  number  of  effects  used  in  combination  with 
the  system  of  evaporating  water  in  continuous  motion  depends  the 
great  economy  of  fuel  which  is  obtained  in  apparatus  of  this  type.  The 
only  labour  required  in  connection  with  the  apparatus  is  that  for  stoking 
the  boilers,  and  the  necessary  attention  to  the  feeding  of  these  and  to 
the  working  of  the  pumps.  All  parts  of  the  apparatus  are  readily 
accessible,  hinged  doors  at  the  end  of  each  effect  giving  easy  access  to 
the  interior  of  these  for  cleaning  purposes  when  required. 

An  exceedingly  compact  and  efficient  form  of  portable  Yaryan 
distilling  apparatus  has  also  been  designed  by  the  same  firm,  which  is 
entirely  self-contained  and  is  easily  movable,  being  mounted  upon  an 
independent  carriage  supported  upon  strong  iron  wheels.  The  appara- 
tus comprises  two  Yaryan  evaporators  arranged  to  work  as  a  double 
effect,  a  distilling  condenser  in  connection  therewith,  a  suitable  feed- 
water  tank,  a  pump  for  feeding  the  water  to  be  distilled  through  a 
heater  into  the  first  effect  or  vessel,  and  a  tail  or  circulating  pump  for 
condensing  the  steam  given  off  from  the  second  effect  or  vessel  in  the 
distilling  condenser.  The  steam  required  for  working  the  apparatus 
is  supplied  from  a  portable  boiler  fitted  with  a  donkey  feed-pump,  &c., 
and  also  mounted  upon  iron  road  wheels. 

The  advantages  of  a  portable  distilling  apparatus  capable  of  being 
shifted  with  great  facility  from  one  source  of  water  supply  to  another, 
or  to  any  desired  location  in  the  works,  are  obvious.  And  the  com- 
pactness of  the  installation  renders  it  very  easily  manageable,  one 


ICE-MAKING.  517 

skilled  attendant  and  a  boy  being  sufficient  for  a  machine  having  a 
capacity  to  produce  85  gals,  of  pure  fresh  water  per  hour  from  strong 
brine  averaging  twice  the  density  of  ordinary  sea  water.  Exhaustive 
tests  proved  most  conclusively  that  the  efficiency  of  the  plant  was 
fully  equal  at  the  termination  of  each  run  to  what  it  was  at  the  com- 
mencement, which  abundantly  demonstrated  the  self-cleaning  powers 
of  the  apparatus  when  treating  water  so  strongly  charged  with  salts. 
The  evaporative  duty  was  4|  Ibs.  of  water  per  pound  of  common  wood 
fuel ;  with  coal,  however,  the  duty  would  -be  about  double  per  pound 
of  coal  consumed,  and  naturally  when  treating  impure  water  of  less 
density  than  the  brine,  or  comparatively  pure  water  for  de-aerating 
purposes,  the  amount  of  pure  de-aerated  water  obtained  per  pound  of 
fuel  consumed  would  be  proportionately  larger. 

In  the  case  of  a  single-effect  distilling  apparatus  the  above  fuel 
consumption  would  be  doubled  to  produce  the  same  amount  of  distilled 
water,  and  the  more  effects  that  are  employed  up  to  a  certain  point  the 
greater  the  economy,  a  six-effect  apparatus  being  found  capable  of 
producing  36  Ibs.  of  pure  distilled  water  for  each  pound  of  fuel  con- 
sumed, that  amount  being  over  and  above  what  was  evaporated  in  the 
boiler  which  was  returned  to  the  latter. 

It  is  obviously,  therefore,  advisable,  wherever  the  demand  for  the 
de-aerated  water  warrants  it,  to  employ  a  multiple  effect  distilling 
apparatus.* 

In  most  factories  however,  the  exhaust  steam  from  the  engines 
will  be  available  for  use  in  the  apparatus,  and  the  expenditure  on  fuel 
for  raising  steam,  specially  for  use  in  the  evaporator,  will  thus  be  saved. 

The  evaporator  should  be  opened  every  two  or  three  weeks,  and  if 
scale  is  found  on  any  of  the  tubes,  these  should  be  withdrawn  and 
clean  ones  inserted  in  their  place.  The  best  means  to  employ  for 
removing  the  scale  from  the  tubes  is  to  pass  them  over  a  slow  fire,  care, 
however,  being  taken  not  to  apply  more  heat  than  is  necessary  to  bring 
off  the  scale. 

VACUUM  SYSTEM  OF  ICE-MAKING. 

The  method  of  making  ice  without  the  use  of  either  a  primary 
or  secondary  cooling  agent,  that  is  to  say,  by  freezing  the  water  in 
vacuo,  has  been  already  dealt  with  when  describing  the  Carre,  Wind- 

*  A  detailed  description  of  the  larger  forms  of  multiple-effect  Yaryan 
evaporator  with  reference  to  their  use  for  the  evaporation  and  concentration  of 
saccharine  juices  and  solutions,  will  be  found  in  a  treatise  on  "  Sugar  Machinery  " 
by  the  same  author. 


5i8       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

hausen,  Harrison,  and  other  vacuum  machines.  Briefly,  the  principle 
upon  which  they  work  is  that  if  water  be  exposed  in  a  practically  per- 
fect vacuum  it  is  rapidly  turned  into  vapour,  and  this  change  requiring 
a  large  quantity  of  heat  which  must  be  provided  by  the  water  itself, 
that  portion  of  the  water  which  is  not  vaporised  becomes  frozen  solid. 
As  already  mentioned,  however,  the  ice  thus  made  is  more  in  the  form 
of  granulated  snow,  and,  being  brittle,  charged  with  air,  and  possessing 
no  durability,  it  is  practically  of  very  little  or  no  market  value. 

IMITATION  OF  NATURAL  SYSTEM. 

In  another  system,  wherein  an  imitation  of  the  natural  process  is 
attempted,  the  water  to  be  frozen  is  exposed  in  well-insulated  rooms 
or  chambers  to  a  temperature  far  below  freezing-point.  This  plan, 
however,  is  not  found  to  answer  commercially  owing  to  the  extreme 
slowness  with  which  the  freezing  or  congealing  of  the  water  is  effected, 
by  reason  of  the  low  specific  heat  of  air  and  its  poor  capacity  for  con- 
duction, a  fault  which  cannot  be  got  over  even  by  increasing  the 
cooling  surfaces  of  the  rooms  to  an  abnormal  degree. 

ICE  FACTORIES. 

A  factory  for  making  ice  consists  of  more  or  less  solid  buildings  in 
accordance  with  the  particular  regulations  of  the  locality,  capital  at 
command,  &c.  Fig.  370  shows  an  arrangement  of  the  ice-tank  or 
box-room,  but  in  addition  to  this  the  factory  will  comprise  a  machine- 
room,  boiler-room,  ice  store,  offices,  loading  platforms,  &c. 

The  arrangement  shown  in  the  drawing  is  intended  for  making 
ice  on  the  can  system,  and  the  ice-boxes  are  precisely  similar  to  those 
previously  described.  Above  the  ice-boxes  is  provided  a  travelling 
hoist  or  crane,  by  means  of  which  the  cans  or  moulds  can  be  con- 
veniently raised  one  by  one  from  the  ice-boxes,  when  the  water  in 
the  cans  has  been  frozen,  and  transferred  to  the  platform  shown 
on  the  right-hand  side  of  the  drawing.  On  or  beneath  this  platform 
are  provided  a  suitable  number  of  thawing  or  relieving  tanks  filled  with 
warm  or  tepid  water  at  about  70°  Fahr.,  and  into  this  the  can  or 
mould  is  dipped  for  a  few  seconds,  after  which  the  block  of  ice  can 
be  readily  turned  out  on  a  tip-table,  and  the  can  or  mould  is  again 
filled  with  water  and  returned  into  the  brine-tank  to  recommence  freez- 
ing. The  ice  blocks  or  cakes  are  in  some  instances  turned  out  of  the 
cans  or  moulds  at,  or  delivered  to,  the  upper  end  of  an  inclined  plane 
or  runway,  down  which  they  pass  to  the  ice  store,  or  ante-charnber 


ICE-MAKING. 


leading  thereto.     The  waste-water  tanks,  &c.,  are  located  beneath  the 
ice-making  tanks  or  boxes. 


Fig.  371  shows  the  arrangement  of  an  ice-tank  or  box-room  of  an 
ice  factory  for  making  ice  on  the  plate  or  wall  system,  designed  by  the 


520       REFRIGERATION   AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

Pulsometer  Engineering  Co.,  Ltd.  The  mechanism  for  raising  the 
slabs  or  blocks  of  ice  from  the  ice-tanks  or  boxes  is  clearly  shown 
in  this  illustration. 

Figs.  372  to  374,  375  to  377,  378  to  380  are  suggested  plans  by 
the  Frick  Company  for  can-ice  factories,  respectively  of  the  following 
capacities :  6  to  10  tons,  30  to  35  tons,  and  100  tons.  The  arrange 
ment  of  these  factories  is  explained  by  the  writing  upon  the  drawings. 
Figs.  381  and  382  is  a  plan  of  a  model  ice  factory  by  the  Triumph  Ice 


Fig.  371. — Ice-Tank  or  Box-room  of  Ice  Factory  on  the  Plate  or  Wall  System, 
showing  Mechanism  for  Raising  Slabs  or  Blocks  of  Ice. 

Machine  Co.  Figs.  383  and  384  show  in  plan  and  sectional  elevation 
a  5 -ton  ice  factory  on  the  can  system,  designed  by  the  Yulcan  Iron 
Works.  And  Fig.  385  is  a  sectional  elevation  showing  an  ice  factory 
on  the  "  Eclipse "  can  system  as  constructed  by  the  Frick  Company. 
These  three  drawings  are  also  self-explanatory. 

ICE  ELEVATING  AND  CONVEYING  MACHINERY. 

As  has  been  already  mentioned,  numerous  contrivances  for  mini- 
mising the  work  of  handling  the  cans  or  moulds  and  the  blocks  of  ice 
have  been  devised. 


ICE-MAKING. 


521 


SECTION  THROUGH  DISTILLING  ROOM 


372  to  374. — Frick  Company  Arrangement  for  Ice  Factory  of  6  to  10  Tons 
Capacity.     Plan,  Sectional  Side  Elevation,  and  Transverse  Section. 


522       REFRIGERATION   AND   COLD   STORAGE. 


Figs.  375  to  377. — Frick  Company  Arrangement  for  Ice  Factory  of  30  to  35  Tons 
Capacity.     Sectional  Side  and  End  Elevations  and  Plan. 


ICE-MAKING 


523 


Puplett  and  Rigg's  patent  of  1887  comprises  an  arrangement  for 
facilitating  the  lifting  of  the  cans  or  cases,  and  removing  the  ice  This 
labour-saving  contrivance  consists  in  an  apparatus  for  connecting  two 
or  more  of  the  cans,  moulds,  or  cases  together,  and  comprises  a  frame 
which  is  provided  with  trunnions  or  gudgeons,  so  situated  as  to  be 


S!D 

==€LE 

VATK 

DN 

DIS 

ILLINQ 

ROOM 

i 

B 

MACHINE 
ROOM 

.i 
f  REEZiNG  TANK    R 
f 

30  M 

C< 

DLER  / 
ROOM 

<D  FIL 

ER'T 

i 

\  IT" 

1 

1 

•    ••   ••  • 
*—  M'S- 

|                                    .\LOAOlliaPLAtFORM 

| 

i 

0 

f^ 

Jv     • 
/        -NTE         ;\n\-    1CE  pQ^*°E 
OJ  S 

BOILER 

BOILERS 

^BOILER 
-q;ROOM 

1 
A 

i._ 

n 

[ 

CHINE  ROOM 

HGV  -                                                          > 

" 

]~ 

_T 

1 

^              PUMP  ROOM 

L       "-"N—  *£.    V 

Figs.  378  to  380.— Frick  Company  Arrangement  for  Ice  Factory  of  100  Tons 
Capacity.     Plan  and  Sectional  Side  and  End  Elevations. 

slightly  above  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  cans  or  moulds.  At  one 
end  of  each  of  these  frames  a  quadrant,  worm  and  worm-wheel,  or  some 
other  convenient  means  are  provided  for  enabling  the  frame  and 
moulds  therein  to  be  inclined  to  any  required  angle.  To  admit  of  the 
frames  being  raised  from  the  ice-making  tank  or  box  by  the  overhead 


524      REFRIGERATION   AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

traveller  the  latter  is  fitted  with  links  adapted  to  engage  with  the 
above  mentioned   trunnions  or  gudgeons.     The  frame  and  moulds  or 


cans  being  nearly  balanced  on  their  trunnions,  the  labour  of  discharg- 
ing the  ice  therefrom  is  great! y  reduced,  and  the  operation  is  moreover 
considerably  expedited.  The  quadrant  or  worm  gearing  is  usually 


ICE-MAKING. 


525 


so  arranged  as  to  engage  with  a  suitable  device  fixed  on  to  the  links  of 
the  overhead  traveller ;  but  mechanical  contrivances  can  be  dispensed 
with  and  the  frame  containing  the  moulds  tipped  by  hand,  which 
operation,  owing,  as  above-mentioned,  to  its  being  almost  balanced, 
can  be  so  accomplished  without  any  difficulty. 

Fig.  386  is  a  truck  ice-can  hoist  tor  use  with  very  small  ice-making 
plants.     Fig.  387  is  a  travelling  crane,  and  geared  hand-power  ice-can 


Figs.  383  and  384. — Vulcan  Iron  Works  Arrangement  for  a  5-ton  Ice  Factory 

Flan  and  Sectional  Elevation. 


hoist  by  means  of  which  one  man  whilst  on  watch  can  take  care  of 
from  ten  to  fifteen  cans  per  hour.  And  Fig.  388  is  an  electric  crane 
for  use  in  connection  with  large  installations,  and  which  is  capable 
of  lumHliTig  any  desired  number  of  cans.  The  above  appliance  is 
constructed  by  the  Frick  Company. 

JSg.  389  represents  an  automatic  ice-dump  made  by  the  Triumph 
Ice  Machine  Co.     The  box  is  made  of  ^-in.  steel,  reinforced  by 


526       REFRIGERATION   AND   COLD   STORAGE. 


ICE-MAKING. 


527 


|  in.  by  J  in.  iron.  The  valve  and  shaft  are  bolted  on  this  box  with 
a  heavy  flange.  The  stands  carry  the  bearings  and  box,  and  are  bolted 
to  a  cast-iron  waste  box,  there  being  no  wood  about  the  box  to  decay 
or  give  way. 

The  operation  of  this  dump  is  as  follows,  viz.  : — The  box  being  in 
a  vertical  position  to  receive  the  can,  the  small  lever  at  the  bottom  can 
be  operated  by  the  foot  so  as  to  give  the  dump  a  slight  tilt  toward 
the  front,  when  the  dump  will  go  over  slowly  and  turn  on  the  warm 
water  automatically,  while  same  is  turning  down  in  position  to  dump 
the  ice.  The  water  strikes  all  sides  and  under  the  can.  The  valves 
are  so  regulated  that  the  bottom  of 
the  can  will  receive  the  most  water, 
thereby  melting  the  ice  away  from 
that  part.  The  weight  of  the  ice 
starting,  the  cake  will  then  fall  on 
the  bottom  of  the  can,  and  the  air 
will  rush  in  over  the  top  of  the  ice, 
forcing  same  out  of  the  can. 

Fig.  390  shows  the  Vulcan  Iron 
Works  track  system.  The  rail  in 
this  arrangement  is  supported  during 
the  throw  of  the  switches,  so  that  no 
abnormal  strain  can  come  upon  the 
hinge  or  joint,  and  the  latter  cannot 
be  broken  off  if  the  switch  be  left 
open.  The  rail  is  formed  of  2J  in. 
by  \  in.  iron,  and  the  hangers  are  so 
constructed  that  any  portion  of  the 
rail  can  be  secured  to  the  hanger 
without  drilling. 

These  switches  are  made  two,  three,  and  four  throw. 

Ice-delivery  machines  and  other  labour-saving  appliances  are  also 
manufactured  by  the  Pulsometer  Engineering  Co.,  Ltd.,  and  others. 

Whatever  the  arrangement,  however,  for  drawing  the  ice,  one  thing 
is  absolutely  necessary  to  ensure  economical  working,  and  that  is  the 
strictest  regularity.  It  is,  of  course,  understood  that  the  machinery 
should  also  be  kept  working  at  as  uniform  a  speed  as  possible,  and  that 
all  temperatures  should  be  maintained  as  normal  as  practicable. 

Suitable  ice  elevators  or  hoists  are  also  required  for  raising  the 
blocks  of  ice  from  one  level  of  the  factory  to  another.  Amongst 
numerous  devices  for  this  purpose,  mention  may  be  made  of  the 


Fig.  386. — Frick  Ice-Can  Hoist  for 
use  with  Small  Ice-making  Plants. 


528       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 


Fig.  387. — Travelling  Crane  and  Geared  Hand -power  Ice-Can  Hoist. 


Fig.  388. — Electric  Crane  for  Handling  Ice  Cans  in  Large  Factories. 


ICE-MAKING. 


529 


following,  viz.,  that  wherein  an  endless  chain,  provided  with  hooks,  is 
employed  to  grab  the  blocks  of  ice,  and  drag  them  up  an  incline,  which 
latter  may  be  made  in  sections,  so  as  to  admit  of  the  ice  being  dis- 
charged at  different 
elevations.  The  hooks 
are  set  in  position  to 
engage  with  the  blocks 
of  ice  by  a  spring  bar 
upon  the  frame  carry- 
ing the  driving-wheel. 
In  another  arrange- 
ment the  blocks  of  ice 
are  shoved  up  a  fixed 
spiral  incline,  by  arms 
or  levers  projecting 
radially  from  a  shaft, 
located  vertically  in 
the  centre  of  the  in- 


Fig.  389.  — Automatic  Ice  Dump. 


cline,  and  rotated  in  any  convenient  manner. 

Ordinary  hydraulic  or  steam  platform  lifts,  communicating  between 
the  different  floors  of  the  factory,  may  be  located  wherever  found  to  be 


Fig.  390  —Vulcan  Iron  Works  Track  System. 

necessary  and  convenient,  as  also  run-ways  or  slip-ways  and  gravity 
hoists. 

A  number  of  loose  tools  are  likewise  required  in  an  ice  factory  for 
manipulating  the   ice,   such  as  ice-saws,   hatchets,   hooks   and   picks 
hoisting  tongs,  trollies,  &c. 
34 


530       REFRIGERATION   AND   COLD   STORAGE. 


ICE-MAKING,  GENERAL. 

Cube  Ice. — An  arrangement  invented  by  Mr  Van  der  Weyde  for 
cutting  ice  into  small  blocks  or  cubes  comprises  circular  saws  and 
endless  conveying  bands  or  belts,  by  means  of  which  the  cut  blocks  or 
cubes  are  delivered  to  a  special  packing  table,  where  they  are  stowed 
in  boxes  for  delivery. 

It  is  advisable  to  have  hydrants  in  suitable  positions  throughout 
the  buildings,  and  this  precaution  is  especially  desirable  where  ammonia 
machines  are  in  use,  the  extreme  affinity  of  ammonia  for  water  render 
ing  the  latter  (as  already  mentioned)  the  best  remedy  to  employ 
for  killing  the  ammonia  should  any  considerable  quantity  become 
accidentally  spilt. 

The  ice  store  is  usually  refrigerated  by  means  of  a  brine  or  direct 
expansion  coil,  and  the  ante-room  thereto  should  be  cooled  in  a  similar 
manner.  It  may  be  taken  that,  as  usually  stored,  a  ton  of  ice  will 
occupy  about  50  cub.  ft.  The  top  layer  should  be  covered  with  dry 
sawdust  or  shavings.  See  also  "  Storing  Ice." 

In  some  places  it  is  found  advisable  and  advantageous  to  add  to 
the  ice  factory  buildings  one  or  more  cold  stores  or  chambers,  wherein 
perishable  products  can  be  preserved  for  customers  desiring  such 
accommodation. 

The  management  of  ice-making  and  refrigerating  machines  will  be 
found  dealt  with  in  the  next  chapter,  so  far  as  the  space  at  command 
will  allow.  That  of  the  steam  engines  or  other  motors  employed 
for  driving  these  and  of  the  miscellaneous  accessory  machines  and 
apparatus  will,  of  course,  in  no  way  differ  from  those  used  for  other 
purposes,  and  instructions  for  the  proper  care  and  working  thereof  are 
outside  the  province  of  this  work.* 

FREEZING  TIMES  FOR  DIFFERENT  TEMPERATURES  AND  THICKNESSES 
OF  CAN  ICE.— Siebert. 


Thickness. 

1  in.  i  2  in. 

Sin. 

4  in. 

5  in. 

6  in. 

7  in. 

Sin. 

9  in. 

10  in. 

11 

12  in. 

j 

Temperature  10° 

12° 

0'32     1-28 
0-35     I'iO 

2'86 
315 

510 
6-60 

8 
8-75 

11-5 

12-6 

15-8 
17-3 

20-4 
22-4 

25-8 
28'4 

31-8 
35 

38-5 
42-3 

45-8 
60 

14° 

0.39     1-66 

3'50 

6-22 

970 

14 

19 

25 

31-5 

39 

47'0 

56 

16° 

0'44     176 

3-94 

7 

11 

15'8 

21-5 

28 

35-5 

437 

53-0 

63 

18° 

0'60     2 

4  '50 

8 

12-5 

18 

24-5 

32 

40-5 

50 

60-5 

72 

20° 

0-57     2-32 

5'25 

9-30 

14-6 

21 

28-5 

37-3 

47-2 

583 

70-5 

84 

22° 

0-70     2-80 

6-30 

11-2 

17-6 

25-2 

34-3 

44-8 

567 

70 

847 

100 

24° 

0-88     3'50 

1 

7  '86 

14 

21 

31-5 

42'S 

66 

71 

87-5 

106 

126 

*  For  detailed  information  regarding  friction  and  the  management  and 
lubrication  of  the  rubbing  parts  of  machinery  see  "  Bearings  and  Lubrication," 
by  the  same  author. 


ICE-MAKING. 


TIME  REQUIRED  FOR  WATER  TO  FREEZE  IN  ICE  CANS. 
(The  Triumph  Ice  Machine  Co.  Catalogue}. 


Size  of  Cans. 

Weight  of  Cake. 

Time  to  Freeze. 

6  in.  by  12  in.  by  24  in. 

50  Ibs. 

20  hours 

8      ,        18 

32    , 

100    „ 

36 

8      , 

16 

40   , 

150    ,, 

36 

11      , 

22 

32   , 

200    „ 

55 

11      , 

22 

44   , 

300    ., 

60 

11      , 

22 

57   , 

400    „ 

60 

NOTE. — Temperature  of  bath  14°  to  18°  Fahr.     As  a  rule,  the  higher  the  bath 
temperature  the  slower  the  process  of  freezing,  but  the  finer  and  clearer  the  ice. 

TABLE  OF  ICE-PLANT  EFFICIENCIES  COLLECTED  FROM  TWENTY-SEVEN 
EXISTING  AND  OPERATING  PLANTS. — Sneddon. 


Lbs.  of 

Water 

Lbs.  of 

Total 

Ice  Pro- 
duced in 
Tons  per 
21  hours. 

Coal  Con- 
sumed in 
Ibs.  per 
24  Hours. 

Evaporated 
to  loo  Ibs. 
G  Pressure 
from  212° 
per  24  Hours 

Water 
Evaporated 
per  Ib.  cf 
Coal  (or 
Ibs.  of  Ice 

B.T.U.  con- 
tained in 
1  Ib.  of 
Coal  (Calcu- 
lated). 

Heat  put 
into  Total 
Water 
Evaporated 
by  1  Ib.  of 

Efficiency 
per  Cent. 

1 

Loss  on  70 
per  Cent. 
Basis  per 
Cent. 

(or  Max.  Ice 

Made). 

Coal. 

i 

Production). 

5'4 

4,800 

10,800 

2-25 

13,400 

2,261 

17-6 

75 

57 

4,800 

11,400 

2-37 

13,400 

2,381 

17-7 

74-8 

7-25 

4,000 

14,500 

3-62 

12,200 

3,638 

29-8 

57-5 

7-5 

4,000 

15,000 

3-75 

12,200 

3,768 

30-8 

56 

10-33 

5,000 

20,660 

4-13 

14,858 

4,150          27'9 

60-2 

11 

5,000 

22,000 

3-93 

14,858 

3,949     ,      19-9 

71-6 

14 

12,000 

28,000 

2-33 

12,700 

2,341          18-4 

74-3 

14-o 

9,000 

29,000 

3-22 

11,900 

3,236 

27-2 

61-2 

16-5 

9,500 

33,000 

3-47 

11,900 

3,488 

29-3 

58 

15'6 

9,600 

31,200 

3-25 

12,300 

3,266          26-5 

62-2 

16-5 

11,200 

33,000 

2-94 

12,300 

2,945          24 

65-8 

20 

12,000 

40,000 

3-33 

12,600 

3,346          26-5 

62-2 

19 

8,000 

38,000 

475 

12,200 

4,773          39-1 

44-2 

14-5 

6,000 

29,000 

4-83 

12,200 

4,854 

39-8 

43-2 

17-5 

10,000 

35,000 

3-5 

12,000 

3,517 

29-3 

58 

17'66 

10,000 

35,320 

3-53 

12,600 

3,547 

28-1 

60 

27-5 

13,500 

55,000 

4-07 

13,000 

4,090 

31-3 

55-3 

19 

7,000 

38,000 

5-42 

12,200 

5,447          44-6 

36-3 

20 

6,000 

40,000 

6-66 

13,000 

6,693          51-4 

26-6 

23 

6,800 

46,000 

6-76 

13,000 

6,793          52-2 

25-5 

24 

7,000 

48,000 

6-85 

13,000 

6,884          53 

25-8 

29 

14,000 

58,000 

4-14 

12,000 

4,160 

34-6 

50-6 

25 

18,000 

50,000 

2-77 

12,000 

2,783 

23-2 

66-9 

32 

22,000 

64,000 

2-90 

12,000 

3,045 

25-3 

62-9 

31 

14,000 

62,000 

4-42      i     10,500 

4,442 

42-2 

39-8 

82 

22,500 

164,000 

7-28 

13,100 

7,286 

55-6 

20-6 

85 

20,740 

170,000 

8-22 

13,100 

8,261 

63-0 

10 

532       REFRIGERATION    AND    COLD   STORAGE. 


TABLE  GIVING  SIZES  AND  CAPACITIES  OF  VARIOUS  ICE-MAKING  PLANTS. 

H.  H,  Kelly,  "  The  Engineer?  New  York. 


Tons* 
per 
Twenty 
four 
Hours. 

Size  of 
Engine. 

Revolu- 
tions. 

Size  of 
Com- 
pressor. 

Size  of  Blocks 
of  Ice. 

Gallons  of 
Water  per 
Hour. 

Tons  of 
Coal. 

u-  S2 

0  £ 
o  B 
fc» 
H 

•sg 

o| 

*! 

No.  of 
Labourers. 

1 

7  by  9 

90 

t5  by  10 

8  by   8  by  28 

5 

\ 

1 

_ 

3 

8   „    16 

80 

5  ,,  15 

8        15       28 

15 

1 

2 

2 

2 

5 

10   „   20 

75 

6  „  18 

11       15       28 

20 

1ft 

2 

2 

2 

10 

12   ,,    30 

70 

8  „  20J 

11       22       28 
11        11        28 

}30 

2 

2 

2 

3 

10J 

14   „    30 

65 

8  „  25J 

11       22       28 
11        11        28 

}35 

2i 

2 

2 

3 

15 

14   ,,    30 

65 

10  „  20J 

11       22       28 
11        11        28 

}40 

3 

2 

2 

4 

20 

16   „    30 

55 

10  „  30{ 

11       22       28 
11        11        28 

J50 

4 

2 

2 

5 

30 

16   „    42 

52 

11  „  30J 

11       22       28 
11        11        28 

}eo 

5 

2 

2 

6 

40 

18   „    36 

50 

12  .,  30 

11        11        28 

90 

6ft 

2 

2 

7 

45 

20   „    36 

50 

15  „  30 

11        11        28 

94 

8 

2 

2 

8 

60 

24   „    36 

45 

16  „  36 

11        11        28 

96 

10 

2 

2 

9 

80 

26   „   48 

45 

20  „  36 

11        22       28 

100 

14 

2 

2 

10 

2,000  Ibs. 


f  One  cylinder. 


BRINE  FOR  USE  IN  REFRIGERATING  AND  ICE-MAKING  PLANTS. 

A  brine  suitable  for  the  above  purpose  can  be  made  with  from 
3  to  5  Ibs.  of  chloride  of  calcium,  or  muriate  of  lime,  in  accordance 
with  its  degree  of  purity,  dissolved  in  each  gallon  of  water.  The 
density  of  this  solution  is  about  23°  Beaume,  its  weight  about  13^  Ibs. 
per  gallon,  and  the  freezing  point  is  -  9°  Fahr.  As  the  above  standard 
of  density  must  be  kept  up,  in  order  to  prevent  the  brine  from  becoming 
congealed  in  the  refrigerator  or  the  ice-making  tanks  or  boxes,  it  is 
desirable  to  test  it  periodically  with  a  salinometer. 

In  the  best  American  practice  first  quality  medium-ground  salt, 
preferably  in  bags  for  convenience  of  handling,  is  employed,  the 
proportions  being  about  3  Ibs.  of  salt  to  each  gallon  of  water.  The 
brine  is  made  in  a  brine  mixer,  such  as  that  shown  in  Fig.  391,  which 
consists  of  a  water-tight  box  or  tank  A,  about  4  ft.  by  8  ft.  by  2  ft., 
having  a  suitably  perforated  false  bottom  B,  and  a  small  compartment 
c,  partitioned  off  at  one  extremity,  communicating  with  the  main 
compartment  through  an  overflow  D}  situated  at  the  upper  end  of  the 
partition,  and  fitted  with  a  large  strainer  to  prevent  the  passage  into 


ICE-MAKING. 


533 


the  small  compartment  of  salt  or  foreign  bodies.  The  water  is  admitted 
through  a  pipe  E,  which  extends  into  the  tank  A,  and  runs  the  full 
length  of  the  false  bottom,  the  latter  portion  being  perforated,  as  shown, 
and  the  brine  is  removed  through  a  pipe  F  from  the  upper  part  of  the 
end  compartment,  at  the  lower  extremity  of  which  latter  pipe  is  a 
strainer-box  and  strainer  through  which  the  brine  passes  before  delivery 
into  the  brine-tank.  A  salt  gauge,  salinometer,  or  hydrometer  is  also 
placed  in  this  end  compartment.  The  sketch  shown  is  from  one  given 
in  the  New  York  Engineer. 

The  salt  should  be  dissolved  in  the  water  until  it  reaches  a  density 
of  about  90°  by  the  hydrometer.  To  facilitate  dissolution  it  is  desir- 
able to  stir  the  salt  in  the  mixer  with  some  handy  implement,  the  salt 
being  shovelled  in  as  fast  as  it  can  be  got  to  dissolve. 

By  the  use  of  this  mixer  the  settlement  of  salt  on  the  bottom  and 


B 


Fio.  391. — Brine  Mixing  Tank.     Vertical  Longitudinal  Central  Section. 

on  the  coils  in  the  brine  tank,  which  inevitably  results  when  the 
solution  is  effected  directly  in  the  latter,  is  avoided. 

To  maintain  the  strength  of  the  brine  it  is  recommended  to  suspend 
bags  filled  with  salt  in  the  brine-tank,  or  to  pass  the  return  brine 
through  the  above-described  brine  maker  or  mixer. 

A  cheap  and  easily  constructed  apparatus  for  mixing  brine  can  be 
made  out  of  an  old  barrel  in  which  a  perforated  false  bottom  is  fixed 
a  short  distance  above  the  bottom,  the  water  to  form  the  solution 
being  delivered  to  the  space  between  the  two  bottoms,  and  an  overflow 
pipe,  fitted  with  a  suitable  strainer  and  a  well  to  receive  a  salinometer, 
being  provided  near  the  top  to  draw  off  the  brine. 

When  the  temperature  falls  below  7°  below  zero  Fahr.  chloride  of 
calcium  must  be  employed,  as  a  solution  of  common  salt  can  only  be 
reduced  to  a  temperature  7°  below  zero,  whilst  chloride  of  calcium  can 
be  cooled  down  to  39°  below  zero  Fahr. 


534       REFRIGERATION   AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

Fig.  392  illustrates  a  brine  concentrator  of  the  Haslam  type.  The 
apparatus  comprises  a  steam -jacketed  pan,  known  as  the  concentrator, 
a  series  of  tubes  known  as  the  interchanger,  and  a  brine  pump.  The 
operation  of  the  apparatus  is  as  follows : — Brine  is  drawn  from  the 
battery  by  the  pump,  forced  through  the  interchanger,  and  delivered 


Fig.  392. — Haslam  Brine  Concentrator. 

into  the  concentrator.  Here  it  is  reduced  by  heat  to  the  right  specific 
gravity,  after  which  it  is  allowed  to  flow  back  over  the  interchanger 
into  the  battery.  In  passing  over  the  interchanger,  it  is  cooled  by  the 
incoming  brine  flowing  through  the  interchanger,  and  in  turn  heats 
the  incoming  brine,  thus  saving  both  steam  and  work  on  the 
refrigerating  machine. 


ICE-MAKING.  535 

STORING,  HANDLING,  AND  SELLING  ICE. 

For  storing  purposes  ice  should  be  clear,  solid,  and  devoid  of  core. 
In  America  some  persons  insist  that  ice  for  storage  should  not  be  made 
at  temperatures  higher  than  10°  to  14°  in  brine-tank. 

The  first  requisite  for  a  storage  house  for  artificial  ice,  as  also  for 
natural  ice,  is,  of  course,  the  best  possible  insulation ;  other  necessary 
points  to  be  attended  to  are  drainage  and  ventilation.  The  best  shape 
for  an  ice-storage  house  is  square,  or  as  nearly  approaching  this  form 
as  possible,  and  the  roof  should  have  a  good  pitch.  An  ante-room  or 
lobby  is  also  desirable,  as  by  the  provision  of  this  latter  the  necessity 
for  the  frequent  opening  of  the  main  store  is  done  away  with. 

To  preserve  the  ice,  the  storage  rooms,  as  well  as  the  ante-chambers 
or  lobbies  must  be  refrigerated,  and  the  amount  of  the  latter  required 
may  be  roughly  estimated,  according  to  Prof.  Siebel,  at  from  about 
10  to  16  British  thermal  units  of  refrigeration  per  cubic  feet  contents 
for  twenty-four  hours.  About  1  ft.  of  2-in.  pipe  (or  its  equivalent  in 
other  size  pipe)  per  14  to  20  cub.  ft.  of  space  is  frequently  allowed, 
says  the  same  gentleman,  in  ice-storage  houses  for  direct  expansion, 
and  about  one-half  to  one-third  more  for  brine  circulation.  The  pipes 
should  be  located  on  the  ceiling  of  the  ice-storage  house. 

The  ventilation  of  an  ice-storage  house  should  be  carefully  attended 
to,  and  ventilators  fitted  with  suitable  regulators  should  be  provided 
both  in  the  highest  part  of  the  roof  and  also  in  the  gable  ends.  The 
drainage  should  be  such  as  to  absolutely  prevent  the  accumulation  of 
any  moisture  beneath  the  bed  of  ice.  It  is  recommended  to  paint  an 
ice  store  white,  preferably  with  a  mineral  such  as  barytes  or  patent 
white. 

Respecting  the  best  method  to  adopt  for  packing  the  ice  in  the 
store  considerable  diversity  of  opinion  seems  to  exist.  It  is  well  to 
provide  a  bed  of  from  18  in.  to  2  ft.  of  cinders,  as  this  tends  to  improve 
the  drainage  of  the  house.  In  one  method  the  blocks  are  placed  on 
edge  and  as  closely  packed  together  as  possible,  the  blocks  in  each 
succeeding  layer  being  placed  exactly  over  those  beneath  and  all 
breaking  of  joints  being  avoided.  The  ice  is  covered  between  the 
times  of  storing  with  dry  sawdust  or  soft  wood  shavings,  and  the 
uppermost  layer  is  invariably  covered  with  dry  sawdust  or  shavings. 

Mr  R.  Thompson,  writing  to  the  Canadian  Farming  World,  says 
that  in  filling  the  house  he  places  the  ice  on  edge,  placing  every 
alternate  layer  crossways,  which  plan,  he  claims,  enables  ice  to  keep 
better  and  come  out  easier. 


536       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

Others  recommend  that  the  ice  be  stored  with  alternate  ends 
touching  and  alternately  from  1 J  to  2  in.  apart,  so  as  to  prevent  the 
ice  from  freezing  together.  The  cakes  or  slabs  of  ice  should  not  be 
parallel  to  each  other,  and  storage  should  only  be  made  when  the 
temperature  is  at  or  below  freezing.  Or,  again,  J-in.  strips  placed 
between  the  layers  of  ice  in  the  store  so  as  to  separate  the  cakes  or 
blocks,  top,  side,  and  bottom,  from  all  others  in  the  house. 

For  packing  the  ice,  sawdust,  rice  chaff,  straw,  hay — marsh  or 
prairie  hay  being  said  to  be  preferable — are  employed.  Of  these 
materials  hay  is  the  best,  rice  chaff  is  capable  of  being  dried  and 
re-used.  6  in.  of  well-packed  hay  should  be  placed  between  the  ice 
and  the  walls,  and  no  covering  until  the  store  is  full. 

1  cub.  ft.  of  ice  is  taken  to  weigh  57*5  Ibs.  approximately  at  32° 
Fahr.  1  cub.  ft.  of  water  frozen  at  32°  will  make  1*0855  cub.  ft, 
of  ice,  thus  showing  an  expansion  of  8-5  per  cent,  due  to  freezing. 
1  cub.  ft.  of  pure  water  at  39°  Fahr.,  its  point  of  greatest  density, 
weighs  62 '43  Ibs.  50  cub.  ft.  of  ice,  as  usually  stored,  equals  about 
1  American  or  short  ton  of  ice  (2,000  Ibs.),  or  62  cub.  ft.,  1  English 
ton.  In  small  ice  houses  in  which  the  ice  is  closely  packed,  a  short 
ton  of  ice  can  be  got  into  from  40  to  45  cub.  ft. 

When  withdrawing  ice  from  a  store  breaking-out  bars  for  bottom 
and  side  breaking  are  required,  and  if  properly  skilled  assistance  is  not 
available  a  considerable  amount  of  the  ice  will  in  all  probability  be 
broken  up  and  wasted. 

The  wastage  of  ice  in  an  ice  store  not  artificially  cooled,  from 
January  to  July  is,  in  the  United  States,  at  the  rate  of  about  •!  Ib. 
of  ice  per  twenty-four  hours  for  each  square  foot  of  wall  surface,  or  say 
from  5  to  10  per  cent,  of  the  ice  stored  during  the  six  months. 

The  amount  of  heat  that  will  pass  through  1  sq.  ft.  of  ice  1  in. 
in  thickness  is  put  at  10  British  thermal  units  per  hour  for  each 
degree  Fahrenheit  difference  between  the  respective  temperatures  on 
each  side  of  the  sheet  of  ice. 

In  handling  and  selling  ice,  the  waggons  should  be  clean  and 
sanitary,  the  men  in  charge  should  avoid  walking  about  in  them  with 
dirty  boots,  and  blocks  of  ice  should  not  be  deposited  and  slid  about 
on  filthy  pavements.  These  matters  are  attended  to  in  the  United 
States,  but  here  they  are  totally  neglected. 

In  the  United  States  the  selling  and  delivery  of  ice  is  generally  done 
by  the  coupon  system,  which  is  thus  described  by  Prof.  Siebel :  "  It  is 
a  system  of  keeping  an  accurate  account  with  each  customer  of  the  de- 
livery of  and  the  payment  for  ice  by  means  of  a  small  book  containing 


ICE-MAKING.  537 

coupons,  which  in  the  aggregate  equal  500  or  1,000  or  more  pounds  of 
ice  taken  by  the  customer  every  time  ice  is  delivered.  These  books 
are  used  in  the  delivery  of  ice  in  like  manner  as  mileage  books  or  tickets 
are  used  on  the  railroad.  A  certain  number  of  coupons  are  printed  on 
each  page,  each  coupon  being  separated  from  the  others  by  perforation, 
so  that  they  are  easily  detached  and  taken  up  by  the  driver  when  ice 
is  delivered.  Such  books  are  each  supplied  with  a  receipt  or  due  bill, 
so  that  if  the  customer  purchases  his  ice  on  credit,  all  that  is  necessary 
for  the  dealer  to  do  is  to  have  the  customer  sign  the  receipt  or  due  bill 
and  hand  him  the  book  containing  coupons  equal  in  the  aggregate  to 
the  number  of  pounds  of  ice  set  forth  in  the  receipt  or  due  bill.  The 
dealer  then  has  the  receipt  or  due  bill,  and  the  customer  has  the  book 
of  coupons.  The  only  entry  which  the  dealer  has  to  enter  against 
such  purchaser  in  his  books  is  to  charge  him  with  coupon  book  number, 
as  per  number  on  book,  to  the  amount  of  500,  1,000,  or  more  pounds  of 
ice,  as  the  value  of  the  book  so  delivered  may  be.  The  driver  then 
takes  up  the  coupons  as  he  delivers  the  ice  from  day  to  day." 

ICE-CRUSHING  OR  BREAKING  MACHINERY. 

A  class  of  machine  required  in  most  modern  ice  factories  is  that  for 
ice-crushing  or  breaking.  There  are  numerous  uses  for  this  type  of 
machine,  but  probably  the  most  important  is  the  crushing  of  ice  for 
use  on  board  fishing  smacks  and  vessels,  where  it  would  be  compara- 
tively useless  in  large  solid  blocks,  and  must  be  crushed  or  broken  up 
into  small  pieces  before  it  can  be  satisfactorily  employed  for  the 
purpose  of  packing  the  fish.  This  latter  desideratum  likewise  applies  to 
the  transport  of  fish  by  rail,  and  to  the  requirements  of  fishmongers, 
hotels,  restaurants,  &c.  Fig.  393  shows  a  belt-driven  machine  having 
a  crushing  capacity  of  15  tons  per  hour,  built  by  Messrs  David  Bridge 
&  Co.,  Castle  ton,  Manchester,  a  firm  that  have  made  a  speciality 
of  this  class  of  machinery.  The  machine  consists  essentially  of  a 
suitable  hopper  to  receive  the  blocks  or  pieces  of  ice,  and  a  pair  of 
crushing  or  breaking  rollers  provided  with  steel  spikes  arranged  in  such 
a  manner  that  the  ice  will  not  be  allowed  to  slip  or  slide,  and  the 
breaking  operation  will  consequently  commence  without  loss  of  time. 
The  breaking  or  crushing  rollers  are  suitably  geared,  and  the  bearings 
are  independent,  gunmetal  bushed,  and  provided  with  effective 
lubricating  arrangements.  An  excellent  feature  in  the  design  of  the 
machine  is  that  all  the  parts  are  so  arranged  as  to  be  readily  accessible 
for  cleaning  and  repairs. 


538       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

Besides  the  machine  shown,  the  firm  also  make  various  other  sizes 
of  power-driven  crushers  from  1 J  tons  up  to  30  tons  per  hour  capacity, 
as  well  as  small  hand-power  machinery  intended  for  the  use  of  fish- 
mongers, and  in  hotels,  restaurants,  or  anywhere,  in  fact,  where  it  is 


Fig.  393.— 15-Ton  per  Hour  Ice-crushing  Machine. 

required  to  crush  or  break  ice  from  the  block,  but  the  demand  is  not 
large.  These  latter  machines  are  made  in  three  sizes,  viz.,  of  10,  15, 
and  25  cwt.  capacities.  Ice-crushing  machines  are  also  made  by 
Mr  C.  E.  Barton,  of  Grimsby,  and  others. 


CHAPTER  XX 

THE   MANAGEMENT   AND   TESTING   OF   REFRIGE- 
RATING  MACHINERY,   ETC. 

Management — Ammonia  Compression  Machines — Oil  Separators  or  Collectors — 
Accumulations  of  Deposit  in  the  Condenser — Breaking  Joints — Lubricating 
Qualities  of  Ammonia— Compressor  Piston-Rod  Packings — To  Charge  and 
Work  a  Carbonic  Acid  Machine — Freezing  or  Choking  up  of  Compression 
System — Lubrication  of  Refrigerating  Machinery — Leaks  in  Ammonia  Ap- 
paratus— Leaks  in  Carbonic  Acid  Machines — Effect  of  a  Coating  of  Ice  on 
Direct-Expansion  Pipes — Defrosting  Refrigerating  Coils — Incrustation  on 
Condenser  Coils— Cold- Air  Machines— Testing— Interpretation  of  Compressor 
Diagrams — Absorption  Machines — Amount  of  Water  required  in  Refrigerat- 
ing Apparatus — Determination  of  Moisture  in  Air — Psychrometers — Hygro- 
meters—Electrical Temperature  Tell-Tales  and  Long-Distance  Thermometers 
— The  Thermograph — The  Telethermometer  or  Electrical  Thermometer — 
Lighting  Cold  Stores. 

MANAGEMENT. 

AMMONIA  COMPRESSION  MACHINES. 

EVERY  particular  type  of  machine  working  on  this  principle  has,  as 
a  rule,  certain  distinctive  or  characteristic  features,  and  will,  of  course, 
so  far  at  least  as  these  are  concerned,  require  special  care  and  adjust- 
ment, and  it  would  consequently  be  totally  impossible  to  lay  down  an 
arbitrary  set  of  rules  for  working  that  would  be  suitable  to  all ;  nor  is 
this  necessary  or  required,  as  full  particulars  relating  to  the  manipula- 
tion of  each  particular  machine  are  invariably  supplied  by  the  makers. 
The  following  points,  however,  are  more  or  less  applicable  to  all 
machines  working  on  the  ammonia  compression  principle,  and  should 
therefore  be  familiar  to  those  in  charge  of  same. 

Before  charging  an  empty  machine  with  anhydrous  ammonia,  all 
air  must  first  be  carefully  expelled.  This  is  effected  by  working  the 
pumps  so  as  to  discharge  the  air  through  special  valves  which  are 
usually  provided  on  the  pump  dome  for  that  purpose. 

The  entire  system  should  have  been  previously  to  this  thoroughly 
tested  by  working  the  compressor,  and  permitting  air  to  enter  at  the 

539 


540       REFRIGERATION   AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

suction  through  the  special  valves  provided  for  that  purpose,  and  it 
should  be  perfectly  tight  at  300  Ibs.  air  pressure  on  the  square  inch, 
and  should  be  able  to  hold  that  pressure  without  loss.  Whilst  testing 
the  system  under  air  pressure  it  should  be  also  carefully  blown  through 
and  thoroughly  cleansed  from  all  dirt,  every  trace  of  moisture  being 
likewise  removed. 

It  is  totally  impossible  to  eject  all  air  from  the  plant  by  means  of 
the  compressor,  therefore  it  is  advisable  to  insert  the  requisite  charge 
of  ammonia  gradually  and  not  all  at  once,  the  best  practice  being  to 
put  in  from  60  to  70  per  cent,  of  the  full  charge  at  first,  and  cautiously 
permit  the  air  still  remaining  to  escape  through  the  purging-cocks 
with  as  little  loss  of  gas  as  possible,  subsequently  inserting  an  addi- 
tional quantity  of  ammonia  once  or  twice  a  day,  until  all  the  air  has 
been  got  rid  of  by  displacement,  and  the  complete  charge  has  been 
introduced. 

To  charge  the  machine,  the  drier  or  dehydrator  of  the  apparatus 
for  manufacturing  or  generating  anhydrous  ammonia,  or,  where  no  such 
apparatus  is  included  in  the  installation,  the  drum  or  iron  steel  flask 
of  anhydrous  ammonia,  should  be  connected,  through  a  suitable  pipe  to 
the  charging  valve ;  the  expansion  valve  must  be  then  closed,  and  the 
valve  communicating  with  the  drier  or  dehydrator,  or  that  in  the  flask 
or  bottle,  opened.  The  machine  should  be  run  at  a  slow  speed  when 
sucking  ammonia  from  the  drier,  or  whilst  the  flask  is  being  emptied, 
with  the  discharge  and  suction  valves  full  open.  In  the  latter  case, 
when  one  of  the  flasks  or  bottles  has  been  completely  emptied  it 
must  be  removed,  the  charging  valve  having  been  first  closed,  and 
another  placed  in  position,  until  the  machine  is  sufficiently  charged  to 
work,  when  the  charging  valve  should  be  finally  closed,  and  the  main 
expansion  valve  opened  and  regulated.  A  glass  gauge  upon  the  liquid 
receiver  will  show  when  the  latter  is  partially  filled,  and  the  pressure 
gauges,  and  the  gradual  cooling  of  the  brine  in  the  refrigerator  (in  the 
case  of  a  brine  circulation  or  ice-making  apparatus)  and  the  expansion 
pipe  leading  to  the  refrigerator  coils  becoming  covered  with  frost, 
indicate  when  a  sufficient  amount  to  start  working  has  been  inserted. 

It  is  sometimes  advisable  to  slightly  warm  the  vessels  or  bottles 
containing  the  anhydrous  ammonia  by  means  of  a  gas  jet,  or  in  some 
other  convenient  manner,  whilst  transferring  their  contents  to  the 
machine,  as  otherwise  if  frost  forms  on  the  exterior  of  the  bottles 
they  will  not  be  completely  discharged,  and  loss  of  ammonia  will 
ensue. 

The  flasks,  bottles,  or  other  receptacles  containing  the  anhydrous 


MANAGEMENT  &  TESTING  OF  MACHINERY.     541 

ammonia  should  be  always  kept  in  a  tolerably  cool  and  a  perfectly 
safe  situation,  and  they  should  moreover  be  moved  and  handled  with 
the  utmost  caution  and  care. 

In  the  event  of  an  accident  occurring  and  any  considerable  quan- 
tity of  the  ammonia  becoming  spilt,  it  is  well  to  remember  that  it  is  so 
extremely  soluble  in  water  that  1  part  of  the  latter  at  a  temperature 
of  60°  Fahr.  will  absorb  some  800  parts  of  the  ammonia  gas,  therefore 
water  should  be  employed  to  kill  or  neutralise  it,  and  any  person 
attempting  to  penetrate  an  atmosphere  saturated  with  this  gas  should 
not  fail  to  place  a  cloth  well  saturated  with  water  over  his  nose  and 
mouth,  or  better  still,  a  suitable  helmet  or  respirator. 

The  machine  having  been  started,  and  the  regulating  valve  opened, 
it  is  essential  to  note  carefully  the  temperature  of  the  delivery  pipe  on 
the  compressor,  and  if  it  shows  a  tendency  to  heat,  then  the  regulating 
valve  must  be  opened  wider  ;  whilst,  on  the  contrary,  should  it  become 
cold,  the  valve  must  be  slightly  closed,  the  regulation  or  adjustment 
thereof  being  continued  until  the  normal  temperature  of  the  above  pipe 
is  the  same  as  that  of  the  cooling  water  leaving  the  condenser.  When 
the  charge  of  ammonia  in  the  machine  is  insufficient,  the  delivery  pipe  will 
become  heated,  and  that  even  when  the  regulating  valve  is  wide  open. 

There  are  many  additional  signs  of  the  healthy  working  of  the 
apparatus  other  than  the  fact  that  it  is  satisfactorily  performing  its 
proper  refrigerating  duty,  which  soon  becomes  easily  recognisable  to 
those  in  charge.  For  example,  every  stroke  of  the  piston  will  be  clearly 
marked  by  a  corresponding  vibration  of  the  pointer  or  indexes  of 
the  pressure  and  vacuum  gauges.  The  frost  visible  on  the  exterior  of 
the  ammonia  pipe  leading  to  and  from  the  refrigerator  will  be  about 
the  same.  The  liquid  ammonia  can  be  distinctly  heard  passing  in  a  con- 
tinuous and  uninterrupted  stream  through  the  regulating  valve.  The 
temperature  of  the  condenser  will  be  about  15°  higher  than  that  of  the 
cooling  water  running  from  the  overflow.  And,  finally,  the  temperature 
of  the  refrigerator  will  be  about  15°  lower  than  the  actual  temperature 
of  the  brine  or  water  being  cooled. 

Air  will  find  its  way  into  the  system  through  leaky  stuffing  boxes, 
improper  regulation  of  the  expansion  valve,  &c.  Its  presence  in  any 
considerable  volume  is  shown  by  a  kind  of  whistling  noise,  the  liquid 
ammonia  passing  through  the  expansion  valve  in  an  intermittent 
manner,  a  rise  of  pressure  in  the  condenser,  and  also  loss  of  efficiency 
thereof,  and  other  obvious  signs.  In  this  case  the  air  must  be  got 
rid  of  through  the  purging-cocks  in  a  similar  manner  to  that  which 
remains  in  the  system  when  first  charging  the  machine. 


542       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD    STORAGE. 

The  presence  of  any  considerable  amount  of  oil  or  water  in  the 
system,  which  may  result  from  careless  distillation,  will  cause  a  reduc- 
tion in  efficiency,  and  will  be  evidenced  by  shocks  within  the  compressor 
cylinder. 

The  temperature  can  be  regulated  either  by  running  the  machine  at 
a  higher  speed  or  by  increasing  the  back  pressure,  or  by  a  combination 
of  both.  The  back  pressure  can  be  regulated  by  means  of  an  expan- 
sion valve  or  valves  fitted  between  the  receiver  and  the  refrigerator 
evaporating  coils  or  pipes  in  the  main  liquid  pipe. 

It  is  absolutely  necessary  that  an  ample  supply  of  oil  for  lubricating 
purposes  be  forced  into  the  stuffing  box  of  the  compressor  at  frequent 
intervals,  otherwise  it  will  be  found  that  the  heated  ammoniacal  gas 
at  high  pressure  will  very  rapidly  cut  through  even  the  very  best 
packing.  Pure  mineral  oil  of  good  body  is  found  to  be  the  best  lubri- 
cant ;  animal  and  vegetable  oils  should  not  be  used,  as  on  contact  with 
ammonia  they  will  saponify,  and  much  trouble  and  loss  will  ensue 
therefrom. 

Another  matter  requiring  special  attention  is  the  proper  lift  of  the 
suction  and  discharge  valves,  and  these  should  invariably  be  provided 
with  suitable  means  for  admitting  of  the  lift  being  readily  adjusted. 
The  lift  should  not  be  too  high,  otherwise  the  valves  will  not  close  with 
sufficient  promptitude,  and  a  loss  of  efficiency  will  result,  and  that  more 
especially  in  compressors  running  at  high  speed. 

When  superheating  of  the  ammonia  gas  in  the  compressor  is  guarded 
against  by  the  circulation  of  cooling  water  through  a  jacket  surrounding 
the  latter,  it  is  desirable  to  ascertain  the  proper  amount  of  water 
necessary  to  secure  the  best  results.  This  will,  of  course,  vary  with 
the  condensing  pressure ;  about  1  '2  gals,  of  water  per  hour  for  each  ton 
of  refrigerating  effect  per  day  of  twenty-four  hours  being  usually  found 
to  be  sufficient  for  low  condensing  pressures  of,  say,  from  95  to  110  Ibs., 
whilst,  on  the  other  hand,  with  a  high  condensing  pressure  of  about 
150  Ibs.  the  amount  will  have  to  be  increased  to  50  gals,  or  more  per 
hour. 

The  larger  the  amount  of  cooling  water  that  is  employed  in  the 
separator  jacket  the  better ;  and  this  water  need  not  be  wasted,  as  it 
may  be  conducted  through  a  suitable  overflow  into  the  condenser,  and 
utilised  together  with  that  delivered  specially  thereto.  The  overflow 
pipe  conducting  this  water  to  the  condenser  should  preferably  dip  down 
for  a  certain  distance  into  the  condenser. 

Respecting  the  quantity  and  temperature  of  the  cooling  water  for 
the  condenser,  it  must  be  remembered  the  lower  the  temperature  of  the 


MANAGEMENT  &  TESTING  OF  MACHINERY.     543 

condensed  ammonia  the  less  will  be  the  pressure  against  which  the 
compressor  has  to  work,  and  consequently  the  greater  will  be  the  saving 
in  fuel  and  in  wear  and  tear  to  the  moving  parts. 

The  amount  of  condensing  water  required  will  vary  in  accordance 
with  the  temperature  at  which  it  is  run  from  the  condenser.  For 
instance,  if  the  condensing  water  be  run  into  the  condenser  at  a 
temperature  of  about  60°  Fahr.,  and  leaves  at  the  overflow  or  waste 
at  a  temperature  of,  say,  90°  Fahr.,  the  quantity  of  water  required  will 
be  about  1  gal.  per  minute  for  each  ice  capacity  of  1  ton  per  twenty- 
four  hours ;  whilst  if  the  temperature  of  the  overflow  or  waste  were 
75°  Fahr.,  the  original  temperature  at  the  inlet  being  the  same  as 
before,  the  amount  of  water  required  would  be  about  2*5  gals,  per 
minute  for  each  ice  capacity  of  1  ton  per  twenty-four  hours,  and  a 
reduction  of  about  40  Ibs.  in  the  condensing  pressure  would  be  effected. 
In  large  towns  and  cities,  however,  where  the  water  from  the  water 
companies'  mains  has  to  be  used,  and  paid  heavily  for,  it  is  often 
doubtful  economy  to  attempt  to  reduce  the  temperature  of  the  con- 
densed ammonia  below  a  certain  point,  say  60°  Fahr.,  during  the 
winter  months,  and  70°  Fahr.  during  the  summer  months.  It  is 
obvious  that  when  a  high  price  has  to  be  paid  for  the  water  employed 
for  cooling  and  other  purposes,  every  effort  possible  should  be  made  to 
utilise  it  to  the  fullest  extent,  and,  with  this  end  in  view,  it  is  desirable 
to  use  the  overflow  water  from  the  condenser  for  boiler-feeding  purposes, 
or  to  employ  some  means,  such  as  a  cooling  tower,  for  saving  that  which 
would  be  otherwise  run  to  waste  and  be  completely  lost. 

To  prevent  loss  of  efficiency  from  heating  of  the  condensed 
ammonia,  it  is  advisable  that  the  receiver  and  piping  should  be  covered 
with  a  thick  layer  of  some  suitable  non-conducting  material,  which 
precaution  is  the  more  necessary,  inasmuch  as  the  piping  generally 
passes  through  the  engine  room,  and  consequently  the  temperature  of 
the  ammonia  is  not  infrequently  raised  as  much  as  25°  above  that  at 
which  it  left  the  condenser  before  it  enters  the  coils  or  pipes  of  the 
refrigerator,  which  causes  a  loss  of  about  2-5  per  cent,  on  the  ice- 
making  capacity  of  the  machine.  The  pipes  conveying  the  ammonia 
gas  from  the  coils  or  pipes  of  the  refrigerator  to  the  compressor  should 
be  likewise  well  covered  with  non-conducting  material,  so  as  to  pre- 
vent, as  far  as  possible,  any  further  accession  of  heat  in  the  gas 
during  the  transit.  The  desirability  of  this  will  be  readily  seen  when  it 
is  remembered  that  the  refrigerating  capacity  of  a  machine  of  this 
type  is  dependent  upon  the  weight  of  ammonia  circulated,  and  that  the 
volume  of  a  given  weight  of  the  gas  increases  in  proportion  to  the 


544       REFRIGERATION   AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

elevation  of  its  temperature,  and  consequently  the  higher  this  is  raised 
the  smaller  will  be  the  weight  of  the  gas  circulated  or  dealt  with  by  the 
compressor,  although  the  volume  may  be  the  same. 


OIL  SEPARATORS  OR  COLLECTORS. 

In  the  case  of  a  compressor  wherein  the  cylinder  is  cooled  by  a 
water  circulation  round  its  exterior  walls,  and  not  by  the  intro- 
duction of  cooling  liquid  to  the  interior  thereof,  a  certain  amount  of  the 
oil  employed  for  lubricating  purposes  will  gain  access  to  the  interior 
round  the  piston  rod,  and  this  oil  would,  unless  proper  means  be  taken 
to  prevent  it,  be  carried  through  the  discharge  valve  along  with  the 
ammonia  gas,  and,  after  first  passing  into  the  condenser,  would  finally 
gain  access  to  the  evaporating  or  expansion  coils  or  pipes  of  the  refri- 
gerator, and  also  stop  or  clog  up  the  expansion  valve,  and  otherwise 
reduce  the  efficiency  of  the  machine. 

The  method  employed  for  recovering  any  oil  carried  over  with  the 
ammonia  gas  in  a  compressor  of  the  De  La  Vergne  type,  employing 
a  sealing,  cooling,  and  lubricating  liquid  in  the  cylinder,  has  been 
already  mentioned  when  dealing  with  that  machine  ;  with  compressors 
wherein  other  means  are  employed  for  ensuring  a  complete  or  a  practi- 
cally complete  discharge  of  the  ammonia  at  each  stroke  of  the  piston, 
suitable  oil  separatois  or  collectors  for  the  mechanical  separation  of  the 
oil  from  the  gas,  and  in  some  cases  rectifiers  are  used.  The  oil 
separator,  which  should  be  at  least  as  large  as  the  liquid-ammonia 
receiver  is,  as  a  rule,  placed  in  the  main  pipe  between  the  compressor 
and  the  condenser.  Another  oil  separator  or  trap  is  frequently  fitted 
on  the  expansion  or  low-pressure  side  of  the  refrigerator,  usually  in 
close  proximity  to  the  inlet  to  the  compressor  pump.  The  object  of 
this  latter  is  to  intercept  any  scale,  dirt,  &c.,  from  the  pipes,  and  pre- 
vent its  gaining  access  to  the  pump  cylinder  and  injuring  the  piston 
and  valves.  The  shells  of  these  separators  or  traps  are  usually  con- 
structed of  wrought  iron  or  steel,  and  it  is  essential  to  have  perfectly 
gas-tight  joints. 

The  separator  or  oil  collector  frequently  supplied  consists  merely 
in  a  cylindrical  vessel  into  which  the  ammonia  gas  is  conducted  at  one 
extremity  and  leaves  at  the  other.  The  inlet  and  outlet  being  situated 
at  some  inches  from  the  ends  or  covers,  the  gas  is  supposed  to  be  freed 
from  the  oil  carried  over  therewith  by  coming  in  contact  with  the 
sides  of  the  cylinder,  and  it  passes  on  to  the  condenser,  whilst  the  oil 
falls  to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel. 


MANAGEMENT   &   TESTING   OF    MACHINERY.     545 

A  better  form  of  separator  is  that  wherein  baffles  or  plates,  de- 
scending vertically  to  slightly  below  the  centre  of  the  cylindrical  vessel, 
and  extending  alternately  nearly  but  not  quite  to  the  opposite  sides 
of  it,  are  employed.  In  this  arrangement  the  gas  is  admitted  at  one 
side  of  the  cylinder,  and,  after  taking  a  zigzag  course  between  the 
baffles  or  plates,  leaves  at  the  other  side.  A  very  considerable  increase 
of  contact  surface  is  thus  ensured  in  a  separator  of  this  type,  a  modified 
form  of  which  is  employed  in  the  De  La  Vergne  system,  and  the 
separator  is  rendered  considerably  more  efficient. 

The  gas  being  at  a  temperature  of  some  200°  Fahr.  when  passing 
through  the  separator  or  interceptor,  the  oil  contained  or  carried  over 
with  it  is  in  a  limpid  condition,  and  is,  therefore,  difficult  to  eliminate 
from  the  gas.  To  obviate  this  objection  the  separator  or  oil  collector 
is  sometimes  water-jacketed,  by  which  means  the  temperature  can  be 
maintained  low  enough  to  cause  the  oil  to  separate  easily  from  the  gas 
and  fall  to  the  bottom  of  the  cylinder  or  vessel.  By  this  arrangement 
its  efficiency  is  still  further  increased. 

Puplett  and  Rigg's  patent  separator  or  interceptor  has  been 
already  described  in  a  previous  chapter,  and  centrifugal  oil  separators 
have  also  been  used  with  some  success.  A  type  of  oil  separator 
recommended  by  some  makers  is  fitted  with  an  arrangement  of  wire 
screens. 

A  separator  of  this  latter  type  was  patented  in  1887  by  S.  Puplett 
and  J.  L.  Rigg,  which  consisted  of  a  cylindrical  vessel  having  a  water 
jacket  through  which  a  circulation  of  cooling  water  is  maintained,  and 
provided  centrally  with  two  or  more  sheets  or  screens  of  wire  gauze 
or  perforated  sheet  metal,  by  which  the  cylindrical  vessel  or  chamber 
is  divided  vertically  into  two  compartments.  The  gas  from  the  com- 
pression pump  is  discharged  into  this  vessel  or  chamber  against  the 
sheets  or  screens,  and  is  forced  through  the  interstices  or  meshes,  the 
surface  contact  separating  the  oil,  held  in  mechanical  suspension,  from 
the  gas.  The  separator  being  maintained  at  a  lower  temperature  than 
the  gas  by  means  of  the  above-mentioned  water-jacket,  a  rapid  con- 
densation of  any  oil  passing  over  with  the  gas  takes  place,  and  this 
oil  is  first  deposited  on  the  sheets  or  screens,  from  which  it  falls  to 
the  bottom  of  the  separator,  from  whence  it  can  be  drawn  off  through 
a  discharge-cock  fixed  therein,  without  stopping  the  machine,  and 
without  any  material  loss  of  gas  or  admission  of  air  occurring. 

To  catch  any  oil  that  may  pass  down  the  return-liquid  pipe,  an 
interceptor  is  attached  to  the  latter  in  any  convenient  position,  but 
preferably  as  near  as  possible  to  the  refrigerator.  This  interceptor  is 
35 


546      REFRIGERATION   AND   COLD    STORAGE. 


r- 

0        E 


Iff 


formed  of  a  cylindrical  vessel  having  a  diaphragm  extending  from  the 
cover  to  within  a  short  distance  of  the  bottom,  and  another  diaphragm 
extending  from  the  bottom  thereof  to  within  a  short  distance  of  the 
cover,  thus  forming  three  compartments.  The  return-liquid  pipe  passes 
through  the  cover  nearly,  but  not  quite,  to  the  bottom  of  the  intercep- 
tor on  one  side  of  the  first  diaphragm — that  is  in  the  outer  compart- 
ment— and  is  continued  from  near  the  bottom  of  the  interceptor  to 

beyond  the  second  diaphragm, 
that  is  to  say,  out  of  the  third 
compartment.  Any  oil  that 
passes  down  the  return-liquid 
pipe  collects  in  the  first  compart- 
ment of  the  interceptor,  from 
whence  it  can  be  withdrawn 
through  a  cock  fixed  in  the  first 
compartment  without  stopping 
the  machine,  or  causing  an  ap- 
preciable loss  of  gas  or  the  admis- 
sion of  air  to  any  injurious  extent. 
This  interceptor  is  preferably 
jacketed,  and  is  surrounded  with, 
and  maintained  at  a  suitable 
temperature  by  means  of,  cold 
brine,  in  order  to  aid  in  separat- 
ing the  oil  from  the  liquefied  gas. 
Even  the  best  of  the  ordinary 
separators  or  oil  collectors  at 
present  in  common  use  are,  how- 
ever, more  or  less  defective  in 
action,  and  those  having  under 
their  charge  expansion  coils  or 


•-** 


B 


Fig.  394.— Voorhees  Oil  Separator  or  Col 
lector.     Vertical  Central  Section. 


brine  coolers  are  well  aware  of 
the  fact  that  considerable  quan- 
tities of  oil  gain  access  to  the 

expansion  coils  or  the  ammonia  space  of  the  brine  cooler  in  com- 
pression systems.  This  oil,  it  is  well  known,  is  a  great  drawback 
to  the  successful  working  of  the  system,  acting  as  an  insulator  and 
preventing  the  efficient  transfer  of  heat  from  the  ammonia  to  the  pipes 
and  also  occupying  a  considerable  part  of  the  space  required  for  the 
liquid  ammonia.  The  oil  is  in  a  finely-divided  and  partially  vaporised 
condition,  for  which  reason  the  ordinary  separators  fail  to  eliminate  it 


MANAGEMENT   &   TESTING   OF   MACHINERY.     547 

from  the  liquid  ammonia.  The  obvious  remedy  seems  to  be  to  so 
construct  the  separator  that  the  liquid  ammonia  will  be  cooled  before 
passing  to  the  expansion  valve  and  so  as  to  condense  the  oil  vapour 
and  separate  same  from  the  liquid  ammonia.  This  action  would  be 
ensured  in  the  oil  separator  shown  in  Fig.  394,  designed  by  Mr 
Gardner  T.  Yoorhees,  S.B.,  M.A.S.M.E.,  which  was  described  in  "Ice 
and  Refrigeration."  The  liquid  ammonia  from  the  condenser,  after 
passing  through  the  gas  trap,  then  passes  by  pipe  A  into  the  space,  B 
of  the  separator.  Here  the  velocity  of  the  liquid  ammonia  is  reduced 
by  the  large  flow  area  of  the  separator.  The  ammonia  flows  slowly 
over  the  outer  surface  of  the  coil  c.  This  coil  is  as  cold  as  the  cold 
liquid  ammonia  after  it  has  passed  the  expansion  valve.  This  cold 
coil  cools  the  whole  body  of  the  liquid  ammonia  in  the  separator,  and 
the  oil  separates  out  in  small  globules  as  shown,  and  settles  to  the 
bottom  of  the  separator. 

The  liquid  ammonia,  now  free  from  oil,  passes  out  by  the  pipe  D  to 
the  expansion  valve  D*,  and  expands  through  the  coil  c,  passing  out 
through  the  pipe  E  to  the  expansion  coils,  or  to  the  ammonia  space  in 
the  brine  cooler.  The  oil  can  be  seen  in  the  glass  of  the  automatic 
gauge-cocks,  and  can  be  drawn  off  from  time  to  time  through  the  pipe 
F  and  the  valve  G.  The  separator  can  be  insulated  or  not,  as  desired. 
If  insulated  the  only  loss  of  refrigeration  would  be  a  neglectable  small 
one  through  the  insulation.  If  uninsulated,  it  would  be  relatively 
small,  and  less  than  is  often  found  in  uninsulated  liquid  headers  and 
expansion  valves. 

Fig.  395  shows  a  modified  arrangement  of  the  catch-alls  or  inter- 
ceptors employed  on  the  Yaryan  patent  evaporators,  which  could 
also  be  used  for  the  elimination  of  the  oil.  As  will  be  seen  from 
the  illustration  it  consists  in  a  cylinder  A,  which  is  water- jacketed 
as  shown  at  A1,  and  divided  into  two  compartments  by  a  tube-plate  or 
partition  B,  from  which  project  tubes  c,  c,  which  extend  round  the 
gas  outlet  pipe  D,  and  extend  nearly  but  not  quite  to  the  end  of  the 
cylinder,  the  outlet  pipe  extending  into  the  cylinder  for  a  distance 
equal  to  about  half  the  length  of  the  tubes.  E  is  the  inlet  pipe 
through  which  the  ammonia  gas  and  the  particles  of  oil  carried  over 
therewith  are  delivered  into  the  first  chamber  of  the  separator  or  oil 
collector,  F  is  a  wire  gauze  or  perforated  screen  or  diaphragm,  and 
F1,  F1  are  baffle  or  check  plates  which  extend  alternately  to  within 
close  proximity  to  the  opposite  sides  of  the  cylinder.  A  clearance  is 
likewise  provided  at  the  bottom  of  each  of  the  baffle  or  check  plates 
F,  and  of  the  partition  or  tube-plate  B,  to  allow  of  the  free  passage 


548       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD    STORAGE. 

of  the  oil  from  the  first  compartment  or  chamber  to  a  well  formed  in 
the  bottom  of  the  separator  cylinder  A  ;  G  is  a  pipe  leading  from  this 
well,  through  which  the  oil  can  be  drawn  off  when  required ;  H,  H1 
are  respectively  the  inlet  and  outlet  pipes  for  the  cooling  water  to  the 
water  jacket. 

In  operation  the  gas  and  oil  enter  the  first  chamber  or  compart- 
ment of  the  separator  and  pass  to  the  tubes  c  through  the  wire  gauze 
diaphragm  F,  and  taking  a  zigzag  course  from  side  to  side  of  the 
separator  past  the  baffle  or  check  plates  r1.  A  large  proportion  of  the 
oily  particles  strike  against  the  diaphragm,  and  the  check,  division, 
or  baffle-plates  F1,  and  become  separated  from  the  gas,  finally  falling 
to  the  bottom  of  the  compartment  and  passing  to  the  well  A2.  The 


H 


Fig.  395. — Yaryan  Form  of  Oil  Separator,  Collector,  or  Interceptor. 
Vertical  Central  Section. 


partially  cleared  gas  then  passes  through  the  interior  of  the  open-ended 
tubes  c  into  the  second  chamber  or  compartment,  and  returns  along 
the  space  on  the  outside  thereof  to  the  outlet  pipe  D,  the  remainder 
of  the  oily  particles  becoming  deposited  on  the  interior  and  exterior 
surfaces  of  the  tubes  c,  and  on  the  walls  of  the  compartment,  from 
which  they  likewise  fall,  and  are  collected  in  the  well  in  the  bottom 
of  the  latter.  The  very  extended  surfaces  with  which  the  gas  thus 
comes  in  contact  during  its  passage  through  the  separator  or  collector 
will  ensure  the  complete  deposition  of  the  oil  held  in  suspension  by  the 
gas,  and  the  latter  will  finally  pass  out  from  the  separator  or  oil 
collector  at  the  outlet  pipe  D  completely,  or  practically  completely, 
freed  therefrom. 


MANAGEMENT   &   TESTING   OF    MACHINERY.     549 

The  separator  or  oil  collector  is  sometimes  so  connected  with  the 
compressor  that  the  oil  can  be  used  over  again ;  this,  however,  is 
objectionable  in  the  case  of  a  double-action  compressor,  as  the 
connection  is  liable  to  become  choked  with  pieces  of  packing  that  find 
their  way  into  the  separator.  When  a  rectifier  is  used,  the  separator- 
is  in  some  instances  connected  therewith  through  a  rotary  cock, 
operated  from  the  main  shaft  by  means  of  a  band,  which  cock  is  kept 
constantly  working  discharging  a  small  quantity  of  oil  at  each  revolu- 
tion into  the  rectifier,  so  long  as  any  remains  in  the  separator.  The 
failure  of  oil  in  the  separator  is  indicated  by  the  connecting  pipe 
between  the  latter  and  the  separator  becoming  covered  with  frost,  when 
the  cock  must  be  immediately  thrown  out  of  gear  and  the  oil  allowed 
to  accumulate  in  the  separator  before  re-starting  it.  When  the 
separator  is  connected  directly  with  the  rectifier  the  cock  in  the 
connecting  pipe  should  be  opened  periodically,  say  about  every  twelve 
hours.  The  oil  may  be  discharged  from  the  rectifier  at  about  similar 
intervals,  and  the  amount  of  oil  that  is  found  to  be  entering  the  com- 
pressor cylinder  is  an  index  to  the  state  of  the  packing  in  the  stuffing 
box,  a  large  quantity  being  a  certain  sign  that  it  requires  renewal  or 
seeing  to.  It  is  most  important  that  the  separator  or  oil  collector  be 
cleaned  out  at  pretty  frequent  and  regular  intervals. 

The  liquid  ammonia  receiver  is  invariably  located  below  the  con- 
denser, a  supply  pipe  being  led  from  it  to  the  evaporator  or  refrigerator 
governed  by  the  expansion  cock  or  valve. 

Fig.  396  illustrates  a  type  of  ammonia  receiver  and  oil  trap  made 
by  the  Triumph  Ice  Machine  Co.  The  pipe  shown  passing  through 
the  vessel  is  the  suction  pipe  to  the  compressor  pump  cylinder, 
and  when  this  pipe  becomes  coated  with  frost,  it  materially  assists  in 
cooling  the  liquid  ammonia,  and  thereby  greatly  increasing  the  effi- 
ciency of  the  plant.  At  the  top  of  the  receptacle  is  a  wire  gauze 
strainer,  shown  in  plan  on  the  left-hand  side  of  the  drawing,  which 
prevents  foreign  bodies  and  impurities  from  gaining  access  to  the 
system.  (See  also  pages  76,  509,  and  510.) 

ACCUMULATIONS  OF  DEPOSIT  IN  THE  CONDENSER. 

It  not  infrequently  happens  that  deposit  accumulates  on  the  ex- 
terior surface  of  the  condenser  coils  from  sediment  in  the  water,  and 
on  the  interior  surface  thereof  from  oil  and  foreign  bodies.  The 
smaller  ammonia  pipes  may  sometimes  became  filled  with  obstructions 
to  the  extent  of  completely  blocking  them  up.  These  bodies  may 


550      REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 


Fig.  396. — Triumph  Ice  Machine  Co.  Ammonia  Receiver  and  Oil  Trap. 
Vertical  Central  Section  and  Detail  Views. 


MANAGEMENT   &   TESTING   OF    MACHINERY.     551 

consist  of  lumps  of  solder  or  other  matter  accidentally  left  in  the  tubes 
when  making  the  joints,  or  of  pieces  of  packing  from  the  stuffing  box 
carried  over  with  the  gas.  The  deposit  or  furring  of  the  condenser 
coils  or  pipes  is  objectionable  inasmuch  as  it  acts  as  a  non-conducting 
covering,  and  prevents  them  from  freely  transferring  the  heat  to  the 
cooling  water,  and  the  choking  of  other  conduits  is  likewise  followed  by 
corresponding  loss  of  efficiency,  for  example,  that  of  one  of  those  lead- 
ing to  one  of  the  refrigerator  coils  or  sets  of  pipes  will  result  in  the 
latter  not  acting  at  all,  or  only  very  slightly.  Complete  choking  up 
or  obstruction  of  one  of  these  latter  conduits  is  evidenced  by  that 
particular  pipe,  and  also  the  corresponding  return  pipe,  not  becoming 
covered  with  frost  at  all,  or  only  so  to  a  very  small  extent ;  and  a  slightly 
less  degree  of  frost  upon  any  of  these  pipes  indicates  partial  choking 
or  obstruction,  and  a  consequent  very  feeble  action  of  the  coil  or  set 
of  pipes. 

The  coils  or  pipes  in  the  condenser  should  be  frequently  cleaned 
on  the  exterior  with  a  suitable  brush,  and,  whenever  practicable, 
removed  at  fixed  periods  and  carefully  scaled.  This  is  best  and  most 
easily  effected  by  heating  the  tubes,  care  being  taken,  however,  not  to 
carry  such  heating  to  an  injurious  extent.  The  interior  surfaces  of  the 
tubes  can  be  cleansed  by  blowing  steam  through  them  at  a  con- 
siderable pressure.  To  clear  small  obstructions  from  a  conduit  leading 
to  one  of  the  refrigerator  coils  or  sets  of  pipes,  it  is  usually  sufficient 
to  turn  the  entire  stream  of  ammonia  into  it.  Should,  however,  the 
obstruction  prove  obstinate,  and  it  be  found  impossible  to  shift  it 
in  this  manner,  an  early  opportunity  must  be  taken  to  clear  it  by 
blowing  steam  through  it.  Any  considerable  choking  of  the  conduits 
leading  to  the  refrigerator  coils  is  followed  by  a  very  marked  decrease 
of  efficiency  in  the  latter. 

BREAKING  JOINTS. 

Whenever  a  joint  has  to  be  broken,  and  any  portion  of  the  machine 
opened  for  any  purpose  whatever,  it  is  absolutely  essential  that  the 
whole  of  the  ammonia  contained  in  that  part  should  be  pumped  or  trans- 
ferred to  another  part,  or  if  this  cannot  be  done  it  should  be  dis- 
charged, preferably  into  water,  which  can  readily  be  effected  by  means 
of  a  short  strong  india-rubber  tube.  On  account  of  the  already-men- 
tioned great  solubility  of  ammonia  in  water,  it  will  become  readily 
absorbed,  if  the  vessel  into  which  it  is  discharged  be  kept  sufficiently 
replenished  with  cool  water.  It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  the 


552       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD    STORAGE. 

rule  of  carefully  removing  all  ammonia  pressure  before  breaking  a  joint 
be  strictly  adhered  to. 

In  warm  weather,  or  in  hot  climates,  the  joints  will  require  con- 
stant attention,  and  periodical  inspection,  and  tightening  up  of  the 
bolts ;  and  at  all  times,  even  in  the  winter  in  this  climate,  they  are 
liable  to  develop  leaks  through  the  working  of  the  machinery. 


LUBRICATING  QUALITIES,  &c.,  OF  AMMONIA. 

Ammonia  being  a  good  solvent,  and  having  no  effect  upon  iron  or 
steel,  the  parts  will  become  clean  and  free  from  deposit,  after  working 
for  a  short  period,  and  the  cylinder  and  piston  will  be  found  highly 
polished.  Ammonia  also  possesses  some  slight  lubricating  qualities, 
and,  therefore,  after  starting,  no  other  lubricant  need  be  introduced 
into  the  compressor  cylinder.  The  cylinder  covers,  as  also  the  valve 
box  covers,  should  be  occasionally  removed  and  a  thorough  inspection 
made  of  the  piston,  cylinder,  and  valves.  The  latter  are  exceedingly 
apt  to  become  cut  or  marked  by  fragments  of  scale,  and  require 
grinding  in  periodically. 

COMPRESSOR  PI&TON  ROD  PACKINGS. 

A  properly  packed  piston  rod  will  remain  in  good  order  for  at  least 
six  months,  provided  the  rod  be  in  first-rate  condition  and  per- 
fectly true ;  under  contrary  conditions,  however,  trouble  will  be  experi- 
enced in  a  fortnight  or  less.  The  usual  precautions  to  be  observed  in 
order  to  properly  pack  a  steam  engine  or  other  stuffing  box,  which  are 
well  known,  or  should  be  so,  to  those  in  charge  of  ammonia  plants, 
are  equally  applicable  in  the  case  of  the  compressor,  but  the  herein- 
before-mentioned extensively  searching  nature  of  ammonia  gas  demands 
the  exertion  of  extra  care.  '  These  observations  apply  more  especially 
in  the  case  of  a  double-acting  compressor. 

For  single-acting  compressors  metallic  packing  will  be  found  the 
best,  that  of  Victor  Duterne,  the  patent  for  which  expired  many  years 
ago,  being  an  excellent  one  for  the  purpose. 

A  single-acting  compressor  stuffing  box,  being  only  subjected  to  the 
suction  pressure,  that  is  to  say,  to  one  of  about  28  Ibs.  per  square 
inch,  or  even  less,  the  maintenance  of  a  tight  joint  is  a  matter  of  com- 
parative facility.  With  a  double-acting  compressor,  however,  the  case 
is  different,  as  the  pressure  will  vary  from  125  Ibs.  at  the  lowest  to  some- 
times as  much  as  180  Ibs.  at  the  highest,  and  with  such  a  searching  gas 


MANAGEMENT   &   TESTING   OF   MACHINERY.     553 


as  ammonia  the  stuffing  box  is  a  part  likely  to  give  the  engineer  in 
charge  at  least  as  much  concern  as  any  other  portion  of  the  machine. 
Should,  however,  the  piston  rod  be  in  first-rate  condition  and  perfectly 
true,  a  properly-packed  stuffing  box  will,  as  already  mentioned,  enable 
a  gas-tight  joint  to  be  maintained  for  six  months  or  more ;  with  the 
opposite  state  of  things  leakage  will  probably  occur  in  a  fortnight  or 
less,  and  in  practice 'the  rod  will  seldom  be  found  to  be  in  the  first- 
named  state  of  high  perfection,  consequently  the  joint  may  be  expected 
to  remain  tight  for  any  period  of  time  between  the  two  above- 
mentioned. 

The  stuffing  box  should  be  of  considerable  depth,  say  a  foot,  a 
clearance  of  from  J  to  f  in.  being  left  between  the  piston  rod  and 
its  inner  wall.  Fig.  397  is  a  diagram  from  a  sketch  given  in  an 
American  journal  showing  one  form  of  stuffing  box  and  method  of 


Fig.  397.  — Stuffing  Box  and  Packing  for  Ammonia  Machine. 
Longitudinal  Section. 

packing,  from  which  it  will  be  seen  that  it  is  packed  in  two  sections, 
a  steel  lantern  A,  some  inches  long,  being  inserted  centrally  in  the 
stuffing  box  B,  with  packing  c  on  each  side  of  it. 

Double-acting  compressor  stuffing  boxes  are  best  packed  with  com- 
binations of  packings,  metallic  packings  (which  are  found  very  suitable 
for  the  stuffing  boxes  of  single-acting  compressors)  not  giving  good 
results  with  the  former.  Many  of  the  special  and  patented  packings 
will  be  found  suitable.  Plaited  cotton  packing,  cut  into  suitable 
lengths,  and  inserted  in  the  form  of  rings,  may  be  employed,  it  being 
desirable,  however,  in  this  case  to  finish  off  with  a  couple  or  more 
rubber  insertion  rings. 

Packings  consisting  of  india-rubber  and  duck,  and  indeed  most 
packings  of  good  quality  containing  india-rubber,  are  suitable  when  the 
piston  rod  is  in  good  order,  and  the  larger  the  proportion  of  rubber  the 


554       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

better,  as  the  ammonia  has  no  injurious  action  upon  the  latter,  only 
making  it  swell  and  become  spongy,  and  thereby  enabling  a  gas-tight 
joint  to  be  maintained  with  but  a  trifling  amount  of  friction. 

The  packing  should  be  driven  home  tightly,  piece  by  piece,  with 
a  packing  stick  made  of  hard  wood,  and  a  mallet,  the  gland  being 
finally  screwed  on  by  hand  only,  so  as  to  allow  for  the  expansion  of  the 
packing.  This  latter  precaution  is  absolutely  necessary  in  order  to 
ensure  the  maximum  life  of  the  latter.  When  tightening  up  the  gland 
care  must  be  taken  to  do  so  equally  all  round,  and  not  to  screw  up  the 
nut  on  one  bolt  more  than  on  any  of  the  others. 

Several  of  the  patented  systems  for  preventing  the  occurrence  of 
leakage  of  gas  taking  place  past  the  stuffing  box  have  been  described 
in  previous  chapters,  but  the  present  purpose  is  only  to  endeavour  to 
show  ;how  good  a  job  can  be  made  with  ordinary  stuffing  boxes  and 
packings. 


To  CHARGE  AND  WORK  A  CARBONIC  ACID  MACHINE. 

The  following  directions,  whilst  applying  more  or  less  to  all  carbonic 
acid  refrigerating  machines,  refer  more  especially  to  those  made  by 
Messrs  J.  &  E.  Hall,  Ltd. 

Before  charging,  fill  the  compressor  -with  glycerine  and  run  the 
machine  for  an  hour  or  two  with  all  the  valves  open  wide. 

To  charge  the  machine,  suspend  a  flask  of  CO2,  valve  upwards, 
from  a  spring  balance  and  connect  by  a  copper  wire  to  the  evaporator. 
See  that  connecting  joints  are  tight.  The  steel  flasks  contain  about 
40  Ibs.  of  CO2,  and  the  number  required  will,  of  course,  depend  upon 
the  size  of  the  machine. 

Open  the  valve  on  the  flask  and  on  evaporator.  The  difference  in 
weight  between  the  empty  and  full  flask  will  denote  the  weight  of  CO2 
that  has  passed  into  the  machine. 

After  the  flasks  are  half  empty,  warm  them  with  hot  water.  When 
empty  close  the  valve  whilst  the  flask  is  still  warm.  Should  any  CO2 
remain,  it  will  be  cold,  and  at  the  lower  extremity. 

On  first  charging  a  new  machine,  blow  the  air  out  of  the  system 
by  breaking  the  joint  between  the  regulator  and  the  pipe  leading  to  it, 
the  regulator  being  closed  and  all  other  valves  open,  and  blow  2  or 
3  Ibs.  of  CO2  through. 

When  charging,  carefully  examine  all  joints  as  the  pressure  rises, 
using  soap  and  water  for  the  purpose. 

The   CO2  gauges   on   condenser   and  evaporator  indicate    on    the 


MANAGEMENT   &   TESTING   OF   MACHINERY.     555 

outer  circle  the  pressure  in  atmospheres,  and  on  the  inner  circle  the 
corresponding  temperatures  of  CO2. 

When  fully  charged,  start  the  machine  with  all  the  valves  open  and 
adjust  the  regulator  (i.e.,  the  inlet  valve  of  the  evaporator)  so  that  the 
condenser  gauge  will  indicate  on  the  inner  circle  5°  to  10°  above  the 
temperature  of  the  cooling  water  at  the  inlet  to  the  condenser,  and 
the  evaporator  gauge  10°  to  15°  below  the  temperature  of  the  brine 
or  water  to  be  cooled. 

Under  normal  working  conditions  the  compressor  should  be  cold 
or  partly  covered  with  snow,  and  the  delivery  pipe  from  it  should  be 
rather  warmer  than  the  hand  can  comfortably  bear.  If  the  delivery 
pipe  is  not  hot  enough,  slightly  close  the  regulator,  when  the  tempera- 
ture will  quickly  rise.  If  the  compressor  becomes  warm,  it  points 
to  the  regulator  being  insufficiently  open. 

Should  it  be  impossible  to  secure  the  conditions  above-mentioned, 
the  system  is  short  of  gas.  To  further  test  this,  close  the  regulator, 
and  if  the  evaporator  gauge  falls  rapidly  and  continuously,  the  system 
is  short  of  gas.  If  properly  charged,  the  gauge  should  remain  almost 
stationary  for  several  revolutions  of  the  machine.  Besides,  if  sufficient 
gas  be  present  in  the  system,  the  condenser  gauge  could  hardly  rise  at 
all,  even  after  working  two  minutes. 

When  short  of  gas,  or  in  doubt,  insert  more,  extra  gas  in  the 
system,  up  to  a  quarter  charge,  will  do  no  harm.  It  will  be  indicated 
by  the  condenser  gauge  showing  20  or  more  degrees  above  the  inlet 
water  temperature.  If  the  machine  be  short  of  gas  the  refrigerating 
work  done  will  be  but  a  fraction  of  its  proper  duty. 

The  temperature  of  the  brine  to  be  maintained  depends,  of  course, 
upon  the  refrigeration  that  is  to  be  performed. 

The  clearance  spaces  at  the  ends  of  the  compressor  being  small, 
they  must  be  maintained  equal  at  both  ends. 

The  hydraulic  leathers  forming  the  piston  packing  will  require 
examination  and  removal  occasionally,  and  it  is  particularly  necessary 
that  the  nut  securing  these  leathers  should  be  well  screwed  up  and 
locked.  After  putting  in  new  leathers  it  is  advisable,  two  days  after 
starting,  to  tighten  up  the  nut  again. 

The  suction  and  delivery  valves  should  be  examined  periodically. 
When  they  require  re-grinding,  spare  ones  may  be  put  in. 

In  machines  with  the  valve  seatings  making  double  joints,  see  that 
both  copper  rings  are  equally  crushed  by  the  valve  casing.  Leakage 
at  the  outer  joint  will  indicate  itself  outside,  but  at  the  inner  joint  will 
not  be  perceptible  except  in  reducing  the  work  done  by  the  machine. 


556      REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

To  test  the  work  of  the  compressor,  close  the  regulator,  when 
the  evaporator  gauge  should  be  pumped  down  from  say  25  atmospheres 
to  5  atmospheres  in  about  200  revolutions.  If  slower,  either  the  valves 
or  the  pistons  are  faulty. 

The  gland  is  packed  with  two  hydraulic  battens,  between  which  a 
pressure  of  glycerine  is  maintained  by  means  of  the  special  lubricator 
provided.  The  gland  should  not  be  screwed  up  too  hard.  The 
lubricator  will  require  pumping  up  after  some  hours'  work,  and  when 
the  piston  has  moved  4  in.  This,  however,  should  not  occur  under 
three  hours  if  the  gland  battens  and  compressor  rod  are  in  good  order. 
The  lubricator  valve  should  be  open  a  full  turn.  The  glycerine  which 
leaks  from  the  gland  should  be  caught,  and  after  filtering,  used  again. 
Great  care  should  be  taken  to  keep  the  compressor  rod  free  from 
scratches  or  marks,  which  would  rapidly  destroy  the  gland  leathers. 

If  short  of  leathers,  the  gland  may  be  temporarily  packed  with 
ordinary  tallowed  packing,  thus :  first  put  in  two  or  three  turns  of 
packing,  then  the  spiral  ring,  and  then  fill  up  with  packing,  care  being 
taken  that  the  ring  comes  opposite  the  glycerine  outlet  when  the  gland 
is  screwed  up. 

Any  glycerine  passing  into  the  compressor  will  be  caught  in  the 
separator,  and  must  be  drawn  off  twice  daily  by  slacking  the  nut  at 
the  bottom,  and  after  filtering,  used  over  again. 

All  glycerine  used  should  be  free  from  water,  acid,  and  dirt. 

On  the  suction  side  of  the  compressor  is  a  strainer,  and,  with  a  new 
machine,  this  should  be  taken  out  and  cleaned  after  the  first  and  second 
day,  and  then  occasionally. 

When  stopping,  it  is  not  necessary  to  close  any  valves.  The  gauges 
will  then  equalise,  standing  at  the  pressure  of  the  evaporator.  Before 
starting,  care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  all  the  valves  are  open,  a  safety 
valve,  however,  is  provided  to  relieve  the  pressure  should  this  be  neglected. 

The  speed  will  vary  in  accordance  with  the  size  of  the  machine. 

It  is  particularly  necessary  that  all  pipes,  joints,  and  glands  of 
spindle-valves  should  be  carefully  examined  and  kept  tight.  For  the 
first  few  days  especially  they  should  be  examined  daily,  and  all  bolts 
and  gland-nuts  screwed  hard  up.  The  most  minute  leak  should  be 
instantly  stopped. 

To  examine  the  compressor,  close  the  suction  and  delivery,  screw 
down  valves,  and  slack  off  a  joint  to  let  the  gas  escape.  Make  sure 
all  pressure  is  gone  before  opening  up. 

When  the  machine  is  stopped  for  a  week  or  more,  the  piston  rod 
should  be  withdrawn  and  oiled,  or  painted  with  white  lead  and  tallow. 


MANAGEMENT   &   TESTING   OF    MACHINERY.     557 

FREEZING  OR  CHOKING  UP  OF  COMPRESSION  SYSTEM. 

In  working  a  compression  machine  considerable  trouble  is  fre- 
quently experienced  owing  to  freezing  or  choking  up.  This  is  caused 
by  small  particles  of  moisture  entering  with  the  gas  from  the  com- 
pressor, or  from  the  escape  of  glycerine  or  oil  through  the  separator, 
which  gradually  accumulates  in  the  system,  and  finally  solidifies  at  the 
bottom  of  the  evaporator  or  refrigerator  coil,  or  at  the  expansion  or 
regulator  valve  or  cock.  The  latter  place  is  the  least  objectionable, 
and  as  a  general  rule  it  can  be  cleared  away  by  quickly  throwing  the 
valve  open  to  its  fullest  extent.  To  clear  the  evaporator  or  refrigerator 
coil,  a  cock  should  be  fitted  to  the  evaporator  or  refrigerator  casing  or 
shell  as  low  down  as  possible,  and  to  this  should  be  connected  a  steam 
pipe  or  hose  from  any  available  source  of  supply,  such  as  a  drain-cock 
on  the  steam  pipe  to  the  engine.  The  steam  should  be  turned  on 
slowly,  and  the  temperature  of  the  brine  in  the  evaporator  or  refri- 
gerator raised  to  about  70°  Fahr.,  the  overflow  cock  from  the  evaporator 
to  the  brine  tank  being  opened.  The  effect  of  this  will  be  to  liquefy 
the  oil  on  the  interior  of  the  coil,  and  it  will  then  run  down  to  the 
bottom  of  the  latter  where  the  expansion  valve  should  be  full  opened, 
so  as  to  communicate  with  the  condenser.  If  the  compressor  be  then 
slowly  started  in  the  ordinary  manner,  in  about  half  an  hour  the 
oil  will  float  to  the  top  of  the  liquid  and  may  be  drawn  off  at  the 
separator. 

In  drawing  off  or  clearing  out  the  separator  the  drain  valve  should 
be  prevented  from  getting  too  cold,  as  if  it  does  so  the  gas  will  come 
away  in  semi-solidified  form,  and  there  will  be  considerable  wastage. 
The  clearing  out  will  be  necessary  about  every  three  or  four  weeks,  and 
lasts  between  one  and  two  hours,  the  rise  of  efficiency  in  the  machine 
being  very  perceptible. 

In  charging  a  system,  it  is  always  desirable  to  pass  the  gas  from  the 
charging  cylinder  through  a  gas  drier,  so  as  to  thoroughly  cleanse  and 
extract  all  moisture  from  it.  This  drier  consists  of  a  vessel  fitted  with 
a  suitable  inlet  and  outlet  valve,  and  a  drain  or  purging  cock,  and 
charged  with  alternate  layers  of  chloride  of  calcium  and  cotton 
wool. 

This  apparatus  can  be  also  used  for  the  cleansing  or  purification 
of  the  gas  already  in  the  system,  by  connecting  the  outlet  valve  on  the 
condenser  with  the  inlet  valve  on  the  drier,  closing  the  expansion  and 
condenser  outlet  valves,  and  disconnecting  the  pipe  between  them. 
Then  opening  the  outlet  from  the  condenser,  inlet  to  the  drier,  outlet, 


558       REFRIGERATION   AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

and  charging  valve  on  the  top  of  the  evaporator  or  refrigerator,  and 
by  working  the  compressor  very  slowly,  any  impurities  in  the  gas  will 
be  taken  up  by  the  calcium  and  cotton-wool  in  the  drier. 


LUBRICATION  OF  REFRIGERATING  MACHINERY. 

This  important  point,  which  has  been  already  touched  upon  in 
previous  portions  of  this  work,  is  apt  to  be  as  much  neglected  by  users 
of  refrigerating  machinery  as  it  is  by  users  of  other  types  of  machinery. 
It  will  be  well  for  these  gentlemen  to  at  once  dismiss  from  their  minds 
the  idea  that  low-priced  inferior  quality  oils  are  really  the  cheapest, 
and  understand  that  on  the  contrary  not  only  are  high  grade  oils 
necessary  to  ensure  the  highest  efficiency  of  the  machinery,  but  that 
they  are  also  the  least  expensive  in  the  long  run. 

In  refrigerating  machinery  the  use  of  three  different  kinds  of  oil  is 
demanded :  steam  cylinder  oil,  oil  for  general  use,  and  compressor 
pump  oil. 

Oil  for  the  steam  cylinder  :  Good  cylinder  oil  is  entirely  free  from 
grit,  does  not  gum  up  the  valves  and  cylinder,  and  does  not  evaporate 
rapidly  on  exposure  to  the  heat  of  the  steam.  The  quality  of  a  cylinder 
oil  is  demonstrated  on  removal  of  the  cylinder  head.  If  the  oil  is  of 
good  quality  the  wearing  surfaces  should  appear  well  coated  with 
lubricant,  which  will  not  show  a  gummy  deposit,  or  blacken  on  the 
application  of  clean  waste. 

Oil  for  general  use  on  all  the  bearings  and  wearing  surfaces  of  the 
machine  proper :  This  may  be  any  oil  that  will  not  gum,  is  not  too 
limpid,  possesses  a  good  body,  is  free  from  grit  and  acids,  is  of  good 
wearing  quality,  and  flows  freely  from  the  oil  cups  at  a  fine  adjustment 
without  a  tendency  to  clog.  For  the  larger  bearings  it  is  well  to  use  a 
heavier  grade  of  oil. 

Oil  for  use  in  compressor  pumps  :  When  it  is  necessary  to  use  oil  in 
these  it  should  be  what  is  known  as  zero  oil,  or  cold  test  oil,  that  is  to 
say,  that  it  should  be  capable  of  withstanding  a  very  low  temperature, 
without  freezing,  and  it  should  be  the  best  quality.  American  makers 
recommend  the  use  of  the  best  paraffin  oil  and  clear  West  Virginia 
crude  oil. 

Mr  F.  E.  Matthews,  in  dealing  with  this  subject  in  Power  and  the 
Engineer,  New  York,  says,  that  in  order  that  the  oils  used  in  the 
system  shall  not  stiffen  prohibitively  at  the  low  temperatures  en 
countered,  and  not  be  saponified  by  the  ammonia,  only  very  light  mineral 
oils  can  be  employed.  Such  oils  range  from  22°  to  30°  Be.,  corre- 


MANAGEMENT   &   TESTING   OF    MACHINERY.     559 

spending  to  a  specific  gravity  of  from  0*924  to  0*88.  These  oils  should 
have  a  cold  test  of  about  zero  Fahrenheit,  to  obtain  which  they  will 
have  a  flash  point  of  between  310°  and  400°  Fahr.  This  low  flash  point 
implies  that  a  considerable  amount  of  vapour  will  be  given  off  at  a 
much  lower  temperature.  Since  discharge  temperatures  of  compression 
machines  often  approach  these  temperatures,  it  is  obvious  that  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  oil  will  pass  to  the  condenser,  not  as  a  liquid  but 
as  a  vapour.  Under  such  conditions,  since  there  is  no  material  cooling 
effect  in  the  oil  separator,  only  liquid  oil  would  be  precipitated  at  that 
point. 

LEAKS  IN  AMMONIA  APPARATUS. 

Leaks  are  readily  detected  by  the  smell  of  the  escaping  ammonia 
gas  when  the  machine  is  being  filled ;  at  a  later  stage,  when  working, 
their  detection  is  not  so  easy.  During  the  operation  of  the  machine 
when  the  liquor  or  brine  in  the  tanks  commences  to  smell  of  ammonia 
it  indicates  a  considerable  leakage.  It  is  recommended  to  test  the 
liquor  or  brine  periodically  with  Nessler's  solution  or  otherwise. 

Nessler's  reagent,  which  is  the  best  to  use  for  the  discovery  of 
traces  of  ammonia  in  water  or  brine,  consists  of  17  grms.  of  mercuric 
chloride  dissolved  in  about  300  c.c.  of  distilled  water,  to  which  is  added 
35  grms.  potassium  iodide  dissolved  in  100  c.c.  of  water,  and  constantly 
stirred  until  a  slight  permanent  red  precipitate  is  produced.  To  the 
solution  thus  formed  is  added  120  grms.  of  potassium  hydrate  dis- 
solved in  about  200  c.c.  of  water,  allowed  to  cool  before  mixing ;  the 
amount  is  then  made  up  to  1  litre,  and  mercuric  chloride  added  until 
a  permanent  precipitate  again  forms.  After  standing  for  a  sufficient 
time,  the  clear  solution  can  be  placed  in  glass-stoppered  blue  bottles 
and  kept  in  a  dark  place. 

If  a  few  drops  of  this  reagent  be  added  to  a  sample  of  the  suspected 
brine  or  water  in  a  test-tube,  or  other  small  vessel,  and  the  slightest 
trace  of  ammonia  is  present,  a  yellow  coloration  of  the  liquid  will 
take  place ;  a  large  quantity  of  ammonia  will  produce  a  dark  brown. 

When  the  leaks  are  comparatively  insignificant  they  can  be  closed 
in  the  usual  way,  by  solder,  using  as  a  flux  muriatic  or  hydrochloric 
acid  killed  with  zinc.  In  some  instances  electric  welding  may  be 
resorted  to  with  advantage,  or  the  leak  may  be  closed  by  means  of 
a  composition  of  litharge  and  glycerine  mixed  into  a  stiff  paste,  bound 
with  sheet  rubber,  and  covered  with  sheet  iron  clamped  firmly  in 
position.  When,  however,  the  leak  is  at  all  serious  it  is  usually  the 
better  plan  to  at  once  put  in  a  new  coil,  or  a  new  length  of  pipe. 


560       REFRIGERATION    AND    COLD   STORAGE. 


LEAKS  IN  CARBONIC  ACID  MACHINES. 

To  detect  these,  smear  the  joints  with  a  solution  of  soap  and  water, 
and  any  leakage  of  gas  will  be  evidenced  by  the  formation  of  bubbles. 
Carbon  dioxide  or  carbonic  acid  being  a  completely  inodorous  gas, 
precautions  are  required  to  prevent  the  occurrence  of  leakage.  If  the 
joints,  however,  are  properly  made  to  start  with,  they  are  found  in 
practice,  when  once  tight,  to  remain  so  for  years. 


EFFECT  OF  A  COATING  OF  ICE  ON  DIRECT  EXPANSION  PIPES.    DEFROSTING 
REFRIGERATING  COILS.    INCRUSTATION  ON  CONDENSER  COILS. 

The  effect  of  a  coating  of  ice  on  direct  expansion  pipes,  according 
to  an  authority  (Mr  F.  E.  Matthews)  writing  in  Power  and  the 
Engineer,  New  York,  may  be  shown  as  follows : — Assuming  a  heat 
transfer  of  10  B.T.U.  in  round  numbers  per  hour  per  square  foot  per 
degree  of  difference  in  temperature  inside  and  out,  for  a  flat  metallic 
refrigerating  surface,  and  an  equal  amount  of  sheet  ice  1  in.  thick, 
it  follows  that  the  heat  transmission  through  1  sq.  ft.  of  direct 
expansion  cooling  surface  insulated  with  a  layer  of  ice  1  in.  thick  will 
be  only  one-half  that  of  the  uncoated  surface.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
it  would  seem  from  the  context  that  the  value  of  10  B.T.U.  given  as 
the  heat  conductivity  of  ice  applied  to  plate-ice  conditions  under  which 
the  wetted  surface  of  the  submerged  ice  will  transmit  materially  more 
heat  than  a  dry  surface  in  contact  with  air.  This  would  indicate  that 
the  decrease  in  heat-transmitting  capacity  of  direct  expansion  surfaces 
in  air  due  to  a  coating  of  ice  is  even  more  than  50  per  cent.  This 
condition  will  be  partially  offset  by  the  fact  that  on  account  of  the 
increasing  diameter  the  layer  of  ice  in  the  case  of  cylindrical  surfaces 
such  as  pipes  (which,  together  with  the  fact  that  such  coatings  usually 
present  an  irregular  surface,  further  increase  the  heat-absorbing  area) 
may  increase  the  heat  transmission  sufficiently  to  make  up  for  the 
lesser  heat  transfer  between  the  air  and  dry  ice,  and  make  50  per  cent, 
at  least  a  reasonable  estimate  of  the  loss  in  heat-absorbing  capacity 
due  to  1  in.  of  ice. 

Under  average  commercial  conditions  of  intermittent  frosting 
1  sq.  ft.  of  direct  expansion  surface  in  air  is  usually  credited  with  a 
heat  transmission  of  only  from  2  to  4  B.T.U.  per  hour  per  degree 
difference  in  temperature. 

Brine  pipes  may  be  readily  defrosted  by  the  circulation  of  hot 
brine.  This  may  be  accomplished  through  the  main  feed  and  return 


MANAGEMENT   &   TESTING   OF   MACHINERY.     561 

headers  where  the  operation  does  not  have  to  be  performed  very 
frequently,  or,  as  in  abattoirs,  where  the  excessive  amounts  of  moisture 
from  the  hot  meats  to  be  chilled  make  the  accumulation  of  frost  very 
rapid,  or  by  a  separate  set  of  defrosting  headers. 

In  the  case  of  direct  expansion  coils,  the  defrosting  method 
probably  most  satisfactory  where  the  cold-storage  temperatures  are 
above  32°  Fahr.  is  to  instal  sufficient  coil  surface  to  allow  a  part  of 
the  coils  to  be  shut  off  at  any  time,  so  that  the  frost  will  melt  without 
artificial  heat,  and  at  the  same  time  produce  a  certain  amount  of 
useful  refrigeration.  If  it  is  necessary  to  force  the  defrosting  process 
by  the  use  of  outside  heat,  a  hot  gas  line  from  the  condenser  may  be 
connected  to  the  liquid  line  connections  to  the  separate  coils  just 
inside  the  expansion  valves.  The  hot  gas,  after  melting  the  ice  as  it 
passes  through  the  coils,  returns  to  the  compressor  together  with  the 
return  gas  from  the  remaining  coils. 

Where  the  temperatures  carried  in  the  cold-storage  compartments 
are  below  32°  Fahr.,  and  in  which  the  defrosting  cannot  be  effected 
without  the  use  of  artificial  heat,  often  very  objectionable,  two 
methods  are  available,  viz.,  that  of  forcibly  removing  the  ice  with 
scrapers,  and  that  of  suspending  over  the  pipes  trays  of  calcium 
chloride.  This  substance  is  an  exceedingly  deliquescent  salt,  which 
in  absorbing  moisture  from  the  air  forms  a  saturated  calcium  brine 
which  freezes  at  a  very  low  temperature.  In  trickling  down  over  the 
coils,  the  brine  melts  the  ice,  forming  a  more  dilute  brine,  which  is 
then  conducted  away  to  the  sewer,  or,  if  the  quantities  involved 
warrant  the  expenditure  of  labour,  may  be  evaporated  and  the  calcium 
chloride  recovered. 

While  the  comparatively  high  working  temperature  of  condenser 
coils,  together  with  the  usually  ample  provisions  for  draining  each 
separate  coil,  prevents  the  accumulation  of  such  large  quantities  of  oil 
as  are  often  lodged  in  expansion  coils,  condenser  coils  are  exposed 
to  another  source  of  loss  of  efficiency  from  without,  where  the  avail- 
able cooling  water  is  abnormally  hard  or  carries  a  large  amount  of 
suspended  matter.  Ammonia  condensers,  and  especially  steam  con- 
densers, soon  become  coated  with  a  deposit  of  scale  or  mud,  which,  if 
not  properly  removed,  becomes  a  more  or  less  effective  insulator 
according  to  the  composition  of  the  deposit.  The  heat  conductivity 
of  metallic  surfaces  is  not  the  same  per  degree  difference  in  temperature 
at  medium  and  low  as  it  is  for  high  temperatures,  and  it  does  not 
therefore  follow  that  the  resistance  offered  by  the  scale  accumulating 
on  the  outside  of  atmospheric  and  submerged  ammonia  and  steam 
36 


562       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

condensers  is  the  same  as  that  of  scale  on  the  inside  of  a  boiler. 
However,  some  slight  idea  of  the  extent  of  the  loss  may  be  gained 
from  the  fact  that  in  steam  boiler  practice,  the  insulating  effect  of 
scale  results  in  thermal  loss  corresponding  to  2  per  cent,  of  the  fuel 
for  each  -^T  in.  in  thickness  of  scale.  Condenser  surfaces  like  those  of 
steam  boilers,  expansion  coils  or  any  other  heat-transmitting  surfaces, 
should  be  kept  as  free  as  possible  from  deposits  of  foreign  matter. 

COLD-AIR  MACHINES. 

The  proper  management  of  cold-air  machines  is  far  simpler  than 
that  of  those  working  on  other  principles,  the  exact  treatment  of  each 
particular  machine,  however,  varying  of  course  somewhat  with  the 
make.  In  all  machines,  however,  the  parts  most  liable  to  give  trouble 
are  the  valves,  and  these,  as  also  the  pistons  and  slide  valves,  should 
be  periodically  tested,  and  any  defect  promptly  remedied. 


TESTING. 

The  object  of  testing  a  refrigerating  plant  is  in  order  to  ascertain 
what  it  is  capable  of  performing  under  comparable  normal  conditions, 
and  as  regards  the  amount  of  refrigeration  produced  in  relation  to  the 
expenditure  of  work,  and  the  coal  consumption. 

To  determine  the  efficiency  of  an  installation  on  the  compression 
system,  the  following  fittings  are  required,  viz.,  an  indicator,  so  that 
diagrams  can  be  taken  from  the  compressor ;  stroke  counters,  to  enable 
the  number  of  strokes  made  by  the  steam  engine  and  brine  pumps  to 
be  ascertained ;  and  mercury  wells,  to  admit  of  the  temperature  being 
obtained  at  various  points  throughout  the  system. 

In  making  a  test  it  is  desirable  that  it  should  last  at  the  very  least 
for  fully  twelve  hours,  and  it  is  better  to  carry  it  on  for  twenty-four 
hours.  The  number  of  readings  which  it  is  desirable  should  be  taken 
from  the  various  instruments  will  vary  in  accordance  with  whether 
or  not  the  work  is  steady  or  otherwise,  and  the  person  carrying  out 
the  test  will  have,  of  course,  to  use  his  own  judgment  on  this  head. 
Where  artificial  ice  is  made,  for  example,  twice  an  hour  will  be  sufficient, 
whilst  on  the  other  hand,  four  or  more  readings  per  hour  should  be 
taken  in  cases  where  the  variation  in  the  temperature  of  the  materials 
to  be  cooled  is  wide.  Indicator  diagrams  should  be  taken  from  both 


MANAGEMENT   &   TESTING   OF   MACHINERY.     563 

the   steam   engine  cylinder  and   the  compressor   cylinder   every  two 
hours. 

A  mercury  well,  for  a  horizontal  pipe,  when  the  latter  is  of  suffi- 
cient dimensions,  is  shown  in  Fig.  398.  It  consists  in  a  short  piece  of 
tubing  closed  at  its  lower  end,  and  fitted  into  the  pipe  by  means  of  a 
suitable  bushing.  It  is  filled  about  three  parts  full  of  mercury,  and 


Fig.  398.  —  Mercury 
Well  for  Horizontal 
Pipe.  Vertical 
Section. 


Figs.  399  and  400.— Mer- 
cury Well  for  Vertical 
Pipe.  Vertical  and  Hori- 
zontal Sections. 


the  thermometer,  which  should  have  an  elongated  cylindrical  bulb,  is 
held  in  position  therein  by  means  of  a  perforated  cork.  For  vertical 
pipes,  or  pipes  of  very  small  dimensions,  where  this  arrangement  would 
be  impracticable,  the  well  is  recommended  by  Mr  Redwood*  to  be 
formed  (as  shown  in  vertical  and  horizontal  section  in  Figs.  399  and 
400)  by  means  of  a  wooden  or  other  block,  one  side  of  which  is 
shaped  to  the  outline  of  the  pipe  to  which  it  is  to  be  applied,  and  has 

*  "  Theoretical  and  Practical  Ammonia  Refrigeration." 


564       REFRIGERATION    AND    COLD    STORAGE. 

a  suitable  recess  formed  in  it.  This  block  is  firmly  secured  against  the 
pipe  by  metal  straps  in  such  a  manner  that  a  portion  of  the  wall  of  the 
well  will  be  formed  by  the  pipe,  the  latter  being  scraped  perfectly  clean 
at  that  part.  The  joint  between  the  block  and  the  pipe  must  be  made 
perfectly  tight,  which  can  easily  be  effected  by  means  of  a  little  white 
lead  paint,  as  there  is  no  pressure,  and  the  whole  should  be  surrounded 
by  a  thick  layer  of  non-conducting  composition,  through  which  the 
stem  of  the  thermometer  is  permitted  to  project. 

The  points  in  the  system  where  it  is  desirable  to  locate  the  mercury 
wells  are : — -The  suction  pipe  just  at  its  connection  with  the  compres- 
sor ;  the  discharge  pipe,  as  close  as  possible  to  its  connection  with  the 
compressor ;  the  ammonia  discharge  pipe  from  the  condenser,  as  near 
the  latter  as  practicable.  Where  a  brine  circulation  is  employed  :— 
The  pipe  or  manifold  supplying  the  various  coils  or  sets  of  pipes  in  the 
refrigerator ;  the  discharge  pipe  of  the  refrigerator  ;  the  brine  discharge 
pipe,  at  the  point  where  it  connects  to  the  refrigerator ;  and  the  brine 
return  pipe  in  proximity  to  where  it  connects  with  the  refrigerator. 

An  excess  condensing  pressure  is  invariably  found  in  ammonia 
compression  machines.  This  excess  of  the  actual  working  condensing 
pressure  over  the  theoretical  is  caused  by  the  ammonia  gas  being  im- 
prisoned in  the  comparatively  confined  space  afforded  by  the  coils  or 
pipes  in  the  refrigerator,  and  the  excess  pressure  is  more  marked  in  a 
horizontal  compressor  running  at  a  high  speed  of,  say,  140  revolutions 
per  minute,  than  it  is  in  vertical  ones  having  only  a  low  speed  of  from 
35  to  60  revolutions  per  minute ;  it  varies,  moreover,  in  almost  every 
make  of  compressor.  At  a  low  suction  pressure  of  about  15  Ibs.  it 
should  not  be  more  than  10  Ibs.,  but  with  a  suction  pressure  of,  say, 
27  or  28  Ibs.  it  may  rise  to  50  Ibs.,  or  even  more. 

The  condensing  pressure  affords  a  means  of  ascertaining  whether 
or  not  the  apparatus  contains  the  proper  full  charge  of  ammonia,  or  if 
the  losses  sustained  by  leakage  are  sufficient  to  render  it  necessary  to 
insert  an  additional  supply.  For  this  reason  it  is  advisable  for  the 
person  in  charge  to  keep  a  record  in  a  proper  book,  suitably  ruled  for 
the  purpose,  of  the  temperature  of  the  condensed  ammonia  when 
leaving  the  condenser,  and  also  of  the  condensing  and  suction  pressures, 
at  regular  intervals  of,  say,  three  hours.  This  will  enable  him  to  follow 
the  state  of  the  ammonia  charge;  for  example,  if  the  condensing 
pressure  is  found  to  be  gradually  falling  during  a  three  months'  period, 
as  compared  with  the  average  condensing  pressure  of  the  previous  three 
months,  whilst  at  the  same  time  the  condensing  temperature  and  the 
suction  pressure  remain  constant,  it  will  be  evident  that  the  charge 


MANAGEMENT   &   TESTING   OF   MACHINERY.     565 

of  ammonia  has  become  reduced  by  leakage  to  a  sufficient  extent  to 
require  replenishing.  This  reduction  in  the  condensing  pressure  is 
caused  by  the  diminution  in  the  charge  of  ammonia  giving  larger  con- 
denser space,  the  gas  having  thus  a  much  more  extended  worm,  coil,  or 
tube  space  wherein  to  condense  and  liquefy,  and  hence  the  decrease. 
As  a  general  rule  it  may  be  taken  that,  whenever  the  condensing 
pressure  is  found  to  have  fallen  about  8  Ibs.,  enough  ammonia  to  restore 
the  original  condensing  pressure  should  be  inserted  into  the  machine. 

The  following  method  of  testing  the  capacity  of  a  refrigerating 
machine  is  given  by  Mr  Constanz  Schmitz  in  the  Eis  und  Kalte 
Industrie : — 

"  In  testing  the  effective  capacity  and  the  consumption  of  power  of 
a  refrigerating  machine,  it  has  been  hitherto  usual  to  take  the  amount 
of  heat  removed  per  hour,  and  the  power  consumed  in  indicated  horse- 
power. This,  however,  does  not  afford  a  satisfactory  basis  upon  which 
to  judge  of  the  relative  merits  of  machines  under  test.  If,  for  example, 
the  theoretical  capacity  of  any  particular  refrigerating  machine  be 
taken,  it  will  be  found  in  every  instance  that  this  capacity  will  not  be 
reached  in  practical  working." 

A  more  satisfactory  means  of  comparison  is  furnished  by  the  results 
obtained  from  a  large  number  of  caloric  production  and  power  con- 
sumption tests,  which,  however,  under  varying  working  conditions,  and 
for  different  sizes  of  the  machines,  will  not  be  found  to  correspond. 

To  avoid,  therefore,  possible  mistakes,  and  to  facilitate  the  work, 
the  caloric  production  and  the  consumption  of  power  should  be  reduced 
to  a  special  unit,  and  for  this  purpose  the  following  method  is 
proposed  : — 

It  is  expressed  in  the  following  manner  : — 

1 .  Specific  refrigerating  efficiency  =  Q  sp. 

That  number  of  calories  which  is  indicated  per  1  cubic  metre  hourly 
volume  of  stroke  of  the  compressor,  in  the  evaporator. 

2.  Specific  consumption  of  power  =  N  sp. 

That  number  of  horse-power  which  is  indicated  in  the  air  com- 
pressor for  10,000  calories  evaporator  production. 

Let  a  compressor  have,  for  instance,  the  following  dimensions  : — 

Cylinder  diameter  -  d  =  250  mm. 

Piston  stroke  s  =  420     „ 

Piston  rod  -  8=    55     „ 

Number  of  revolutions  per  minute  -        n=    65     ,, 


566       REFRIGERATION   AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

Then  its  hourly  volume  of  stroke  is  :  — 

V=15.n.s.7r.  (2c?2-82)  =  156-920  cub.  metres  (and  since  1,000 
cub.  dm.  =  1  cub.  metre,  also  1  litre  =  1  cub.  dm.  we  have  :  Y 
=  156,920  litres). 

Should  now  the  evaporator  productions  per  hour  be  found  by  Q2  = 
63,750  Cal.,  the  specific  refrigerating  efficiency  of  the  machine  will  be:  — 

63,750     Af.a  „  , 


Should  at  the  same  time  during  the  caloric  trial  2  3  '7  H.P.  be 
indicated  in  the  compressor,  then  the  specific  consumption  of  power 
will  amount  to  :  — 


If  then,  in  addition  to  this,  the  evaporator  temperature,  that  is  the 
mean  temperature  of  the  volatile  cold-producing  agent  or  medium,  and 
the  liquefaction  temperature  in  the  condenser  be  given,  four  figures 
afford  a  practical  demonstration  of  the  performance  of  the  machine  in 
question. 

On  the  basis  of  these  figures,  refrigerating  machines  may  be  con- 
veniently compared  as  regards  their  productive  capacity.  The  com- 
parison as  regards  the  specific  refrigerating  capacity  Q  sp.  is,  of  course, 
only  possible  directly  between  machines  constructed  to  operate  on  the 
same  system,  while  the  comparison  as  regards  the  specific  amount  of 
power  required  is  rendered  directly  possible  between  machines  con- 
structed to  operate  on  any  system. 

INTERPRETATION  OF  COMPRESSOR  DIAGRAMS. 

The  interpretation  of  a  compressor  diagram  with  respect  to  the 
working,  valves,  defects,  &c.,  of  the  latter  are  given  as  follows  by  Hans 
Lorenz,  in  "Neuere  Kuehlmaschinen,"  Muenchen  and  Leipzig,  1899  : — 

"  Assuming  all  the  parts  of  the  machine  to  be  in  good  order,  then 
the  diagram  will  have  the  general  appearance  shown  in  Fig.  401.  The 
suction  line  s  is  only  slightly  below  the  suction  pressure  line  v,  and  the 
pressure  line  D  is  only  slightly  above  the  condenser  pressure  K.  Small 
projections  at  the  pressure  and  suction  line  indicate  the  work  required 
to  open^the  compressor  valves,  and  the  effect  of  clearance  is  shown  by 
the  curve  R,  which  latter  cuts  the  back  pressure  line  after  the  piston 
has  commenced  to  perform  its  return  or  back  stroke,  and  consequently 


MANAGEMENT   &   TESTING   OF   MACHINERY.     567 


reduces  the  suction  volume  to  that  amount.  It  can  also  be  seen  from 
this  diagram  that  the  vapours  are  taken  in  by  the  compressor,  not  at 
the  back  pressure,  but  at  what  may  be  called  the  suction  pressure, 
which  is  somewhat  lower.  This  is  the  reason  that  the  compression 
curve  c  does  not  intersect  the  back  pressure  line  until  after  the  piston 


Fig.  401. — Diagram  from  Com- 
pressor in  good  order. 


Fig.  402. — Diagram  from  Com- 
pressor indicating  an  Exces- 
sive Amount  of  Clearance. 


has  changed  its  direction  of  movement.  The  theoretical  volume  of  the 
compressor,  as  indicated  by  the  line  v,  is  consequently  reduced  in 
practical  working  for  vapours  possessing  a  certain  tension. 

In  Fig.  402  is  shown  a  diagram  taken  from  a  compressor  having  an 


fvTMOSPHCriC    L 


Fig.  403. — Diagram  from  Com- 
pressor indicating  Binding  of 
Pressure  Valve. 


Fig.  404. — Diagram  from  Com- 
pressor indicating  too  great 
a  Resistance  in  Pressure  and 
Suction  Pipes. 


excessive  amount  of  clearance.  In  this  case,  it  will  be  seen,  the  back 
expansion  line  R  passes  through  a  flat  course,  and  thereby  reduces  the 
useful  volume  of  the  compressor. 

Fig.  403  is  a  diagram  which  indicates  the  binding  of  the  pressure 
valve,  which  may  be  due  to  an  inclined  position  of  the  guide  rod  of  the 


568       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

valve.  This  deficiency  also  frequently  causes  a  delay  in  the  opening  of 
the  pressure  valves,  a  state  of  things  indicated  by  a  too  great  projection 
in  the  pressure  line.  As  soon  as  the  valve  is  once  opened  the  pressure 
line  pursues  its  normal  course  until  the  piston  commences  its  return 
stroke,  when  the  defect  is  again  manifested  in  the  back  pressure  line, 
as  mentioned. 


Fig.  405. — Diagram  from  Com- 
pressor indicating  Binding  of 
Suction  Valve. 


ATMOSPHERIC    LINE. 


Fig.  406. — Diagram  from  Com- 
pressor indicating  Leaking  of 
Compressor  Valve. 


Fig.  404  shows  a  diagram  indicating  too  great  a  resistance  in  the 
pressure  and  suction  pipes  respectively,  when  the  valves  are  over- 
weighted. In  this  case  the  pressure  and  suction  lines  are  at  a  compara- 
tively great  distance  from  the  condenser  pressure  line  and  the  back 
pressure  line.  The  remedy  for  this  is  to  replace  the  valve  springs  by 


Fig.  407. — Diagram  from  Compressor  indicating  Defective  Packing  of  Piston. 


weaker  ones ;  and  should  there  be  then  no  marked  effect,  then  the  pipe 
lines  and  shut  ting-off  valves  should  be  inspected  and,  if  found  necessary, 
cleaned. 

Fig.  405   indicates  the  binding  of  the  suction  valve,  by  which  a 
considerable  decline  is  caused  in  the  pressure  at  the  beginning  of  the 


MANAGEMENT   &   TESTING   OF   MACHINERY.     569 

suction,  which  is  consequently  shown  by  an  increased  projection  in  the 
commencement  of  the  suction  line.  At  the  beginning  of  compression 
this  defect  makes  itself  felt  by  causing  a  delay  in  the  latter,  which 
effect  is  also  shown  on  this  diagram. 

Fig.  406  shows  leaking  of  the  compressor  valves.  In  this  diagram 
the  projections  in  the  compression  and  suction  line  do  not  appear,  but 
the  compression  line  gradually  merges  into  the  pressure  line,  and  the 
back  expansion  line  passes  gradually  into  the  suction  line.  If  the  leak 
in  the  pressure  valve  is  the  predominant  one,  then  the  compression 
curve  will  be  almost  in  a  straight  line  and  very  steep ;  if,  on  the 
contrary,  the  leak  in  the  suction  valve  is  the  predominant  one,  then 
the  compression  line  will  run  a  rather  flat  course. 

Fig.  407  indicates  that  the  piston  is  not  well  packed,  and  being 
leaky,  the  vapours  are  permitted  to  pass  from  one  side  of  the  piston 
to  the  other,  thus  causing  a  very  gradual  compression,  and  as  a  result 
a  compression  line  having  a  flat  course.  On  the  other  hand,  a  longer 
time  will  be  taken  before  the  suction  line  reaches  its  normal  level  on 
the  return  or  backward  stroke,  inasmuch  as  the  suction  valve  is  pre- 
vented from  opening  until  such  time  as  the  velocity  of  the  piston 
becomes  such,  tha£  the  amount  of  vapours  leaking  past  the  piston  is 
insufficient  in  amount  to  fill  the  suction  space.  The  pressure  then 
gradually  diminishes  and  the  suction  valve  begins  to  act,  as  is  shown 
on  the  diagram. 

It  is  to  be  understood  that  several  of  the  defects  above-mentioned 
may  exist  at  the  same  time. 

ABSORPTION  MACHINES. 

Liquid  anhydrous  ammonia  is  supplied  in  iron  or  steel  drums  or 
flasks  in  which  it  is  contained  at  a  pressure  varying  in  accordance  with 
the  temperature  of  the  liquid  from  120  Ibs.  to  200  Ibs.  per  square  inch. 
This  liquid  is  charged  into  the  machine  and  is  brought  into  contact 
with  the  substance  to  be  cooled  or  frozen  at  a  sufficiently  low  pressure 
to  allow  of  its  boiling  point  being  lower  than  the  temperature  at  which 
the  substance  to  be  treated  has  to  be  maintained.  During  normal 
working  of  an  absorption  machine  the  cold  strong  or  rich  liquor,  or 
aqua  ammonia,  should  contain  about  60  per  cent.,  and  the  hot  poor 
or  weak  liquor,  or  aqua  ammonia,  about  20  per  cent,  of  pure  ammonia. 
This  admits  of  calculating  the  amount  of  liquid  required  for  a  given 
amount  of  refrigeration.  The  pressure  in  the  absorber  is  as  a  general 
rule  maintained  at  about  15  Ibs.  per  square  inch,  that  in  the  generator 


570       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD    STORAGE. 

may  be  anything  between  110  Ibs.  to  180  Ibs.  per  square  inch  in 
accordance  with  the  temperature  of  the  condensing  water.  To  ensure 
these  conditions  strong  ammonia  liquor  has  to  be  pumped  from  the 
absorber  into  the  generator,  the  small  pump  used  for  this  purpose 
being  the  sole  part  of  the  system  in  motion,  and  corresponding  practi- 
cally to  the  feed  pump  of  a  boiler.  The  strong  or  rich  ammonia  liquor 
is  in  as  cold  a  condition  as  possible,  and  as  its  return  in  that  condition 
to  the  generator  would  entail  the  consumption  of  more  heat  for  evapora- 
tion, and  a  consequent  larger  expenditure  of  fuel,  which  entails  expense, 
this  strong  ammonia  liquor  is  first  raised  to  as  high  a  temperature  as 
possible  by  passing  it  through  an  exchanger.  In  this  latter  the  hot 
weak  ammonia  liquor  passes  from  the  bottom  of  the  generator  back  to 
the  absorber  through  a  coil,  the  strong  or  rich  ammonia  liquor  being 
conducted  between  the  shell  and  the  coil.  The  level  of  the  liquor  in 
the  generator  is  maintained  slightly  above  that  of  the  heating  coils. 
The  ammonia  gas  driven  off  contains  a  certain  amount  of  moisture, 
and  it  must  be  dried  before  passing  to  the  condenser.  This  is  effected 
in  the  rectifier,  where  the  moisture  in  the  gas  is  condensed  by  slightly 
heated  condensing  water  and  the  gas  merely  cooled,  the  first  returning 
to  the  analyser,  and  the  second  passing  on  to  the  top  of  the  condenser 
to  be  condensed  and  liquefied.  It  is  found  advisable  to  further  cool 
the  weak  liquor  in  a  double  pipe  weak  liquor  cooler  before  its  return 
to  the  absorber. 

AMOUNT  OP  WATER  REQUIRED  IN  REFRIGERATING  APPARATUS. — 
Vulcan  Iron  Works. 

For  each  rated  ton  refrigerating  capacity  (twenty-four  hours),  allow 
1 J  gals,  of  70°  Fahr.  water  per  minute  for  ammonia  condenser. 

For  each  rated  ton  ice-making  capacity  (twenty-four  hours),  can 
system,  with  distilling  and  purifying  apparatus,  allow  3  to  4  gals,  of 
70°  Fahr.  water  per  minute  for  all  purposes. 

5  to  8  tons  of  ice  can  be  produced  for  each  ton  of  good  coal 
consumed,  depending  upon  the  size  and  care  of  plant,  &c. 

DETERMINATION  OF  MOISTURE  IN  AIR  (Siebel). 

The  moisture  in  the  atmosphere  may  be  determined  by  a  wet  bulb 
thermometer,  which  is  an  ordinary  thermometer  the  bulb  of  which  is 
covered  with  muslin  kept  wet,  and  which  is  exposed  to  the  air,  the 
moisture  of  which  is  to  be  ascertained.  Owing  to  the  evaporation  of 


MANAGEMENT   &   TESTING   OF   MACHINERY.     571 

the  water  on  the  muslin  the  thermometer  will  shortly  acquire  a 
stationary  temperature  which  is  always  lower  than  that  of  the  sur- 
rounding air  (except  when  the  latter  is  actually  saturated  with 
moisture).  If  t  is  the  temperature  of  the  atmosphere,  and  tl  the 
temperature  of  the  wet  bulb  thermometer  in  degrees  Celsius,  the 
tension  e  of  the  aqueous  vapour  in  the  atmosphere  is  found  by  the 
formula — 

e  =  el-  0-00077  (t-tl)h, 

el  being  the  maximum  tension  of  aqueous  vapour  for  the  temperature  tl 
as  found  in  table  and  h  the  barometric  height  in  millimetres. 

If  e^  is  the  maximum  tension  of  aqueous  vapour  for  the  temperature 
t,  the  degree  of  saturation  H  is  expressed  by — 

H-t 


and  the  dew  point  is  also  readily  found  in  the  same  table,  it  being  the 
temperature  corresponding  to  the  tension  e. 

PSYCH  ROM  ETERS. 

Instead  of  the  wet  bulb  thermometer  alone  it  is  more  convenient  to 
use  two  exact  thermometers  combined  (one  with  a  wet  bulb  and  the 
other  with  a  dry  bulb,  to  give  the  temperature  of  the  air),  to  determine 
the  hygrometric  condition  of  the  atmosphere  or  of  the  air  in  a  room. 
Instruments  on  this  principle  can  be  readily  bought,  and  are  called 
psychrometers.  If  they  are  arranged  with  a  handle  so  that  they  can 
be  whirled  around,  they  are  called  "  sling  psychrometers."  These 
permit  a  quicker  correct  reading  of  the  wet  bulb  thermometer  than  the 
plain  psychrometer,  in  which  the  thermometers  are  stationary  and  are 
impracticable  at  a  temperature  below  32°  Fahr.,  while  the  sling  instru- 
ment can  be  read  down  to  27°  Fahr. 

HYGROMETERS. 

While  the  term  hygrometer  applies  to  all  instruments  calculated  to 
ascertain  the  amount  of  moisture  in  the  air,  it  is  specifically  used  to 
designate  instruments  on  which  the  degree  of  humidity  can  be  read  off 
directly  on  a  scale  without  calculation  and  table.  Their  operation  is 
based  on  the  change  of  the  length  of  a  hair  or  similar  hygroscopic  sub- 
stance, under  different  conditions  of  humidity. 


572       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 


t 

I 

g 


I  I 


1 1 

!  I 

I  > 

O  H 

<D  ^ 

p-H  hj 


c^ 

•8 


b 


^-^ 


"OiO»O>O 


Sr-H<Nco-*io 
co  co  co  co  co 


tOCOt^OO 


^(NCO-^^lOlOCOt^OOOi 


(MCO^-^TtfOCOCOCOlT^I^OOQO 
OO  GO  QO  00  00  QO  OO  00  QC  00  OO  00  00 


The  hygrometer  of  Marvin  is  a  sling  psychrometer  of  improved 
construction. 


MANAGEMENT   &   TESTING   OF   MACHINERY.     573 

Table  giving  weights  of  aqueous  vapour  held  in  suspension  by 
100  Ibs.  of  pure  dry  air  when  saturated,  at  different  temperatures,  and 
under  the  ordinary  atmospheric  pressure  of  29 -9  in.  of  mercury  (Box 
and  Light/oot). 


Temperature. 

Weight  of  Vapour. 

Temperature. 

Weight  of  Vapour. 

Fahr.  degs. 

Lbs. 

Fahr.  degs. 

Lbs. 

-20 

0-0350 

102 

4-547 

-10 

0-0574 

112 

6-253 

0 

0-0918 

122 

8-584 

+  10 

0-1418 

132 

11-771 

20 

0-2265 

142 

16-170 

32 

0-379 

152 

22-465 

42 

0-561 

162 

31-713 

52 

0-819 

172 

46-338 

62 

1-179 

182 

71-300 

72 

1-680 

192 

122-643 

89 

2-361 

202 

280-230 

92 

3-289 

212 

Infinite 

H.B. — The  weight  in  Ibs.  of  the  vapour  mixed  with  100  Ibs.  of  pure 
air  at  any  given  temperature  and  pressure  is  given  by  the  formula  : — 


2"9T9-EX~p 


where   E  =  elastic  force   of   the  vapour  at  the  given  temperature,  in 

inches  of  mercury  (to  be  taken  from  tables), 
p  —  absolute  pressure  in  inches  of  mercury, 
=  29-9  for  ordinary  atmospheric  pressure. 


ELECTRICAL  TEMPERATURE  TELL-TALES  AND  LONG  DISTANCE 
THERMOMETERS. 

At  the  West  Smithfield  Cold  Meat  Stores  a  system  of  electric  tem- 
perature tell-tales,  designed  by  Mr  C.  E.  Vernon,  were  put  in  in  1896. 
These  electrical  thermometers  were  on  the  multiple-wire  system.  Six 
wires,  in  conjunction  with  a  Breguet  spring  or  compound  coil  of  hard 
brass  and  steel  connected  by  a  suitable  link  to  an  index  hand  or  pointer, 
were  required  for  a  range  of  11°  Fahr.  with  six  points  of  contact  with 
the  instrument  in  the  chamber,  and  a  six-drop  indicator  in  the  engine- 
room.  Eleven  wires  were  required  for  a  range  of  20°  Fahr.,  and  it  is 
evident  that  for  a  wide  range  the  multiplicity  of  wires  would  form  a 
serious  objection. 


574      REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

On  the  three-wire  system  the  same  compound  coil  of  hard  brass 
and  steel  was  used.  Instead,  however,  of  a  connecting  link  and  movable 
hand  or  pointer,  the  loose  end  of  the  coil  had  attached  to  it  at  a  given 
distance  from  an  electromagnet  a  small  bar  of  iron,  and  by  reason  of 
the  unequal  expansion  and  contraction  of  the  two  metals  the  distance 
between  the  bar  and  the  magnet  will  vary  in  accordance  with  the  tem- 
perature, and  the  amount  of  current  required  to  draw  down  the  bar  to 
the  magnet  will  be  measured  by  the  ampere-meter.  The  construction 
of  this  latter  is  such  that  on  the  bar  touching  the  magnet  a  second 
circuit  would  be  completed  and  the  hand  of  the  ampere-meter  stopped 
at  a  given  point.  The  ampere-meter  is  calibrated  and  marked  off  into 
degrees  Fahrenheit,  and  a  wide  range  in  temperature  is  obtainable  with 
only  three  wires  readable  at  any  distance  and  accurate  to  within  a 
degree. 

A  long  distance  thermometer  which  has  been  extensively  used  in 
cold  stores  is  that  devised  by  Mr  A.  P.  Trotter.  In  this  instrument  a 
blind  stem  is  placed  alongside  of  the  elongated  capillary  stem,  the 
former  having  at  its  further  end  a  scale  tube  corresponding  exactly  to 
that  of  the  main  thermometer.  The  action  of  this  is  that  whatever 
variation  in  reading  was  produced  by  the  varying  temperatures  passed 
through  by  the  elongated  capillary  stem,  the  blind  stem  suffered  like 
alterations  of  temperature,  and  a  shifting  scale  adjusted  by  a  thumb- 
screw was  in  this  manner  established  by  means  of  which  the  fluctuations 
of  the  main  instrument  were  accurately  compensated  for. 

THE  THERMOGRAPH. 

The  thermograph  or  registering  thermometer  is  a  very  useful  instru- 
ment which  enables  a  record  to  be  kept  of  the  exact  temperature  of  a 
cold  store.  On  an  ordinary  pattern  of  instrument  the  record  paper  or 
card  is  secured  round  a  drum  or  cylindrically-shaped  body,  so  arranged 
that  it  will  be  slowly  rotated  by  a  train  of  clock-work,  which  takes  two 
weeks  to  run  down,  performing  in  this  space  of  time  one  complete 
revolution.  The  diameter  of  the  drum  is  3J  in.  and  the  record  fits  it 
accurately,  the  ends  butting. 

Upon  this  record  card  or  paper  there  rests  gently  a  sloped  pen 
holding  about  a  drop  of  ink,  this  pen  being  suspended  on  a  slender 
arm  attached  to  the  base  of  the  instrument,  and  the  mechanism  being 
of  such  a  nature  that  the  slightest  rise  or  fall  of  temperature  will  affect 
it,  and  will  raise  or  lower  the  pen  resting  against  the  record  paper  or 
card  upon  the  drum  or  cylinder. 


MANAGEMENT   &   TESTING   OF   MACHINERY.     575 

The  ink  line  will  start  from  the  top  and  thus  indicate  when  the 
instrument  was  placed  in  the  cold  store  or  room,  and  the  temperature 
will  fall  very  rapidly  at  first  and  afterwards  more  gradually  approximate 
itself  to  that  of  the  store. 

The  record  paper  or  card  is  ruled  with  horizontal  lines  showing 
the  temperature  in  degrees,  and  with  vertical  lines  showing  the  days 
for  a  period  of  two  weeks,  each  day  being  divided  into  six  watches  of 
four  hours  each,  viz.,  midnight,  4  and  8  A.M.,  noon,  4  and  8  P.M.,  and 
midnight  again.  At  the  termination  of  every  two  weeks,  the  record 
paper  or  card,  now  forming  a  thermograph  chart,  must  be  removed, 
the  clock-work  of  the  instrument  be  re- wound,  and  a  new  record  paper 
or  card  placed  in  position  on  the  drum  or  cylinder. 

THE  TELETHERMOMETER  OR  ELECTRICAL  THERMOMETER. 

The  telethermometer  or  electrical  thermometer  is  an  instrument 
invented  by  Mr  Chatwood  and  made  by  Messrs  Nalder  Brothers 
&  Thompson,  Ltd.,  London,  for  measuring  the  temperature  of  cold 
stores  or  rooms  by  means  of  electricity.  The  apparatus  is  of  the 
resistance  type  and  consists  of  two  main  parts,  viz.,  a  resistance  or 
temperature  coil  of  fine  wire  and  an  indicator.  The  former,  calibrated 
and  encased  in  metal  tubes  open  at  the  ends,  is  placed  at  a  number 
of  suitable  parts  in  the  cold  store  or  room,  and  the  latter,  together 
with  a  multiple  circuit  switch,  in  the  office  or  wherever  it  is  desired 
to  take  the  readings,  and  are  connected  by  lead  covered  wires  carried 
along  the  walls.  A  fine  wire  resistance  placed  across  the  250  volt 
supply  mains  admits  of  a  current  at  30  volts  being  obtained  from  the 
terminals  on  this  resistance.  The  indicator  is  calibrated  directly  in 
degrees  Fahrenheit,  and  as  the  multiple  point  switch  is  shifted  from 
one  contact  to  another  the  temperatures  can  be  read  off  on  the 
indicator  dial.  The  instrument  works  on  the  Wheatstone  bridge 
principle,  the  temperature  coil  being  one  of  the  arms,  and  the  other 
arms  and  the  galvanometer  being  contained  in  the  indicator  case. 
The  galvanometer  is  of  the  moving  coil  type,  so  that  when  a  voltage 
is  applied  to  its  terminals  the  indications  are  proportional  to  the 
change  of  resistance  due  to  the  variation  of  the  temperature  of  the 
coil.  The  scale  is  practically  evenly  divided  over  the  whole  range,  and, 
as  before  stated,  is  calibrated  to  read  directly  in  degrees  Fahrenheit  or 
Centigrade.  To  operate  the  instrument  a  pressure  of  about  30  volts 
continuous  current  is  required,  and  this  can  be  obtained,  as  above 
mentioned,  either  by  tapping  from  a  high  resistance  placed  across  the 


5;6   REFRIGERATION  AND  COLD  STORAGE. 

lighting  mains  or  through  a  hand  operated  magneto  generator.  The 
instrument  is  rendered  independent  of  the  applied  voltage  by  means 
of  an  electro-magnetic  controlling  device  located  within  the  case,  and 
variations  of  the  pressure  of  the  mains,  or  of  the  speed  of  the  magneto 
generator  will  be  automatically  compensated  for  by  this  device.  The 
temperature  of  any  required  number  of  different  rooms  can  be  read 
with  one  indicator  at  any  desired  point,  provided  each  room  be 
provided  with  a  temperature  coil  from  which  leads  are  carried  to  the 
indicator,  and,  moreover,  as  the  instrument  is  a  rapid  dead-beat  one, 
different  temperatures  can  be  read  off  successively  without  delay.  The 
system  is  claimed  to  be  simple,  convenient,  and  accurate,  also  that  a 
considerable  saving  of  time  can  be  effected  by  the  use  of  the  instrument 
when  the  temperatures  of  several  different  rooms  have  to  be  recorded 
at  regular  intervals. 

The  makers  of  this  electrical  thermometer  guarantee  the  accuracy 
of  the  instrument  to  within  a  very  small  error. 


LIGHTING  COLD  STORES. 

It  is  desirable  that  daylight  should  not  be  allowed  to  enter  a  cold 
store,  and  therefore  artificial  light  is  usually  resorted  to,  electric  light 
being  preferably  employed,  owing  to  there  being  practically  an  absence 
of  heat  therefrom. 

Incandescent  lamps  should  be  always  used  inside  the  cold  stores, 
but  arc  lamps  may  be  placed,  if  desired,  in  the  engine-room,  and 
employed  for  the  external  lighting  of  the  premises.  Lower  voltage 
lamps  are  the  most  durable,  and  serve  the  purpose  quite  as  well  as 
those  of  a  higher  voltage. 

The  mains  should  be  kept  as  far  as  practicable  in  the  corridors,  and 
tinned  cables  of  high  conductivity  and  with  rubber  insulation  should 
be  employed. 

Iron  piping,  steel  conduits,  or  wood  casing  may  be  used  for  carry- 
ing the  main  cables,  the  latter  being  the  cheapest  both  in  cost  of 
material  and  in  fixing,  and  also  lending  itself  more  readily  to  any 
subsequent  alterations  that  may  become  necessary.  Steel  conduits, 
however,  possess  several  important  advantages.  The  steel- armoured 
insulating  conduit  material  now  much  used  is  installed  in  a  similar 
manner  to  ordinary  gas-pipe  construction,  the  principal  difference  in 
electric  piping  being  that  specially  insulated  boxes,  bends,  elbows,  &c., 
are  substituted  for  the  ordinary  tees  or  angles  of  a  gas-pipe  system. 


MANAGEMENT    &   TESTING   OF   MACHINERY.     577 

The  use  of  the  conduit  system  ensures  a  mechanically  and  electrically 
protective  duct  for  the  installation  of  the  electric  conductors. 

When  wood  casing  is  used,  the  interior  should  be  painted  with 
asbestos  paint,  and  the  cover  fixed  with  brass  screws  on  each  edge,  not 
in  the  central  fillet. 

Iron  piping  has  an  internal  lining  of  suitable  insulating  material, 
and  is,  as  a  rule,  coated  with  a  bituminous  compound  of  some  descrip- 
tion intended  to  act  as  a  preservative. 

There  are  two  systems  of  carrying  out  wiring  now  in  use,  viz.,  the 
tree  system,  and  the  distributing-board  system. 

In  the  first  of  these,  or  the  tree  system,  two  main  cables  are  carried 


MAIN     CABLE 


Fig.  408.— Diagram  illustrating  Arrangement  of  Electric  Lighting  on  the 
Series  Circuit  System. 


CABLE. 


MAIN        CABLE 


Fig.  409. — Diagram  illustrating  Arrangement  of  Electric  Lighting  on  the 
Parallel  Circuit  System. 

through  the  building,  the  branch  circuits  being  all  taken  from  these 
cables  or  mains.  In  the  second,  or  distributing-board  [system,  a  main 
switchboard  is  placed  close  to  the  dynamo,  from  which  main  switch- 
board cables  are  carried  to  supplementary  distributing  boards  located 
at  convenient  points,  from  which  the  lamps  are  wired. 

An  obvious  advantage  of  this  latter  plan  is  that  all  the  joints  are 
readily  get-at-able,  being  at  the  distributing  boards  and  fittings.  The 
insulation  of  the  cable  is  left  completely  intact. 

In  fixing  wood  casing  all  joints  should  be  united,  and  no  sharp  edges  or 
corners  left  for  the  cable  to  pass  over.  The  casing  is  ordinarily  secured 
by  screws  to  the  walls,  floors,  and  ceilings,  and  either  on  the  surface, 
37 


5;8   REFRIGERATION  AND  COLD  STORAGE. 

partially  sunk,  or  sunk  flush  therewith.  In  very  damp  situations, 
however,  the  casing  should  be  supported,  so  as  to  be  clear  of  the 
surfaces,  by  means  of  small  porcelain  insulators. 

The  circuits  may  be  arranged  either  on  the  series  system  or  on  the 
parallel  arrangement,  the  latter  being  the  most  common,  and  the  former 
being,  as  a  rule,  only  employed  where  a  number  of  arc  lamps  are  used. 
The  series  circuit  and  parallel  circuit  are  shown  in  the  diagrams 
(Figs.  408  and  409),  the  dynamos,  main  cables,  lamps,  and  switches 
being  indicated  thereon. 

In  the  series  circuit  the  current  is  maintained  constant  in  value, 
the  difference  in  pressure  varying  with  the  work  on  the  circuit. 

In  the  parallel  circuit  all  the  lamps  are  connected  as  separate 
paths  between  the  two  main  leads,  each  path  being  quite  independent 
of  the  other  paths.  The  difference  of  electrical  pressure  is  maintained 
constant,  the  current  varying  with  the  work  that  is  on  the  circuit. 
The  switching  off  of  a  lamp  causes  a  break  in  the  wires  connecting  the 
lamp  to  the  circuit. 


CHAPTER  XXI 
COST  OF  WORKING 

Main  Items  of  Expense— Absorption  Machines— Compression  Machines— Vacuum 
Machines— Cold- Air  Machines— Cost  of  Ice-Making. 

THE  cost  of  producing  cold  with  any  of  the  hereinbefore-described 
machines  must  of  necessity  vary  in  different  localities  in  accordance 
with  the  prices  of  material  and  labour,  and  even  in  the  same  district 
with  the  fluctuations  in  the  market,  consequently  any  estimates  made 
thereof  can  only  apply  to  the  particular  case  in  point,  and  in  others 
can  be  taken  as  approximate  only. 

The  main  items  of  expense  in  the  production  of  cold  by  artificial 
means  are  fuel  and  skilled  and  other  labour  for  operating  the 
machinery,  and  in  the  manufacture  of  ice,  for  handling  the  latter.  The 
degree  of  economy  of  working  to  which  the  apparatus  has  been  brought, 
and  the  point  to  which  the  operation  thereof  has  been  rendered 
automatic,  will  naturally  tend  to  minimise  the  cost  of  the  production 
of  cold  and  of  ice-making,  and  the  latter  will  also  vary  inversely  with 
the  power  of  the  machine,  as  the  consumption  of  fuel  and  the  number 
of  attendants  necessary  to  work  the  machinery  do  not  increase  in  a 
ratio  corresponding  to  the  size  thereof,  and  consequently  those  having 
the  larger  outputs  require  proportionately  fewer  operatives.  The 
saving,  moreover,  under  this  latter  head  is  the  greatest  in  the  more 
expensive  skilled  labour.  For  instance,  an  ammonia  machine  on  either 
the  absorption  or  compression  principle,  with  a  capacity  of  1  ton  of  ice 
per  twenty-four  hours,  requires  the  services  of  two  engine-drivers  and 
two  labourers ;  whilst  the  same  number  of  attendants  can  likewise  work 
a  2  or  a  5  ton  machine,  and  the  addition  of  a  single  labourer  will  be 
sufficient  for  either  a  7J,  10,  or  12  ton  machine,  and  of  three  labourers 
for  a  28-ton  machine.  The  same  skilled  attendants  are  sufficient  for 
a  machine  having  an  output  of  50  tons  per  twenty-four  hours. 

According  to  calculations  made  by  Mr  F.  Colyer,  M.Inst.C.E.,  in 
1884,  from  observations  of  the  working  of  a  Pontifex-Wood  ammonia 
absorption  machine  of  a  capacity  of  20  tons  of  can  ice  per  twenty-four 

579 


58o       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

hours,  the  cost  of  making  ice,  taking  coals  at  London  price,  was  4s.  9d. 
per  ton.  If,  however,  two  machines  were  used  the  price  would  be  reduced 
to  3s.  5d.  per  ton,  and  with  coals  at  Glasgow  price  the  cost  would  be 
further  lowered,  and  would  stand  respectively  at  3s.  7d.  and  2s.  lOd. 

The  cost  of  cooling  water  10°  by  the  same  machine  he  estimated  to 
be  *15  of  a  penny  per  barrel  cooled. 

The  calculations  from  which  these  figures  were  deduced  include  the 
cost  of  labour,  coals,  water,  oil  and  sundries,  repairs,  loss  of  ammonia, 
5  per  cent,  interest  on  capital  invested,  and  an  allowance  of  4  per  cent, 
for  depreciation. 

The  cost  of  producing  clear  block  ice  in  this  country  with  an 
ammonia  machine  working  on  the  absorption  principle  is  given  at  a 
somewhat  higher  figure*  by  Mr  Lightfoot,  viz.,  for  a  machine  of  15 
tons  capacity  per  twenty-four  hours  about  4s.  per  ton,  and  this 
estimate,  moreover,  is  made  on  the  assumption  that  good  coals  can  be 
obtained  at  15s.  per  ton,  and  is  exclusive  of  any  allowance  for  repairs 
and  depreciation. 

The  cost  of  producing  ice  with  a  Pontifex-Wood  improved  ammonia 
absorption  machine  is  stated  by  the  makers  to  be,  for  a  machine  having 
a  capacity  of  24  tons  per  twenty-four  hours,  allowing  for  labour,  coals, 
oil,  chemicals,  and  water  (taking  coals  at  10s.  a  ton  and  water  at  6d. 
per  1,000  gallons),  2s.  0|d.  per  ton.  With  coals  at  20s.  a  ton  it  rises, 
however,  to  2s.  lOJd.  per  ton.  For  a  machine  with  a  capacity  of  15 
tons  per  twenty-four  hours,  it  is  respectively,  with  coals  at  the  above 
prices,  2s.  7jd.  and  3s.  7|d.  per  ton.  For  a  machine  with  a  capacity 
of  9  tons  per  twenty-four  hours,  3s.  4d.  and  4s.  5|d.  per  ton.  For  a 
machine  with  a  capacity  of  6  tons  per  twenty-four  hours,  4s.  5Jd.  and 
5s.  8d.  per  ton.  And  for  a  machine  with  a  capacity  of  4  tons  per 
twenty-four  hours,  5s.  and  6s.  3d.  per  ton. 

According  to  Mr  Lightfoot  f  the  action  of,  and  losses  experienced 
in  working  an  ammonia  absorption  machine  are  as  follows : — 

"Assuming  the  action  of  the  economiser  to  be  perfect — which,  of 
course,  is  a  condition  never  met  with  in  practice — all  the  heat  given 
out  by  the  steam  in  the  generator-coils  would  be  found  in  the  water 
issuing  from  the  condenser,  less  that  portion  directly  lost  by  radiation 
and  conduction.  In  this  case  the  total  heat  expended  would  be  that 
required  to  vaporise  the  ammonia,  and  the  water,  which,  in  the  form 
of  steam,  unavoidably  passes  off  with  the  ammonia  to  the  rectifier  and 
condenser  :  plus  the  heat  lost  by  radiation  and  conduction.  In  the 

*  Proceedings,  Institution  of  Mechanical  Engineers,  1886,  p.  221. 
d.,  1886,  pp.  220,  221. 


COST   OF  WORKING.  581 

refrigerator  the  liquid  ammonia  in  becoming  vaporised  will  take  up 
the  precise  quantity  of  heat  that  was  given  off  during  its  cooling  and 
liquefaction  in  the  condenser,  less  the  amount  due  to  difference  in 
pressure,  and  less  also  the  small  amount  due  to  the  difference  in 
temperature  between  the  vapour  entering  the  condenser  and  that  leav- 
ing the  refrigerator.  Again,  when  the  vapour  enters  into  solution  with 
the  weak  liquor  in  the  absorber,  the  heat  taken  up  in  the  refrigerator 
is  given  to  the  cooling  water,  subject  to  slight  corrections  for  differences 
of  pressure  and  of  temperature.  Supposing  there  were  no  losses  there- 
fore, the  heat  given  up  by  the  steam  in  the  generator,  plus  that  taken 
up  by  the  ammonia  in  the  refrigerator,  would  be  precisely  equal  to  the 
amount  taken  off  by  the  cooling  water  from  the  condenser,  plus  that 
taken  off  from  the  absorber.  The  sources  of  loss  are  :  inefficiency  of 
the  economiser;  radiation  and  conduction  from  all  vessels  and  pipes 
that  are  above  normal  temperature ;  useless  evaporation  of  water  which 
passes  into  the  rectifier  and  condenser;  conduction  of  heat  into  all 
vessels  and  pipes  that  are  below  normal  temperature ;  water  passing 
into  the  refrigerator  along  with  the  liquid  ammonia. 

"  It  will  have  been  seen  that  the  heat  demanded  from  the  steam  is 
very  much  greater  in  the  absorption  system  than  in  the  compression. 
This  is  chiefly  due  to  the  fact  that  in  the  absorption  system  the  heat 
of  vaporisation  acquired  in  the  refrigerator  is  rejected  in  the  absorber ; 
so  that  the  whole  heat  of  vaporisation  required  to  produce  the  ammonia 
vapour  prior  to  condensation,  has  to  be  supplied  by  the  steam.  In 
the  compression  system  the  vapour  passes  direct  from  the  refrigerator 
to  the  pump,  and  power  has  to  be  expended  merely  in  raising  the 
pressure  and  temperature  to  a  sufficient  degree  for  enabling  liquefac- 
tion to  occur  at  ordinary  temperatures.  On  the  other  hand,  a  great 
advantage  is  gained  in  the  absorption  machine  by  using  the  direct 
heat  of  the  steam  without  first  converting  it  into  mechanical  work ; 
for  in  this  way  its  latent  heat  of  vaporisation  can  be  utilised  by  con- 
densing the  steam  in  the  coils,  and  letting  it  escape  in  the  form  of 
water.  Each  Ib.  of  steam  passed  through  can  thus  be  made  to  give 
up  some  950  units  of  heat;  while  in  the  steam-using  being  2  Ibs.  of 
coal  per  indicated  horse-power  per  hour,  about  160  units  only  are 
utilised  per  Ib.  of  steam,  without  allowance  for  mechanical  inefficiency. 
In  the  absorption  machine  also  the  cooling  water  has  to  take  up  about 
twice  as  much  heat  as  in  the  compression  system,  owing  to  the 
ammonia  being  twice  liquefied,  namely,  once  in  the  condenser  and 
once  in  the  absorber.  It  is  usual  to  pass  the  condensing  water  first 
through  the  condenser  and  then  through  the  absorber." 


582       REFRIGERATION   AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

The  cost  of  ice-production  with  machines  of  the  ammonia  com- 
pression type  is  somewhat  less  on  the  whole  than  with  those  working  on 
the  absorption  principle. 

The  estimate  given  by  the  Pulsometer  Engineering  Co.  as  the 
approximate  amount  per  ton  of  clear  or  crystal  ice  is — cost  of  coals,  Is., 
all  labour,  including  that  of  getting  the  ice  out  of  the  tanks,  Is.  3d., 
and  cost  of  ammonia  lost  through  leakage,  &c.,  Jd.  per  ton  of  ice 
made,  or  a  total  cost  of  2s.  3Jd.  per  ton.  If  an  allowance  of,  say, 
lOd.  per  ton  be  added  to  this  for  interest  and  depreciation,  repairs  to 
machinery,  cost  of  water  supply  and  sundries,  this  would  increase  the 
cost  of  production  to  about  3s.  2d.  per  ton. 

Mr  Lightfoot  states*  that  one  ton  of  coal  is  capable  of  producing 
as  much  as  12  tons  of  ice  in  well-constructed  ammonia  compression 
apparatus,  having  a  capacity  of  15  tons  per  twenty-four  hours;  and 
with  coals  at  15s.  a  ton,  he  estimates  the  cost  of  making  ice  by  the 
ammonia  compression  system  at  about  3s.  9d.  per  ton  for  a  pro- 
duction of  15  tons  per  twenty-four  hours,  exclusive,  however,  of  any 
allowance  for  repairs  and  depreciation. 

The  estimate  given  for  the  total  cost  of  ice  per  ton,  made  by  a  Frick 
ammonia  compression  machine,  is,  for  a  daily  production  of  15  tons, 
5s.  2d.  per  ton  of  ice.  The  calculation,  however,  is  got  out  at  the 
much  higher  rate  of  wages  paid  in  America,  and  if  due  allowance  be 
made  for  this,  and  also  for  the  falling  off  in  efficiency  of  the  machine, 
due  to  the  greater  heat  of  the  climate  in  summer,  the  cost  per  ton 
in  this  country  would  probably  be  something  under  4s.  If  the  capacity 
of  the.  machine  be  100  tons  of  ice  per  day,  the  cost  per  ton  falls  to 
3s.  lid.,  or  allowing  for  the  larger  item  for  labour,  about  2s.  lOd.  here. 

In  an  ether  compression  machine  Mr  Lightfoot  accounts  for  the 
work  as  follows  :  f — Friction.  Heat  rejected  during  compression. 
Heat  acquired  by  the  refrigerating  agent  in  passing  through  the  pump. 
Work  expended  in  discharging  the  compressed  vapour  from  the  pump. 
Against  this  he  sets  the  work  done  by  the  vapour  in  entering  the  pump. 
Assuming  that  vapour  alone  enters  the  pump,  the  heat  rejected  in  the 
condenser  he  states  to  be  : — Heat  of  vaporisation  acquired  in  the  refri- 
gerator, with  the  connection  necessary  for  difference  in  pressure.  And 
the  heat  acquired  in  the  pump,  less  the  amount  due  to  the  difference 
between  the  temperature  at  which  liquefaction  occurs  and  that  at 
which  the  vapour  entered  the  pump,  and  less  also  the  amount  lost  by 
radiation  and  conduction  between  the  pump  and  the  condenser. 

*  Proceedings,  Institution  of  Mechanical  Engineers,  1886,  p.  221. 
t  Ibid,  1886,  p.  214. 


COST   OF   WORKING.  583 

The  mechanical  work  expended  in  compressing  ammonia  is  to  be 
accounted  for  in  a  precisely  similar  manner  to  that  expended  in  the 
compression  of  ether. 

Notwithstanding,  however,  that  the  degree  of  compression  is  so 
much  greater  with  ammonia  than  with  ether,  the  energy  expended  in 
the  compression,  heating,  and  delivering  of  the  gas  is  less,  owing  to 
the  much  smaller  weight  of  ammonia  required  to  produce  a  given 
refrigerating  effect,  the  weights  being  in  the  reverse  ratio  of  the  heats 
of  vaporisation,  or  as  1  to  5-45.  For  this  reason  the  cost  of  making 
ice  with  ether  is  far  higher  than  with  ammonia,  and  assuming  the  coal 
consumption  per  I.H.P.  to  be  2  Ibs.  per  hour  and  the  price  of 
coals  15s.  a  ton,  the  total  cost  of  producing  transparent  block  ice  in 
this  country  on  the  ether  system  would  be  about  5s.  per  ton,  exclusive 
of  any  allowance  for  repairs  and  depreciation.  The  production  of  ice 
would  be  about  8 '3  tons  per  ton  of  coal  consumed. 

On  the  other  hand,  however,  as  already  mentioned,  ether  machines, 
by  reason  of  their  low  working  pressures  in  the  condensers,  offer  con- 
siderable advantages  in  hot  climates,  especially  in  the  case  of  machines 
with  small  outputs. 

The  expense  of  producing  ice  with  the  Tellier  and  Pictet  machines 
is  about  the  same.  The  results  obtained  with  Pictet's  special  liquid 
(combination  of  carbon  dioxide  and  sulphur  dioxide)  is  stated  to  equal 
a  production  of  35  tons  of  ice  per  ton  of  coal,  but  this  is  in  all 
probability  far  in  excess  of  any  result  obtained  in  actual  working. 

It  will  be  obvious  that  the  arrangement  made  for  the  use  of  any 
particular  machine  acting  on  the  principle  of  the  abstraction  of  heat 
by  the  evaporation  of  a  separate  refrigerating  agent  of  a  more  or  less 
volatile  nature,  must  have  a  very  considerable  effect  upon  its  econo- 
mical working,  and  it  is  doubtless  owing  to  the  superiority  of  the  fixing 
and  manipulation  of  the  installation  that  so  much  better  results  are 
occasionally  obtained  in  one  case  than  in  another,  as,  these  things  being 
equal,  all  first-rate  machines  of  this  class  are  about  the  same  in  point 
of  economy.  In  relation  to  this  it  must  also  be  borne  in  mind  that 
the  thickness  of  the  blocks  of  ice  that  are  being  made  exercises  an 
important  influence  upon  the  time  occupied  in  their  production,  for 
whereas  a  block  3  in.  thick  can  be  frozen  in  eight  hours,  a  block  9  in. 
in  thickness  will  require  thirty-six  hours.  The  time  varying  also,  of 
course,  more  or  less  with  the  temperature  of  the  brine. 

The  cost  of  making  a  ton  of  opaque  and  porous  ice  with  a  vacuum 
machine  such  as  the  Windhausen  is  estimated  *  by  Dr  Hopkinson  at  4s. 
*  Journal  of  the  Society  of  Arts,  1882,  vol.  xxi.,  p.  20. 


584      REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

The  amount  of  water  required  (including  that  used  for  cooling  pur- 
poses) is  stated*  by  Mr  Pieper  to  be  from  10  to  12  tons  per  ton  of 
ice  produced,  and  the  fuel  consumption  1  ton  of  coal  for  every  12  tons 
of  ice.  The  fuel  is  required  for  the  generation  of  steam  to  drive  the 
vacuum  pump  and  the  air  pump  of  the  concentrator.  The  total  heat 
which  must  be  abstracted  to  produce  a  ton  of  ice  from  a  ton  of  water 
at  a  temperature  of  60°  Fahr.  is  382,144  units.  The  Windhausen 
machine  is  heavy,  and  takes  up  a  considerable  floor  space,  and  the 
necessary  outlay  for  keeping  it  in  an  efficient  state  of  repair,  even  under 
the  most  favourable  circumstances,  must  be  high. 

The  cost  of  making  opaque  ice  by  means  of  the  Harrison  (1878) 
patent  vacuum  apparatus  would  undoubtedly  be  lower  than  with  the 
Windhausen  machine,  as  the  larger  part  of  the  friction,  which  forms  a 
very  considerable  item  of  the  loss  in  the  latter,  is  got  rid  of,  and  a 
corresponding  saving  of  fuel  is  thus  effected.  The  expenditure  of  fuel 
for  concentrating  the  acid  is  also  entirely  eliminated,  much  less  water 
is  required  for  cooling  purposes,  and  the  first  cost  and  subsequent  out- 
lay for  repairs,  &c.,  are  likewise  much  less.  It  is  stated  that  the 
inventor  expected  to  be  able  to  produce  opaque  ice  on  a  large  scale  at 
a  cost  of  about  Is.  per  ton. 

The  outlay  per  ton  of  ice  made  on  the  system  of  abstracting  the 
heat  by  the  rapid  melting  or  liquefaction  of  a  solid  is  the  greatest,  and 
so  much  so  that  for  producing  ice  on  a  commercial  scale  in  this  climate 
it  is  completely  out  of  the  running.  The  cost  of  making  15  tons  of  ice 
per  twenty  hours,  with  an  apparatus  working  on  a  substantially 
similar  principle  to  that  of  Sir  William  Siemens',  is  stated  to  be  7s. 
per  ton  with  good  coals  at  15s.  a  ton,  and  not  making  any  allowance 
whatever  for  depreciation,  interest,  repairs,  &c. 

This  estimate,  moreover,  is  based  upon  the  erroneous  assumption 
that  1  Ib.  of  coal  is  capable  of  evaporating  20  Ibs.  of  water,  and  it  is 
undoubtedly  far  too  low.  According  to  Mr  Lightfoot :  f — 

"  Nearly  the  whole  of  the  coal  is  used  for  evaporating  the  water  in 
recovering  the  salt,  the  quantity  being  given  at  2J  tons  of  coal  for 
every  15  tons  of  ice.  If,  however,  this  has  been  calculated  on  an 
evaporative  duty  of  20  Ibs.  of  water  per  Ib.  of  coal,  the  amount 
actually  used  will  probably  be  about  5  tons  of  coal,  which  would  make 
the  cost  per  ton  of  ice  9s.  3d.  instead  of  7s.  On  the  other  hand,  it 
must  be  remembered  that  under  certain  climatic  conditions  much  of 
the  water  could  be  evaporated  in  the  open  air,  without  the  use  of  fuel, 

*  Transactions  of  the  Society  of  Engineers,  1882,  p.  145. 

i  Proceedings,  Institution  of  Mechanical  Engineers,  1886,  p.  204. 


COST   OF  WORKING.  585 

in  which  case  the  coal  consumption,  and  therefore  the  cost  of  ice 
production,  would  be  greatly  lessened." 

As  regards  the  capacity,  &c.,  of  cold-air  machines,  those  of  the  Haslam 
type  vary  from  an  ice  equivalent  of  one-  third  of  a  ton,  requiring  4  I.H.P. 
at  average  speed,  or  9  I.H.P.  at  maximum  speed,  and  delivering  2,000  cub. 
ft.  per  hour  (capacity  of  compressor  in  cubic  feet  per  hour,  2,500),  up  to 
an  ice  equivalent  of  60  tons,  requiring  460  I.H.P.  at  average  speed,  or 
566  I.H.P.  at  maximum  speed,  and  delivering  300,000  cub.  ft.  of  air 
per  hour  (capacity  of  compressor  in  cubic  feet  per  hour,  353,000).  This 
latter  machine  is  of  the  quadruple  duplex  condensing  type. 

It  has  been  stated  *  by  Mr  Lightfoot  that  with  the  best  machines 
of  large  size  then  (1886)  made,  a  weight  of  1,000  Ibs.  of  air  per  hour 
could  be  reduced  from  60°  above  to  80°  below  zero,  the  cooling  water 
being  at  60°  Fahr.,  with  an  expenditure  of  about  18  I.H.P.  That  is  to 
say,  that  an  abstraction  of  916  units  of  heat  is  effected  to  each  pound 
of  coal  used,  with  an  engine  consuming  2  Ibs.  of  coal  per  I.H.P.  per  hour. 

The  results  of  later  test  experiments  made  with  Messrs  F.  &  W. 
Cole's  "  Arctic  "  dry  cold-air  machines  will  be  found  on  page  244. 

For  Haslam's  formula  to  enable  the  amount  of  air  delivered  by  a 
cold-air  machine  per  hour  to  be  ascertained,  the  revolutions  and  size  of 
the  compressor  being  known,  see  page  245. 

COMPARISON  OP  COAL  CONSUMPTION  BY  VARIOUS  MACHINES 
(Gardner  T.  Voorhees). 

Net  Tons  of         Per  cent,  of 


Compression,  simple  Corliss  engine,  non-condensing  6'1 
Compression,  compound  Corliss   engine,  non-con- 

densing  -  8*3                    ... 
Absorption,  liquor  pump  and  auxiliaries  not  ex- 

hausting into  generator,  simple  non-condensing 

engine      -  10  '0                     ... 

Compression,  compound  condensing  engine  11  '2 
Absorption,  liquor   pump   and  all  auxiliaries   ex- 

hausting into  generator,  simple  Corliss  engine, 

non-condensing  -  13*3 
Compression  and  absorption,  simple  Corliss  engine, 

non-  condensing  -  13  '4                   67*5 
Compression    and  absorption,    compound  engine, 

non-condensing  -  16  '0                  60*8 

The  following  tables  giving  the  approximate  cost  of  ice-making  in 
the  United  States  are  respectively  by  the  Frick  Co.  and  the  Triumph 
Ice  Machine  Co.  :  — 

*  Proceedings,  Institution  of  Mechanical  Engineers,  1886,  p.  230. 


586       REFRIGERATION   AND   COLD   STORAGE. 


kg 

^O         ^^         00         ^^         "O         O^         ^         O5         -^         *O         CO         O5         t^*        *O         Ol 

COOQOiOd'—  'CSOOQOt-t—        COOCOCO 

~H 

^_c4^^Hr^^Hodooc5ddoc5 

SPe/5 

?  if 

-)        M  ft  x 

3            OW 

^        XO        £"•*        O^        G^l        CO        QO        C^l        ^        CO        Oi        ^        O*        00        ^H 

5    jl| 

§O>        O1        <O        ^O        ^^        O*        ^)        10        O1        *O        O>        ^O        O        "O 
iO>OiOI>»OO'—  <        (N        iO        t^*        O        CN        O        O 

a    s^ 

i 

3    U 

d»-HCCTi!coc5c4c>i^cot^i-H'^dt^ 

3                 n.  l) 

5              P. 

5      38 
5      5? 

iiiiiiiiiiiiiii 

q           CJ 

3 

"™H         O1         C^          ^          CO         00          00         O5         O1         '-"i          ^         CO         <O         ^O 

5      a 

.0        ,0 

H                  "rt  5a.    ?*"» 

**»......          G^          c^ 

w-  " 

3        0-3  o, 

3      a 

;;;;;;;;;     :     ;;:    ^    ^ 

!  lii 

}            ^4   3  S 

:888    8    888888888 

i-4i—  ii—5o;icyic4c4'74co^^'^co 

C   0   ft 

3      H^ 

t           C        *"^        '"^        *™^        C^        O^        C^        0^1        0^4        CO        ^        "^        ^        CO 

»j 

5      a 

1  11 

H                        C     u 

O       O1       <^>       O       O        1O        iO        O 

:        :        :        :        :        ;        :«5»oiQ»5»5i>t»O 

oi      ^      oi      <N      <N      co      co'      id 

H             gS, 

1            E 

:        :        :        :        :        :              c<i      <N      01      <M      (M      co      co      •«* 

1     5$ 

s  s  s 

H               ^O 

^        s  K 

9J                  «    5 

_      „      s, 

S       o  a 

5 

§     ss  . 

OOOiOiOt^t-^OOOOt^OOiO 

H         'g>o  K 

COCOCOCOCOCOCO-*Tt<rJHT^C<jlOlOlO 

WS^ 

<MGO(N(M(N(NC^C^<N(M(M'—  (<M(M<N 

®    4)  /5 

i—  i 

COST   OF   WORKING. 


587 


r->   rH   r-H   i-H  CQ  (^  CO  CO  CO  •<*  tQ  CD  t^O5~(N   CO  CO  T^  CC5  IT^OS 


88888888SSS8S 


CHAPTER  XXII 
THE   PRODUCTION   OF   VERY   LOW   TEMPERATURES 

Early  Investigators  and  Experimenters — The  Cascade  System — The  Regenerative 
Method — Properties  of  Liquid  Air — Physical  Constants  of  Liquefied  Gases. 

EARLY  INVESTIGATORS  AND  EXPERIMENTERS. 
The  Cascade  System. 

THE  first  experimenters  in  the  liquefaction  of  gases  were  Mouge  and 
Clouet  before  1800,  who  succeeded  in  liquefying  sulphur  dioxide; 
Northmore  in  1805,  who  liquefied  chlorine  and  sulphurous  acids; 
Faraday,  1823,  who  liquefied  chlorine  sulphuret  of  hydrogen,  carbon 
dioxide,  nitrous  oxide,  cyanogen,  ammonia,  and  hydrochloride  acid. 
Habrier,  Natteur,  Andrews,  and  Siemens,  the  latter  making,  in  a  pro- 
visional application  filed  in  1857,  the  suggestion  that  refrigeration 
might  be  produced  by  expanding  a  compressed  gas  either  in  a  cylinder 
doing  work  or  freely  to  a  lower  pressure,  and  using  this  cold  gas  to 
cool  before  expansion  the  gas  coming  to  the  apparatus.  This,  it  will  be 
seen,  is  the  basis  upon  which  the  latest  investigators  have  proceeded, 
and  which  has  admitted  in  the  closing  years  of  the  last  century  of  the 
liquefaction  of  all  gases  being  effected. 

In  1878  Cailletet  and  Pictet,  working  quite  independently  of  each 
other,  succeeded  in  liquefying  certain  of  the  so-called  permanent  gases. 

The  method  employed  by  the  first  was  to  compress  the  gas  under 
very  high  pressure,  cool  it  moderately,  so  that  it  was  still  above  its 
critical  temperature,  and  then  allow  it  to  expand  suddenly  by  opening 
a  cock  or  valve  by  which  the  pressure  on  the  gas  was  relieved,  doing 
work  against  a  column  of  mercury  which  formed  the  equivalent  of  a 
piston  for  compressing  the  gas.  In  this  manner  the  gas  cooled  itself, 
the  expansion  being  sudden  and  almost  adiabatic,  and  the  temperature 
was  reduced  below  the  critical  point,  whilst  the  pressure  was  still 
sufficiently  high  to  liquefy  the  gas  at  the  temperature  which  it  had 
then  acquired. 

588 


VERY    LOW   TEMPERATURES. 


589 


Cailletet  in  the  above  manner  experimented  with  various  gases, 
amongst  others  nitrous  oxide  or  laughing-gas,  acetylene,  and  carbon 
monoxide,  and  succeeded  in  obtaining  a  mist  of  hydrogen.  He  was  the 
first  to  use  liquid  ethylene  as  a  cooling  agent. 

The  second,  or  Pictet,  on  the  other  hand  employed  what  has  been 
styled  the  cascade  or  successive  cycle  system,  and  is  described  by 
Professor  Ewing  as  follows  :  * — 

"The  general  idea  of  this  method  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  410. 
Imagine  a  refrigerating  agent,  such  as  carbonic  acid,  to  have  been 


Ethyfene        Oxygen 


-1480/7 
•80°C. 


-220°£ 
-130°C 


-200°C. 


Fig.  410. — Diagram  illustrating  the  Cascade  or  Successive  Cycle  System  of 
producing  Very  Low  Temperatures. 


compressed  and  to  expand  through  a  valve  into  the  chamber  A,  where 
it  evaporates.  In  the  example,  as  sketched,  it  is  evaporating  into  the 
atmosphere.  When  carbonic  acid  evaporates  freely  to  the  atmosphere, 
it  falls  to  a  temperature  of  about  -  80°  Cent.  It  could  be  made  to  go 
30°  or  more  lower  by  using  an  air  pump  to  preserve  a  partial  vacuum 
in  the  chamber ;  but,  assuming  the  pressure  A  to  be  atmospheric,  the 
temperature  then  will  be  about  -  80°  Cent.  Now,  we  may  use  this  as  the 
condensing  temperature  of  some  other  volatile  material.  The  material 
which  is  indicated  in  the  sketch  is  ethylene,  which  was  not  used  by 

*  Journal  of  the  Society  of  Arts,  17th  September  1897. 


590       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

Pictet,  but  has  come  into  use  subsequently  and  has  done  good  service 
in  the  hands  especially  of  Professor  Dewar.  It  forms  a  convenient 
intermediate  link  between  the  comparatively  easily  liquefiable  carbonic 
acid  and  the  much  more  difficult  oxygen.  Ethylene  has  a  critical 
temperature  of  -10°  Cent.,  and  needs  only  moderate  pressure  to  liquefy  it 
when  exposed  to  a  temperature  of  -  80°  Cent.  It  is  pumped  at  the 
necessary  pressure  into  the  inner  vessel  at  A,  and  is  there  liquefied  and 
passes  through  an  expansion  valve  to  the  outer  vessel  at  B,  where  it 
evaporates.  The  pressure  in  B  is  supposed  to  be  kept  at  something 
not  much  over  1  in.  of  mercury,  and  in  that  case  the  temperature 
reached  by  the  ethylene  in  evaporating  will  be  -130°  Cent.  After  expan- 
sion it  is  re-compressed,  so  that  the  part  of  the  apparatus  in  which  the 
ethylene  is  carried  through  its  cycle  may  simply  be  regarded  as  a 
separate  vapour  compression  refrigerating  machine,  the  same  as  the 
ordinary  machine  using  ammonia  or  carbonic  acid  ;  B  is  the  refrigerator 
and  A  is  the  condenser. 

"  The  remainder  of  the  apparatus  is  another  similar  machine,  using 
in  this  case  oxygen  as  its  working  substance,  and  with  B  as  its  condenser. 
The  critical  temperature  of  oxygen  is  about  -  150°  Cent.,  and  as  the 
temperature  in  B  is  lower  than  that,  the  oxygen  liquefies  when  com- 
pressed into  the  inner  vessel  at  B.  A  moderate  pressure  of  20  or  30 
atmospheres  suffices.  The  liquid  oxygen  may  be  passed  through  a 
valve  and  evaporated  again  in  the  vessel  c,  and  in  that  way  a  tem- 
perature of  -  200°  Cent,  or  lower  can  be  reached,  the  temperature,  of 
course,  in  this  last  vessel  depending  on  the  pressure  in  it,  and  con- 
sequently on  the  rapidity  with  which  the  pump  worked.  By  working 
the  pump  tolerably  fast  to  preserve  a  good  vacuum  in  c,  we  can  get 
down  to  something  like  -  220°,  or  even  -  225°,  Cent.,  a  temperature 
which  is  no  very  long  way  above  the  absolute  zero  -  273°  Cent.  In 
Pictet's  cascade  of  successive  cycles,  the  substances  used  were  sulphurous 
acid  and  carbonic  acid.  The  ethylene  is  a  useful  addition,  as  giving 
readily  a  temperature  considerably  below  the  critical  point  of  oxygen. 
Without  it,  however,  Pictet  succeeded  in  liquefying  oxygen  by  the 
device  of  letting  it  suddenly  escape  when  under  high  pressure,  and 
after  being  cooled  as  far  as  the  carbonic  acid  would  cool  it." 

Further  experiments,  made  during  the  next  decade  by  the  two 
Polish  chemists,  Wroblewski  and  Olszewski,  working  together  and 
using  Cailletet's  type  of  apparatus,  and  latterly  Pictet's  cascade  system, 
for  cooling  the  compression  tube,  confirmed  the  results  obtained  by 
Cailletet  and  Pictet  on  hydrogen  in  1884. 

In  this  year  (1884)  Professor  Dewar  demonstrated  at  the  Royal 


VERY    LOW   TEMPERATURES.  591 

Institution  that  liquid  air  could  be  produced  by  the  use  of  solid  carbon 
dioxide  and  nitrous  oxide  as  cooling  agents,  giving  - 184°  Fahr. 
(  -  120°  Cent.).  With  a  compression  to  200  atmospheres,  and  subsequent 
expansion,  about  5  per  cent,  of  the  air  compressed  was  liquefied. 

Professor  Dewar  also  devised  the  vacuum  flasks  for  holding  liquid 
gases  which  bear  his  name,  and  which  consist  of  two  glass  walls  with  a 
sealed  space  between  from  which  the  air  has  been  completely 
exhausted,  and  which  consequently  acts  as  the  best  possible  insulator. 
By  the  addition  to  the  vacuum-jacket  of  a  film  of  mercury  spread 
over  the  surface  of  the  glass  on  the  inner  side  of  the  outermost 
wall,  a  bright  surface  is  produced  which  reduces  the  absorption 
of  heat  by  the  latter,  and  permits  much  less  radiation  to  pass  through. 
This  vacuum  vessel  enables  the  rate  of  evaporation  of  a  liquid  gas  to 
be  reduced  from  one-fifth  to  one-sixth  of  that  which  would  take  place 
in  the  open  air,  and  if  the  inner  wall  be  coated  as  above  described 
with  mercury  to  form  a  heat  mirror,  the  heat  evaporation  will  then 
be  only  from  one-twentieth  to  one-thirty-third  that  of  the  free  rate. 
Until  quite  recently  these  flasks  were  the  means  by  which  liquid  gases 
were  handled  and  maintained  in  a  static  form. 

Subsequently  Olszewski,  after  Wroblewski's  death  in  1888,  replaced 
the  glass  tube  of  Cailletet  by  a  steel  one  fitted  with  a  stop-cock, 
and  obtained  enough  liquids  to  be  handled  in  Dewar  flasks. 

Discarding  after  a  time  the  Cailletet  apparatus,  as  altered  by 
Wroblewski,  Dewar  employed  the  Pictet  apparatus,  using,  however, 
pumps  to  compress  the  gases  previously  made,  and  force  them  into  the 
liquefying  chamber,  and  he  also  employed  ethylene  in  place  of  carbon 
dioxide,  placed  the  draw-off  cock  within  the  cooling  chamber,  and 
still  later  adopted  the  regenerative  principle  suggested  by  Siemens, 
for  cooling  the  chamber  in  the  case  of  hydrogen  liquefaction.  In  1895 
Dewar  demonstrated  that  air  in  the  liquid  form  could  be  frozen  to  a 
jelly-like  solid  by  the  expansion  method,  this  jelly  proving  to  be  a 
mass  of  nitrogen  with  the  liquid  oxygen  of  the  air  contained  in  the 
interstices;  this  solid  air  melts  instantly  on  contact  with  the  atmo- 
sphere. In  1896  he  effected  the  production  of  a  jet  of  liquid  hydrogen 
by  means  of  the  expansion  of  the  cooled  and  compressed  gas,  and 
by  the  use  of  this  hydrogen  jet,  oxygen  and  air  were  frozen  to  a  solid 
white  mass.  In  1898  Dewar  succeeded  in  collecting  hydrogen  in  a 
static  condition, -and  in  keeping  it  in  this  form  by  the  use  of  one  of  his 
bulbs  at  a  temperature  of  -396'4°  Fahr.  ( -  238°  Cent.),  only  64°  Fahr. 
above  the  absolute  zero. 

Amongst  other  workers  in  this  field  must  be  mentioned  Professor 


592       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

Onnes  of  Leyden,  and  Moissau,  the  latter  investigator  together  with 
Dewar  having  succeeded  in  liquefying  fluorine,  the  last  of  the  elements 
to  yield. 

A  considerable  amount  of  attention,  it  is  true,  was  devoted  to 
the  production  of  liquid  air  by  the  above-mentioned  investigators, 
especially  by  Professor  Dewar,  but  they  were  primarily  interested  in  the 
scientific  investigation  of  the  properties  of  the  elementary  gases,  and 
the  former  has  been  more  particularly  dealt  with  by  Linde,  Hampson, 
and  Tripler,  who  have  all  been  experimenting  especially  with  a  view 
to  the  simplification  and  cheapening  of  the  production  of  liquid  air 
in  order  that  it  might  be  made  on  a  commercial  scale,  and  they  have 
all  been  working  on  the  lines  of  direct  regenerative  action  which  was 
proposed  by  the  late  Sir  William  Siemens  forty-four  years  ago.  In  this 
direction  it  should  be  stated  that  Professor  Dewar  had  also  been  work- 
ing, combining  cooling  with  a  separate  fluid,  his  experiments  being, 
however,  on  a  smaller  scale  suitable  for  a  chemical  laboratory. 

THE  REGENERATIVE  METHOD. 

As  has  been  already  mentioned,  Siemens  was  the  first  to  use 
the  regenerative  process,  and  in  the  specification  of  the  provisional 
application  already  referred  to  he  describes  the  employment  of  an 
interchanger  to  extract  cold  from  the  air  already  cooled  by  the  refri- 
gerating machine,  and  thereby  to  cool  the  air  which  is  on  its  way  to 
be  expanded.  Siemens  especially  pointed  out  that  theoretically, 
at  least,  no  limit  existed  to  the  degree  of  cold  which  could  be  produced 
by  the  use  of  such  an  interchanger,  and  after  giving  an  example  of  the 
temperatures  that  might  be  expected  in  a  particular  instance,  he  says  : 
"These  temperatures  are  mentioned,  not  as  absolute  temperatures, 
but  to  show  that  the  principle  of  the  invention  is  adapted  to  produce 
an  accumulated  effect  or  an  indefinite  reduction  of  temperature." 

Siemens'  idea,  observes  Professor  Ewing,  was  that  the  compressed  air 
should  pass  through  this  interchanger,  and  should  then  be  caused  to  do 
work  in  an  expansion  cylinder.  This  expansion  would  chill  it,  and  it 
would  then  pass  again  through  the  interchanger,  giving  up  its  cold 
through  the  interchanger  to  the  next  succeeding  supply  of  compressed 
air.  The  effect  would  be  to  make  each  fresh  supply,  on  its  way  to  the 
expansion  cylinder,  a  little  colder  than  the  last.  The  cumulative  fall 
in  temperature  resulting  from  this  would  only  be  limited  by  accidental 
losses  due  to  conduction  of  heat  from  outside  and  to  heat  developed 
from  friction  within  the  machine. 


VERY    LOW   TEMPERATURES.  593 

In  1885  Sol  way  took  out  a  patent  for  an  apparatus  and  process 
for  producing,  applying,  and  keeping  up  extreme  temperatures  by 
means  of  a  regenerative  method  somewhat  akin  to  that  of  Siemens, 
only  that  he  employed  a  regenerator  instead  of  an  interchanger.  With 
this  apparatus  Solway  succeeded  in  reaching  a  temperature  of  about 
-  95°  Cent.,  at  which  he  found  the  losses  of  cold  balanced  the  gains. 

In  1892  Windhausen  obtained  a  patent  for  an  apparatus  for  the 
production  of  extreme  degrees  of  cold  with  an  interchanger  sub- 
stantially similar  to  that  of  Siemens,  but  employed  in  combination 
with  an  expansion  cylinder.  With  this  he  obtained  about  the  same 
degree  of  temperature  as  Solway,  and  this  apparatus  is  said  to  be 
now  in  use  on  a  commercial  scale  for  such  processes  as  the  extraction 
of  benzol  from  the  mixed  gases  which  are  given  off  by  the  distillation 
of  coal. 

The  particular  workers  in  this  field,  however,  who  have  aimed  at 
the  simplification  and  cheapening  of  the  production  of  liquid  air,  so 
that  it  might  be  made  commercially  useful,  are,  to  take  them  in  the 
order  of  their  applications  for  patents,  Tripler,  Hampson,  and  Linde. 
Tripler's  English  patents  were  filed  in  1891,  Dr  William  Hampson's  on 
the  23rd  May  1895,  and  Dr  Linde's  three  weeks  later  in  the  same 
year.  A  good  deal  of  discussion  has  taken  place  as  to  which  of  these 
three  should  have  assigned  to  them  the  real  credit  of  having  first  pro- 
duced a  practical  machine.  It  is  averred  by  some  that  the  apparatus 
described  by  Tripler  was  impracticable,  and  by  others  that  Hampson's 
provisional,  specification  was  very  brief,  and  so  vague  as  to  indicate 
but  little.  It  certainly  appears  that  the  first  to  produce  a  practical 
working  apparatus  was  Dr  Linde,  although  he  was  the  last  to  proceed 
to  the  Patent  Office  for  protection ;  it  is  on  record  that  his  apparatus, 
in  a  practical  and  workable  form,  was  produced  in  the  summer  of  1893. 
Mr  Tripler  has  been  refused  a  patent  by  the  U.S.  Patent  Office. 

The  principle  of  the  regenerative  method  of  producing  very  low 
temperatures  is,  says  Mr  A.  L.  Bice,  in  a  paper  read  before  the 
American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers,  December  1899,  a  perfect 
gas  expanding  to  do  work  loses  heat ;  if  this  cooled  gas  be  exhausted, 
so  as  to  jacket  the  pipe  through  which  the  incoming  gas  enters,  it  will 
cool  that  incoming  gas ;  the  process  is  cumulative  without  limit,  if 
the  machinery  is  frictionless  and  insulated  against  heat  from  the 
surrounding  objects.  Solway  built  a  machine  on  this  principle,  but 
was  unable  to  get  lower  than  -139°  Fahr.  (-95°  Cent.),  on  account 
of  the  heat  due  to  the  friction  of  the  pistons  and  to  conduction. 

In  a  perfect  gas  no  lowering  of  the  temperature  would  result  from 
38 


594      REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE.      ;: 

lowering  of  the  pressure  by  free  expansion,  but  none  of  the  so-called 
gases  are  perfect,  and  all  are  cooled  somewhat  by  expansion  through  an 
orifice.  Joule  and  Kelvin  found  that  with  air  the  fall  of  temperature  is 
about  '45°  Fahr.  (J°  Cent.),  for  each  atmosphere  difference  of  pressure 
at  the  orifice  at  ordinary  temperatures,  and  that  the  effect  increases 
as  the  temperature  falls,  because  the  gases  are  coming  more  nearly 
to  the  vaporous  state.  If,  then,  air  be  compressed  to  a  high  pressure, 
and  be  allowed  to  expand  through  a  small  orifice,  it  will  become 
considerably  cooled,  and  may  be  used  to  cool  the  incoming  air,  which, 


STORAGE  TUBES 


DIAGRAM 
REP8ESENTING  COMPRESSOR. 


END  VIEW  SHOWING 
1ST  AND  2tiD  INTER -COOLER 


$£= 

5ES 

tt 
,UJ 

u. 

'K 

iZ 

G 

5LEH' 

£XPA 

or 

_J 

NSION  VAUV 

n 

Es!N 

=                 *  =s= 

VALVE  FOR  DRAWING  £= 

B 

Fig.  411. — Diagram  illustrating  Tripler's  Apparatus  for  the  Production  of  Very 
Low  Temperatures  by  the  Regenerative  Method. 

in  turn,  will  lose  heat  by  expansion.     The  process  may  be  carried  on 
until  some  of  the  air,  on  or  before  leaving  the  orifice,  is  liquefied. 

Mr  Tripler's  apparatus  is  shown  in  Fig.  411,  and,  as  described  by 
Mr  Rice,  "consists  of  a  three-stage  compressor,  drawing  air  directly 
from  the  atmosphere,  and  driven  by  a  steam  engine.  The  air  is  taken 
first  into  the  low-pressure  cylinder,  where  it  is  compressed  to  65  Ibs. 
per  square  inch.  It  is  then  sent  through  an  intercooler  to  reduce  the 
temperature  to  that  of  the  atmosphere,  and  taken  into  the  intermediate- 
pressure  cylinder;  from  that,  at  a  pressure  of  400  Ibs.,  it  is  taken 


VERY   LOW   TEMPERATURES.  595 

through  a  second  intercooler  to  the  high-pressure  cylinder,  where  it  is 
forced  up  to  2,000  to  2,500  Ibs.,  and  thence  sent  to  the  after-cooler 
to  be  reduced  again  to  the  temperature  of  the  atmosphere.  The  air 
is  passed  through  a  separator  to  take  out  all  moisture,  and  then  passes 
to  storage  tubes  in  which  compressed  air,  not  in  the  liquid  form, 
may  be  kept.  The  liquefier  is  Mr  Tripler's  special  invention.  This 
takes  the  air  from  the  separator,  and  by  expansion  through  a  coil 
of  pipe  and  a  small  orifice,  cools  it  to  a  low  temperature.  It  passes 
up  around  the  coil  of  pipe,  cooling  the  air  inside,  and  thus  gives  the 
regenerative  action.  The  expansion  valve  is  placed  at  a  little  distance 
above  the  bottom  of  the  coil,  so  that  some  liquid  air  collects  in  the 
bottom  of  the  latter,  and  thus  serves  to  further  cool  the  air  as  it  comes 
to  the  expansion  cock.  The  air  which  is  to  be  drawn  off  collects  in 
the  liquefier  just  below  the  expansion  valve,  and  may  be  drawn  off  at 
will.  The  expanded  air  escapes  to  the  atmosphere  after  having  been 
used  to  cool  the  coil  of  the  liquefier.  The  capacity  of  the  present 
plant  is  2  or  4  gals,  per  hour,  and  the  ice  will  begin  to  liquefy  in 
fifteen  minutes  after  the  starting  up.  No  data  are  available  as  to  the 
power  used  in  the  compression." 

The  provisional  specification  of  Dr  William  Hampson's  1895  patent 
was,  as  above  mentioned,  extremely  brief,  and  the  following  is  the 
text  in  extenso  : — 

"The  usual  cycle  of  compressing,  cooling  and  expansion,  is  modified 
by  using  all  the  gas  after  its  expansion,  to  reduce  as  nearly  as  possible 
to  its  own  temperature  the  compressed  gas  which  is  on  its  way  to  be 
expanded.  With  this  object  all  the  expanded  gas  surrounds  the  pipe 
or  pipes  of  compressed  gas  through  all  their  length  from  the  point  of 
expansion  to  the  point  of  normal  temperature,  arid  the  length  of  pipe 
is  sufficient  to  allow  of  the  fullest  possible  interchange  of  temperatures 
between  the  compressed  and  expanded  gas." 

In  a  subsequent  patent  the  improved  apparatus  shown  in  vertical 
and  horizontal  sections  in  Figs.  412  and  413  is  described.  In  this 
apparatus  the  interchanger  is  made  with  a  tube  or  tubes  coiled  into 
spirals,  the  convolutions  of  which  are  separated  by  very  narrow  spaces, 
and  with  the  coils  lying  one  upon  the  other.  The  space  between  the 
tubes  does  not  exceed  ~  in.  The  gas  after  compression  is  purified 
by  caustic  potash  or  the  like.  The  vacuum  vessel  7  is  supported  by  a 
cap  2  inside  concentric  glass  tubes  mounted  between  rings  3  and  5  held 
by  a  frame  4.  Insulating  or  tight  joints  may  be  made  at  5,  6,  7,  8. 
Cold  carbonic  acid  or  the  like  is  passed  on  to  the  coils  in  the  neigh- 


596       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD    STORAGE. 


bourhood  of  the  expansion  joint,  and   thence  over  their  other  parts 
before  beginning  expansion  of  compressed  gas,  and  the  arrangement 

shown  in  Fig.  413  is  used 
for  supplying  the  cold 
carbonic  acid  free  from 
solid  particles.  In  this, 
the  gas  expands  from  the 
valve  7,  which  is  kept  at 
a  proper  temperature  by 
a  stream  of  warmer  gas 
from  the  valve  2,  and 
then  any  solid  material 
is  removed  by  filtering 
material  4  from  the 
vapour  which  is  led  away 
by  the  pipe,  &c.,  7. 

Fig.  414  represents 
the  1898  type  of  the 
Linde  apparatus,  as  de- 
picted in  Mr  Rice's 
paper,  and  which  ap- 
paratus only  differs  in  a 
few  minor  details  from 
that  made  in  1893.  It 
has  been  already  stated 
that  the  fall  of  tempera- 
ture is  proportional  to 
the  difference  of  pres- 
sures at  the  orifice,  and 
this  difference  should, 
therefore,  be  large;  the 
work  required  to  com- 
press the  air  again  will 
depend  upon  the  ratio 
of  the  pressures,  that  is 
to  say,  upon  the  ratio 


Figs.  412  and  413. — Hampson's  Apparatus  for  the 
Production  of  Very  Low  Temperatures  by  the 
Regenerative  Method.  Vertical  and  Horizontal 
Sections. 


of 


compression, 


and 


should  be  as  small  as 
possible.  This  necessi- 
tates that  both  pressures  be  high  for  the  most  economical  working, 
and,  therefore;  Linde  works  his  machine  between  200  atmospheres  and 


VERY   LOW   TEMPERATURES. 


597 


16  atmospheres  for  all  the  air  by  expanding  through  the  valve  marked 
a.  One-fifth  is  then  expanded  to  1  atmosphere  through  the  valve  b 
so  as  to  cool  it  still  further,  and  about  one-fourth  of  this  amount 
is  condensed.  The  expanded  air  is  sent  back  in  the  outer  pipes  as 
shown,  the  part  which  is  at  16  atmospheres  to  the  compression  pump, 
and  the  rest  to  the  atmosphere,  f  is  a  separator  and  g  a  freezing 


Fig.  414.  — Linde's  Apparatus  for  the  Production  of  N^ery  Low  Temperatures  by 
the  Regenerative  Process.     Sectional  Elevation. 

bath,  both  being  used  to  remove  the  moisture  from  the  air.  d  is  the 
compression  pump,  and  e  a  pump  for  supplying  at  16  atmospheres  as 
much  air  as  escapes  at  b.  c  is  the  receptacle  for  the  liquid  air.  In 
the  earlier  form  of  the  machine  none  of  the  air  was  expanded 
below  50  atmospheres,  and  the  air  was  cooled  by  a  surface  condenser 
supplied  with  water.  With  this  apparatus  about  -9  quart  of  liquid 
can  be  obtained  per  hour  with  the  use  of  3  H.P.,  this  being  about 


!! 


73  ^73 

g       §  =  |       § 

,3-0  .SP     -o 

mo  j    o 


Density  of  Liq 
at  Temperatur 
Given. 


•SBf)  JO  £»ISU3Q 


»O     r~O5 
05     0505 


05      05 
05      —i 


$5   £:   9£    98    5S     ^52 

00   O5   O5   O5   O5    O5   O5 
CO  CO  l>»  "^   *O    O5  CO 


:    8 


cp    cp 


So       PH 
1 


(N     CO 


u?  w 

Me 


o  oo  r^» 

co  t» 

I   I 


O5  IO  !>• 

:  co  oo  co 


i 


mp,  of  Saturated 
apour  at  Atmos. 
Pressure. 


I     1 


§  s 

I   I 


i  § 

I   I 


O      CO 


QU 


3 


05    09   ^^ 


1    1     1 


S  «  «3 

§11 


fr>»  O5  (N   OO    CO  >O 


Criti 
per 


<N              CO  C>0  TH 

co  oo   :  o  >o  »o  co  >o  O5 

O500         .lOi-HCOOO  °°      J« 

III  II 


00     IO     00 


>0 
OO 


00     £l   2S 

rH  CO       CO 


w 

d5 


ffl  o 
d*o 


WM 


'1 J 

p*   § 
^^  a 

Iff  4 


g  ll 

-i  -s,g 

g-lfi 

PH    «<!2; 


g    3 
c|    ,£ 

W    Q 


§    §   O    c  Q 

«*^i  I" 


O     ^2      -g      -P       >> 
$     H     I     '&     & 


<  6  <   % 


Hydrog 
Helium 


00     05     O     I-H 


10     CO        !>•     00     O5 


VERY   LOW   TEMPERATURES.  599 

5  per  cent,  of  the  air  handled,  the  first  liquid  will  appear  about  two 
hours  after  starting  up  the  machine. 

The  following  extended  extract  from  Mr  Rice's  paper  regarding  the 
properties  of  liquid  air  will  be  of  interest : — 

"  The  physical  constants  which  have  been  determined  with  regard 
to  the  liquefied  gases  are  given  in  the  foregoing  table,  which  was  pre- 
pared by  Mr  Walter  Dickerson.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  order  of  the 
liquefaction  of  the  gases  historically  is  almost  exactly  that  of  the  de- 
scending critical  temperatures.  It  is  the  attaining  of  a  low  temperature 
limit  that  has  taken  all  the  time  and  study  that  has  been  devoted  to 
this  matter.  Some  of  the  gases  when  in  the  liquid  form  are  lighter, 
and  some  heavier  than  water,  as  shown  by  the  values  of  specific 
gravity ;  of  the  constituents  of  air,  nitrogen  is  lighter  and  oxygen  is 
heavier;  the  mixture,  containing  four-fifths  nitrogen  and  one-fifth 
oxygen,  is  a  little  lighter  than  water. 

"  Professor  Jacobus  and  Mr  Dickerson  have-found  the  latent  heat 
of  air  at  atmospheric  pressure  to  be  about  140  British  thermal  units, 
but  this  figure  is  stated  as  only  a  rough  approximation.  This  is  about 
the  only  value  which  has  been  determined  with  regard  to  air  in  the 
intermediate  or  vaporous  state. 

"  Any  calculations  as  to  the  efficiency  of  [liquid  air  as  a  fluid  for  a 
prime  mover  must  necessarily  be  only  approximate.  The  approxima- 
tions can,  however,  be  made  on  the  right  side,  and  the  air  given  the 
benefit  of  the  doubt. 

"Professor  Henry  Morton  has  recently  made  some  calculations 
regarding  the  maximum  amount  of  power  which  could  be  obtained  by 
the  expansion  of  1  Ib.  of  liquid  air  under  certain  circumstances.  The 
same  hypothesis  which  he  used  will  be  assumed  and  his  figures  adopted. 

"  Suppose  1  Ib.  of  liquid  air  to  be  confined  in  a  cylinder  and  heated 
to  70°  Fahr.,  then  let  it  expand  at  70°  to  atmospheric  pressure, 
the  expansion  to  be  hyperbolic.  It  is  not  known  what  the  volume  of 
the  air  will  be  at  70°  before  expanding,  but  it  is  certain  that  its  ratio  of 
expansion  will  be  less  than  it  would  be  if  expanding  from  the  volume 
of  the  liquid  at  -312°  to  the  volume  of  the  gas  at  70°  and  atmospheric 
pressure.  This  ratio  is  something  less  than  800,  hence  we  will  call  the 
ratio  of  expansion  800.  The  volume  of  1  Ib.  of  air  at  70°  Fahr. 
and  atmospheric  pressure  is  13 '3 6  cub.  ft. 

"  The  work  done  in  a  hyperbolic  expansion  is 

W  =  p2  x  v2  x  log  eR. 


6oo       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD    STORAGE. 

When  p2  =  final  pressure  per  square  foot  =  2,1 17  Ibs. 
^2  =  final  pressure  volume  =  13*36  cub.  ft. 

R  =  -J  =  ratio  of  expansion. 

vi 
W  =  2,117  x  13-36  x  6-685  =  188,000  ft.-lbs. 

188  000 

? =  -095  =  horse-power  per  pound  of  air  used  per  hour, 

60  x  33,000 

and  =  10*55  Ibs.  of  air  per  horse-power  per  hour, 

if  the  terminal  pressure  equals  the  back  pressure,  no  compression  and 
no  clearance  being  considered. 

"  This  result  cannot,  of  course,  be  realised,  for  there  are  many 
sources  of  loss  which  cannot  be  avoided,  and  which  will  make  this  figure 
for  the  weight  of  air  per  horse-power  hour  much  higher.  However, 
even  if  it  could  be  realised  in  actual  practice,  it  is  only  just  inside  of 
the  figure  which  has  been  obtained  in  our  best  steam  engines  under 
practical  working  conditions. 

"  In  these  figures  the  liquid  is  considered  simply  as  a  storage  medium 
for  energy,  and  no  account  is  taken  of  the  amount  of  heat  necessary  to 
develop  or  store  the  energy. 

"  In  order  to  get  a  comparative  idea  as  to  the  relative  values  of  liquid 
air  and  water  for  power  storage,  two  similar  cycles  for  water  will  be 
calculated,  and  comparative  figures  obtained. 

"The  range  of  temperature  in  the  cycle  taken  for  air  is  from  -312° 
to  70°,  or  382°. 

"  Starting  with  water  and  heating  it  to  504°  under  700  Ibs.  pressure 
absolute,  and  expanding  it  to  2  Ibs.  pressure  absolute  and  126°  Fahr., 
gives  a  range  of  temperature  slightly  less,  viz.,  378°.  The  ratio  of 
expansion  will  be  254.  This  final  volume  of  1  Ib.  is  172  cub.  ft.,  and 
considering  the  expansion  to  be  hyperbolic,  we  have — 

W  =  288  x  173  x  5*59  =  280,000  ft.-lbs. 

9&0  000 

— — - =  -1415  H.P.  per  pound  of  water  used  per  hour, 

oO  x  o«3,000 

and  =  7*08  Ibs.  of  water  per  horse-power  per  hour. 

"By  heating  the  water  to  546°  under  1,000  Ibs.  pressure  and 
expanding  to  atmospheric  pressure  the  range  of  temperature  would  be 
still  less,  or  about  334°. 

"  The  final  volume  would  be  26-3  cub.  ft. 


VERY    LOW   TEMPERATURES.  601 

26-3     K. 
Katio  or  expansion  -  -  =  5o. 


60  x  33,000 

1 
•1139 


=  21-7  x  26-3  x  4-04  =  225,000  ft.-lbs. 
=  '1139  H.P.  per  pound  of  water  use 

=  8'8  Ibs.  water  per  horse-power  per  hour. 


225,000  n  !  QO    TT  -D  £ 

=  'Hoy  ti.r.  per  pound  or  water  used  per  hour. 


"From  these  figures  it  will  be  seen  that  under  the  conditions  assumed 
water  will  give  off  from  20  per  cent,  to  50  per  cent,  more  energy  than 
liquid  air,  during  expansion  through  equal  temperature  ranges.  The 
possibility  of  the  use  of  liquid  air  in  a  prime  mover  comes  from  the 
fact  that  the  upper  temperature  limit  for  the  range  assumed  is  so  low  as 
compared  with  that  for  the  steam.  The  upper  limit  for  the  air  is  at 
70°  Fahr.  or  531°  absolute,  and  the  possible  thermal  efficiency  is  ff^ 
=  -72 ;  for  the  water  the  upper  limit  is  504°  Fahr.,  or  965°  Fahr.,  and 
the  possible  efficiency  is  fjf  =  '39.  If  the  efficiency  of  the  liquid  is 
in  any  way  comparable  with  that  which  can  be  gotten  from  steam  in 
the  steam  engine,  the  efficiency  of  the  air  engine  should  be  good.  The 
cost  of  production  of  a  pound  of  air  would  be  much  greater  than  that 
of  a  pound  of  steam,  so  that  to  be  a  commercial  factor,  the  efficiency 
of  the  air  engine  would  have  to  be  much  greater  than  that  of  the  steam 
engine.  Whether  this  can  be  accomplished  the  future  alone  must 
decide. 

"As  to  other  uses,  refrigeration,  medical  cautery,  prevention  of 
chemical  action,  explosive  compounds,  reduction  of  resistance  of  con- 
ductors for  electricity,  and  use  for  prevention  of  the  ill-effects  of 
anaesthetics  have  been  suggested,  and  others  will  doubtless  develop 
as  experiments  are  tried.  It  is  only  within  a  few  months  that  the 
liquid  could  be  obtained  at  a  cost  that  allowed  of  trial  of  its  properties 
for  any  except  scientific  purposes  where  no  possible  financial  return 
was  to  be  expected,  and  cost  was  a  secondary  consideration.  With  a 
large  supply  available,  rapid  development  may  be  looked  for,  and  new 
uses  will  be  constantly  discovered." 


APPENDIX 

BIBLIOGRAPHY   OF   REFRIGERATION 

BOOKS. 

ANDERSON,  J.  W.  :  "Refrigeration:  an  Elementary  Text-book."     Lon- 
don, 1908. 

BAENES,  H.  T. :  "Ice  Formation."     New  York. 
BEHREND,  GOTTLIEB  :  "  Eis  und  Kiilteerzeugungs  Maschinen."    Halle-a- 

Salle,  1888. 

BOYER,  DICKERMAN  :  "  Refrigeration."     Chicago. 
COOPER,  MADISON  :  "  Eggs  in  Cold  Storage."    "  Practical  Cold  Storage. 

Chicago. 
DERMINE,  G.  :  "  La  Technique  du  Froid,"  translated  from  German  of 

G.  Lehnert.     Paris,  1911. 
DOUGLAS,    LOUDON   M.  :    "  Refrigeration  in  the  Dairy."      "  Douglas' 

Encyclopaedia."     London. 
"  Encyclopaedia  Britannica."     London,  1911. 
EWING,  J.  A. :  "  The  Mechanical  Production  of  Cold."     1908. 
GIBBS,  VON  J.  WILLARD  :  "  Thermodynamische  Studien."     Leipzig. 
GOETTSCHE,  VON  GEORGE  :  "Die  Kaltemaschinen."     Hamburg. 
GUETH,    OSWALD:    "The   Refrigerating   Engineer's    Pocket   Manual." 

New  York. 
HAUSBRAND,  E, :  "  Evaporating,  Condensing,  and  Cooling  Apparatus." 

London. 
HEINEL,  VON  C. :  "Bau-  und  Detrieb  von  Kalte-Maschinenanlargen." 

Miinchen. 

Hiscox,  G.  D.  :  "  Compressed  Air  and  its  Applications."     New  York. 
ROLLER,  THEODORE  :  "  Die  Kaelteindustrie." 
LEASK,  A.  RITCHIE  :  "  Refrigerating  Machinery  and  its  Management." 

Second  Edition.     London. 
LEDOUX,    M.  :    "  Ice-Making   Machines,"   with   additions,    by   Messrs 

Denton,  Jacobus,  and  Riesenberger.     New  York. 

602 


BIBLIOGRAPHY   OF   REFRIGERATION.         603 

LESCARDE,  F. :  "L'CEuf  de  Poulesa  Conservation  par  le  Froid."    Paris. 

LEVY,  JOHN:  "Refrigerating  Memoranda."     Chicago. 

LORENZ,  HANS  :  "  Neuere  Kuehlmaschinen."     Muenchen  und  Leipzig. 

LOVERDO,  J.  DE  :  "  Le  Froid  Artificiel  et  ses  Applications  Industrielles, 
Commercial  et  Agricoles."  Paris,  1906.  "Abattoirs  Publics." 
Paris,  1906.  "  Comptes  Rendus,  Rapports  et  Communications  du 
Premier  Congres  International  du  Froid.  Conservation  par  le 
Froid  des  Deurees  Alimentaires."  Paris,  1908. 

MARCHENA,  R.  E.  DE  :  "  Kompressions  Kalte  Maschinen." 

MARCHERRA,  DE  :  "Machines  Frigorifiques  a  Gaz  Liquifiable."     Paris. 

MARCHIS,  L.  :  "Production  et  Utilisation  du  Froid."  1906.  "Legons 
sur  Le  Froid  Industriel."  Paris. 

"Monographic  sur  1'Etat  Actuel  du  Froid  en  France."     Paris,  1911. 

"  Nelson's  Encyclopaedia."     Edinburgh. 

PAULDING,  C.  P. :  "  Transmission  of  Heat  through  Cold  Storage  Insula- 
tion." New  York. 

PERRET,  AUG.  :  "  Les  Machines  a  Glace  et  les  Applications  du  Froid 
dans  ITndustrie." 

PETIT,  P.,  AND  JACQUET,  T. :  "  Machines  Frigorifiques,"  translated 
from  German  of  H.  Lorenz.  Paris,  1910.  "Brasserie  et 
Malterie."  Paris,  1904. 

"  Principles  and  Practice  of  Artificial  Ice-Making  and  Refrigeration." 

Proceedings,  American  Warehousemen's  Association.     United  States. 

Proceedings,  Ice  and  Cold  Storage  Association.     London. 

Proceedings,  Institution  Civil  Engineers.     London. 

Proceedings,  Institution  Mechanical  Engineers.     London. 

Proceedings,  Institute  of  Marine  Engineers.     Stratford,  London. 

Proceedings,  Shipmasters'  Society.     London. 

Proceedings,  Societe  Nationale  d*  Agriculture  de  France. 

PRUDEN,  T.  M.  :  "  Drinking  Water  and  Ice  Supplies."     New  York. 

REDWOOD,  ILTYD  J. :  "  Theoretical  and  Practical  Ammonia  Refrigera- 
tion." New  York. 

RICHMOND,  GEORGE  :  "  Notes  on  the  Refrigeration  Process  and  its 
Place  in  Thermodynamics."  New  York. 

RITTER,  FRIEDRICH  :  "  Wasser  und  Eis." 

RUDDICK,  J.  A.,  Dairy  and  Cold  Storage  Commissioner,  Department  of 
Agriculture,  Canada  :  "  Reports  to  the  Minister  of  Agriculture." 

SCHMIDT,  L.  M. :  "  Principles  and  Practice  of  Artificial  Refrigeration." 
Philadelphia. 

SCHWARZ,  ALOIS:  "Die  Eis  und  Kuehlmaschinen."  Muenchen  und 
Leipzig. 


604       REFRIGERATION    AND   COLD   STORAGE. 

SCHWARZ,  OSCAR:  "Public  Abattoirs  and  Cattle  Markets."  Second 
Edition,  edited  by  G.  T.  Harrap,  A.M.I.C.E.,  and  L.  M.  Douglas, 
A.M.I.M.E. 

SELFE,  NORMAN,  M.I.C.E. :  "  Machinery  for  Refrigeration."     Chicago. 

SIEBEL,  J.  E.  :  "  Compend  of  Mechanical  Refrigeration."  Eighth 
Edition.  Chicago. 

SKINKLE,  E.  T. :  "  Practical  Ice-Making  and  Refrigeration."     Chicago. 

SPON'S  "  Dictionary  of  Engineering."     London. 

SPON'S  "  Encyclopaedia."     London. 

STETEPELD,  RICHARD  :  "  Die  Eis  und  Kiilteerzeugungs  Maschinen." 
Stuttgart. 

YOORHEES,  GARDNER  T.  :  "Indicating  the  Refrigerating  Machine." 
Chicago. 

WALLIS-TAYLER,  A.  J.,  A.M.I.C.E. :  "  Refrigerating  and  Ice-Making 
Machinery."  Third  Edition.  "  Refrigeration,  Cold  Storage,  and 
Ice-Making."  Third  Edition,  1911.  "The  Pocket  Book  of  Re- 
frigeration and  Ice-Making."  Fifth  Edition.  London,  1911. 

WILLIAMS,  HAL.,  A.M.I.M.E.  :  "Mechanical  Refrigeration."  London, 
1903. 

WILDER,  F.  W. :  "  The  Modern  Packing  House." 

WOOD,  DE  VOLSON  :  "  Thermodynamics,  Heat,  Motors,  and  Refrigerat- 
ing Machines."  New  York. 

PERIODICAL  PUBLICATIONS  DEALING  WHOLLY  OR  PARTLY  WITH 
REFRIGERATION. 

Cold  Storage.     Monthly.     London. 

Cold  Storage.     Monthly.     New  York. 

Eis-  und  Kiilte-Industrie.     Bi-monthly.     Berlin. 

La  Revue  Generale  du  Froid. 

"Power,"  Refrigeration  Department.     Weekly.     New  York. 

Proceedings,  Ice  and  Cold  Storage  Association. 

"  Practical  Engineer  "  Pocket  Book.     Annually.     Manchester. 

Ice  and  Cold  Storage.     Monthly.     London. 

Ice  and  Cold  Storage  Trades  Directory.     Annually.     London. 

Ice  and  Refrigeration.     Monthly.     New  York. 

Ice  Record.     Monthly.     Philadelphia. 

Ice  Trade  Journal.     Monthly.     New  York. 

Le  Froid,  La  Glace,  et  La  Refrigeration.     Monthly.     Paris. 

Zeitschrift  fur  Eis.     Bi-monthly.     Lubeck. 

Zeitschrift  fur  die  gesamte  Kalte-Industrie.     Monthly.     Munich. 


INDEX 


A  BSOLUTE    pressure    and    tempera- 
/~\         ture,  9 
-  zero,  9,  10 
Absorber  for  absorption  machine,    177, 

178,  183,  184,  185,  197 
Absorption  and   binary  absorption   pro- 
cess, 174-210 

—  machine,  refrigeration  by,  274 
in  butter  works,  462 

—  system,  the,  20,  174-210,  274,  569,  570 
Abstraction  of  heat  by  compressing  air, 

211-245 

by  evaporation  of  liquid  to  be 

cooled,  20,  25-33 

by  evaporation  and  mechanical 

compression  of  a  separate  refriger- 
ating agent,  20,  34-151 

by  evaporation  and  re-absorption 

of  a  separate  refrigerating  agent,  20 

by  the  rapid  dissolution  of  a  solid, 

20,  21-24 

Abyssinian  War,  use  of  ether  machine, 
119 

Accumulations  of  deposit  in  condenser, 
549-551 

Admiralty,  cold-air  machines  supplied 
to,  415,  416 

Admixture  of  sulphurous  acid  and  car- 
bonic acid  as  a  refrigerating  agent, 
45 

Advantages  of  absorption  system,  174, 
175 

—  of  atmospheric  condensers,  157 

—  of  carbonic  acid  machines  for  marine 

installations,  129,  397 

—  claimed  for  Gobert  system   of   con- 

structional congelation,  482 

—  of  cold-air  blast  system,  279 

—  of  cold-air  system,  212 

—  of   Cooper  system  of   mechanical  air 

circulation,  325-328 

—  of  direct  expansion  system,  275 

—  of  double  pipe  condensers,  165 

—  of  ether  as  a  refrigerating  agent  in 

hot  climates,  44 


Advantages  of  submerged  condensers,  152 

—  of  using  sealing  and  lubricating  oil  in 

ammonia  compressors,  56,  57 

—  of  wall  or  plate  system  of  ice-making, 

496 

—  of  Yaryan  apparatus  for  the  produc- 

tion of  distilled  water,  512-517 
After  preservation  of  frozen  meet,  272 
Agent,  liquefied  arrangement  for  removal 

of,  from  condenser,  159,  160 

—  or  medium  used  in  vacuum  machines, 

32,  33 
Agitation,  method  of  making  clear  crystal 

ice  by,  485,  487-507 
Air  agitation  system  of  making  clear  or 

crystal  ice,  502 

—  atmospheric,  germs  of  fungus  or  mould 

in,  313 

—  aqueous  vapour  held  in  suspension  in, 

573 

—  circulation,    means    for     improving, 

315-319 

of,  in  cold  storage  chambers,  313- 

328,  431,  432 

—  cold,  machines,  20,  211-245,  272-274 

—  cooler,  or  chamber,  with  corrugated 

brine  battery,  292-295 

—  degree  of,  saturation  of,  572 

—  determination  of  moisture  in,  570-573 

—  effect  of  presence  of,  541 

—  ejection   of,    from    ammonia   system, 

539-540 

—  instruments  for  measuring  moisture 

in,  570,  571 

—  presence  of,  in  ammonia  machine,  to 

detect,  541 

—  pressure,  testing  ammonia  compressor 

under,  539,  540 
-  trunks,  construction  of,  271 

—  value  of,  as  in  insulator,  330 
Allen  dense-air  ice  machine,  238-241 
Allowances,  per  ton  capacity,  in  refriger- 
ating machine,  286,  287,  457 

America,  number  of  firms  directly  inter- 
ested in  refrigeration  in,  7 


605 


6o6 


INDEX. 


American  absorption  machine,  205-209 

—  arrangement  for  removing   liquefied 

agent  from  condenser,  159,  160 
-  for  wort  cooling,  446,  447 

—  Engineer,  relative  heat  conductivity 

of  various  materials,  336 

—  ice-making  machines,  22 

—  practice  as  to  the  making  of  brine, 

532-534 

-  Society    of    Mechanical     Engineers, 

paper  on  regenerative  method  of 
producing  very  low  temperatures, 
593 

—  Warehousemen's    Association,     table 

showing  transmission  of  heat  through 
various  insulating  structures,  345-350 
Ammonia,  advantages  of,  as  a  refriger- 
ating agent,  48 

—  anhydrous,  49 

boiling  point  and  latent  heat  of, 

48 
manufacture  of,  49,  50 

—  anti-putrescent  qualities  of,  276 

—  apparatus,  leaks  in,  559 

—  composition  of,  48 

—  compression    machines,    arrangement 

of,  in  butter  dairies,  425-429 

management  of,  539-578 

marine  types,  402-413 

—  condensers,  marine  types,  401,  409 

—  disadvantages  of,  as  a  refrigerating 

agent,  48-50 

—  gas,  difficulties  of  dealing  with,  50 
superheating  of,  542 

—  lubricating  qualities  of,  552 

—  machines,  48-116 

—  machine,    most    important    part    of, 

50-56 

—  of  commerce,  49,  50 

-  properties  of,  48 

—  receiver  and  oil  trap,  549 

Amount  of  condenser  surface  required, 
155,  157,  164 

—  of  cooling  water  required,  156,  157, 

164 

—  of  refrigerating  pipes  necessary  for 

chilling,      storage,       and      freezing 
chambers,  280,  281 

—  of    refrigeration    required     in     cold 

stores,  280 

—  of    water   required    in    refrigerating 

apparatus,  570 

Analyser  for  absorption  machine,  182 
Ancients,  production  of  ice  known  to,  1 

—  use  of  liquefaction  by,  for  refrigerat- 

ing purposes,  21 

Andreef  formula  of  relation  of  specific 
gravity  of  sulphurous  acid  to  tem- 
perature, 121 


Andrews'  experiments  in  liquefaction  of 

Jases,  588 
$  valve,  247 
Anhydride,      carbonic.       See     Carbonic 

acid 
Anhydrous  ammonia,  49 

boiling  point  and  latent  heat  of, 

48 
manufacture  of,  49,  50 

—  sulphurous  acid    and    carbonic   acid 

refrigerating  agent,  45 
Antarctic,  single-acting  compressor,  108 
Anti-putrescent  properties  of  ammonia, 

Apparatus,  ammonia,  leaks  in,  559 

—  for  de-aerating  or    distilling  water, 

508-517 

—  for  making  distilled  water  from 
exhaust  steam,  510 

—  gravity,  for  lowering  carcases,  380 
Appendix,  602-604 

Apples,  cold  storage  of,  389 

—  first  cargo  of,  from  Melbourne,  6 
Appliances  required  in  absorption  system, 

174,  175 

Applications  of  refrigeration,  construc- 
tional, 473-483 
manufacturing,  439-473 

Approximate  allowances,  per  ton  capacity, 
in  refrigerating  machine,  286,  287, 
457 

—  cost  of  operating  ice  factories,  586 
of  ice-making,  587 

Aqueous   vapour   held   in  suspension  in 

pure  dry  air,  573 

Architectural  aspects  of  cold  stores,  285 
Arctic  cold-air  machines,  211,  212,  234- 

238 

experiments  with,  244 

—  Machine  Manufacturing  Co. ,  ammonia 

compressors,  104 

Areas.  See  Diameters,  areas,  and  dis- 
placements 

Armitage,  Mr  H.  T.,  regulating  the 
fermentation  of  tea  by  refrigeration, 
464 

Armstrong,  Lord,  definition  of  heat  by, 
9 

Arrangement  for  chilling  and  freezing  on 
wall  system,  292-294 

—  for  cooling  fermenting  rooms,  446-451 

—  for  increasing  surface  of  cooling  pipes, 

268,  269,  292 

—  for  lifting  ice  cans,  523-529 

—  for  more  even  distribution  of  work  of 
compressor  piston,  105 

—  for     traversing     carcasses     through 

chilling  and  freezing  rooms,  293 

—  of  air-cooling  tower,  295-297 


INDEX. 


607 


Arrangement  of    cold    stores,   internal, 
285 

—  of  cooling  pipes  in  bacon  factories, 

305,306 

in  ceiling  lofts,  2901 

in  cold  stores,  280-284 

on  brine    circulation    system, 

274,  275 

—  of      corrugated      brine      air-cooling 

battery,  294-295 

-  of  piping  in  cold  storage  rooms,  280- 

284,  313-328 

—  of  refrigerating  plant  in  an  hotel,  309- 

312 

Arrangements  for  making  clear  or  crystal 
ice,  miscellaneous,  499-508 

—  of  pump  or  piston  agitators,  505-507 
Articles,  various  proper  temperatures  for 

cold  storage  of,  381-395 
Artificial  butter  factories,  use  of  refriger- 
ating machinery  in,  461-464 

—  cold,  use  of,  by  Esthonian  tribe,  21 

—  currents    of    air,    atmospheric    con- 

densers cooled  by,  161 

—  ice,  storage  house  for,  535 

—  refrigeration  in  bacon  curing  works, 

305,  306 

—  —  origin  of,  1 

—  surfaces  of  ice,  formation  of,  473 
Asbestos  paper  or  cloth,  value  of,  as  an 

insulating  material,  335 

—  results  of  tests  as  to  conductivities  of, 

334 

—  use  of,  as  an  insulating  material,  329 
Ashantee     campaigns,     use     of     ether 

machine,  120 

Asparagus,  cold  storage  of,  391,  392 
Atlas     Company,    Ltd.,    carbonic    acid 

compressor,  149-151 
Atmosphere  of  cold  stores,  271,  272,  273, 

277 

—  of  hospitals  and  large  public  buildings, 

cooling  of,  472 

Atmospheric  surface  condensers,  157-164. 
See  also  Condensers 

Attemporating  in  breweries,  refrigerated 
water  for,  444,  451-455 

Auldjo  Machine  Co.,  compressor  made 
by,  108 

Australian  apples,  trade  in,  6 

Australia,  use  of  pumice  stone  as  an  insu- 
lating material  in,  329 

Automatic  electric  beef  hoist,  372-376 

—  ice  dump,  525-527 

-  Refrigerating  Machine  Co.,  ammonia 

compressor,  100 

Auxiliary  or  separate  absorber,  194 
Aylesbury   Dairy,   vacuum  machine   at, 

27 


BABY    compressor,    A.     H.     Barber 
Manufacturing  Co.,  Ill,  112 
Back  pressure,  loss  of  efficiency  in  am- 
monia compressors  from,  56 
Bacon  factories,  arrangement  of  cooling 

pipes  in,  305,  306 

reasons  for  use  of  artificial  refri- 
geration in,  306 
Bait,  freezing,  472 
Ball,       improvements      in      absorption 

machines,  197,  198 

Balloons,  use  of  refrigeration  for  purifica- 
tion of  gas  for  inflation  of,  472 
Baltic,  imports  of  butter  from,  6 
Bananas,  transport  of,  from  Jamaica,  3 
Barber,     A.     H.,     Manufacturing    Co., 
double-acting  ammonia  compressor, 
108-111 

plans  for  insulation,  365 

small   cold    store    and    ice 

plant  for  hotel,  309,  310 
— single-acting  ammonia  com- 
pressor, 111,  112 
Bar-box,  cooling  of,  209 
Barges,  refrigerated,  421 
Barnard  water- cooling  tower,  170 
Barrel,  old,  to  make  brine  mixer  of,  533 
Baudelot  cooler  for  breweries,  446,  447 
Bavarian  engineers,  tests  of  Linde  com- 
pression machine  by  committee  of, 
80,  81 

Bayswater,  vacuum  machine  at,  27 
Beck,  William  Henry,  improvements  in 

absorption  machines,  175,  184 
Becks,  G.  A.,  experiments  on  heat  con- 
ductivity of  slag  wool  and  charcoal, 
342,  343 

Beef  chill-room  fitted  with  Haslam  patent 
brine-cooling  battery,  301-303 

fitted  with    the   De    La  Vergne 

patent  pipe  system,  298-301 

—  hoist,  automatic,  electrically  operated, 

372-376 

Beer  wort,  refrigeration  of,  444-446 
Beffa,    Delia,   &  West,   ether    machine, 

42 
Belgian  dairies,  type  of  cream  cooler  used 

in,  431 
Bell-Coleman  cold-air  machine,  221,  222, 

243,  244 

—  freezing  machine,  tests  to  determine 

best  covering  for,  336 
Berryman  system  of  making  ice,  502-504 
Bibliography  of  refrigeration,  602-604 
Binary  absorption  process,  209,  210 
Black  currants,  cold  storage  of,  389 
Black,  Dr,  discovery  of  latent  heat  by, 

10 
Blast,  cold-air  s-yst 


6o8 


INDEX. 


Blast  furnaces,  use  of  refrigeration  in, 

465-469 
Bleaching  of    clothes   by  refrigeration, 

472 
Block,  Louis,  improvements  in  ammonia 

compressors,  57,  58 
Blowers,  use  of,  for  cooling  atmospheric 

condensers,  161 
Blythe    &    Southby,   improved   vacuum 

machine,  31,  32 
Board  of  Trade  instructions  to  surveyors 

re  carbonic  acid  machines,  397 
Boiler- covering  materials,  heat  conduc- 
tivity of,  340 

—  feeding  purposes,  use  of  waste  con- 

densation water  for,  168 

Boiling  point,  latent  heat,  &c.,  of  anhy- 
drous ammonia,  48 

Books  on  refrigeration,  602-604 

Borsig,  A.,  sulphurous  acid  machines,  129 

Bottles  containing  anhydrous  ammonia, 
warming  when  charging  machine 
from,  540 

desirability  of  keeping  in 

cool  place,  541 

Box  &  Lightfoot,  table  of  aqueous  vapour 
held  in  suspension  in  air,  573 

Box  radiation  through  walls,  288 

Boyle,  Mr  David,  pioneer  of  refrigerating 
machinery,  97 

modern  type  of  ammonia  com- 
pressor, 97 

Boyle's  or  Marriotte's  law,  18 

Bramwell,  Sir  Frederick,  on  Perkin's 
compression  machine,  34 

Breaking  joints  in  ammonia  machines, 
551,  552 

—  machinery,  ice,  537,  538 
Breweries,  cubic  feet  of  space  per  running 

foot  of  2-in.  piping,  281 
-  refrigeration  in,  444-458 

—  rough  estimate  of  refrigeration  in,  457 
Brewery,  ammonia  pumps  or  compressor 

for,  86,  87 
Brick  surfaces,  waterproof  coatings  for, 

345-350 
Bridge,  Messrs  David,  &  Co. ,  ice  crushing 

or  breaking  machinery,  537,  538 
Brine,  forming  of,  492 

—  circulation  system,   arrangement    of 

cooling  pipes  on,  274,  275,  313-328 

of  refrigeration,  274-275 

objections  to,  279 

in  breweries,  446,  447,  448 

—  cold,   passing  air  through   body  of, 

297 

—  concentrator,  534 

—  cooling  battery  for  cooling  air,  295- 

297 


Brine  for  use  in  refrigerating  and  ice- 
making  plants,  532-534 

—  mixing  tank,  532,  533 

—  strainer,  533 

British  Government,  use  of  refrigerating 
machines  by,  119,  120 

—  Humboldt.     See  Humboldt 
Broadbent,  Mr  J.  C.,  rotary  chocolate 

cooler,  443,  444 

Brompton,  vacuum  machine  at,  27 
Bronze    alloy,    use    of,    in    compressor 

cylinder,  143 

Brotherhood's  refrigerator,  445 
Buffalo  Refrigerating  Machine  Co.,  am- 
monia compressor,  102-104 
"Bulletin  de  la  Societe  de  1'Industrie 

Minerale,"     Poetsch    process,    422- 

438 
Bureau,  U.S.  Weather,  saturation  of  air, 

572 
Burnand  ice  refrigerating  machine,  436, 

437 
Butter,  artificial  use  of  refrigeration  in 

factories  of,  461-464 
-  brought  over  from  Denmark,  6 
—  imports  of,  6 

—  manufactories  and  dairies,  refrigera- 

tion in,  422-438 

—  preservation  of,  by  refrigeration,  385 


CABBAGE,  cold  storage  of,  391,  392 

\_^  Cailletet,  experiments  in  liquefac- 
tion of  gases,  588 

Calahan  suction  valve,  260 

Calculations  made  with  respect  to  heat, 
11-19 

"  Campania,"  refrigeration  of  cargo  holds 
on  board  of,  409-411 

of  provision  store  on  board  of,  411- 

413 

Campbell.      See  Westerlin  and  Campbell 

Canada,  imports  of  butter  and  cheese 
from,  6 

Canadian  apples,  trade  in,  6 

Canadian  Farming  World,  article  on 
filling  ice  houses,  535 

Candle  and  paraffin  oil  works,  refrigera- 
tion in,  459-461 

Can  hoist  for  small  plants,  525 

—  system  of  ice-making,  487-492 

objectionable  features  of,  488- 

490 

Cans  or  moulds,  ice,  27 

Canvas  saturated  with  cold  brine,  cool- 
ing air  with,  297 

Capacities,  refrigerating,  table  of,  284 

Capacity  of  machine  required  for  refri- 
geration of  cold  chamber,  286,  287 


INDEX. 


609 


Capacity  of  refrigerating  machine,  dia- 
gram showing  variations  in,  277 
Capillary  cream  cooler,  431 
Carafes,  arrangement  for  freezing,  309 

—  frappes,  production  of,  27 
Carbon  dioxide.     See  Carbonic  acid 
Carbonic  acid,  advantages  of,  47 

—  and  sulphurous  acid  refrigerating 
agent,  45 

composition  of,  129 

compressors,  45,  46 

disadvantages  of,  47 

machine,  45-47 

consumption  of  water  in,  142 

leaks  in,  560 

marine  types,  396-401 

to  charge  and  work,  554-556 

—  properties  of,  45-47 

-  solidification  of  gas,  129,  130 

—  anhydride.     See  Carbonic  acid 
Carcasses,  freezing  of,  for  transport,  270- 

272 

—  imports  of  frozen,  2-4 

-  packing,  in  cold  rooms,  271,  286 

—  storing,  on  board  ship,  417,  418 
Carcass  hoists,  372-380 

Cards.     See  Diagrams 

Cargo  of  apples,  first,  from  Melbourne,  3 

—  of  frozen  meat,  first,  2 

—  of  fruit,  storage  of,  419 

Carpets,  preservation  of,  by  refrigera- 
tion, 472 

Carre,  Edmond,  sulphuric  acid  machines, 
27 

—  Ferdinand,  absorption  machine,  174, 

175-179 

—  hand  power  ice  machine,  33 
Carrots,  cold  storage  of,  391,  392 
Cars,  refrigerated.     See  Vans 
Cascade   system  of  producing  very  low 

temperatures^  588-592 
Case    Refrigerating    Machine  Co.'s   am- 
monia compression  machines,  108 
Catamba  grapes,  cold  storage  of,  388 
Cattle,  live,  cooling  holds  of  vessels  for, 

473 

Ceiling  lofts,  cooling  pipes  in,  290-292 
Ceilings  for  cold  stores  and  ice  houses, 

356,  357 

Celery,  cold  storage  of,  391,  392 
Cell    ice-making    boxes    or   tanks,    496- 

499 
Centigrade  thermometrical  scale,  zero  on, 

12 
Challoner,  Sons,  &  Co.,  Geo.,   ammonia 

compressor,  104,  105 
Chambers.     See  Cold  storage  chambers 
Charcoal,  consistency  for  packing  insulat- 
ing spaces  with,  330 

39 


Charge  and  work  carbonic  acid  machine, 

to,  554-556 

Charging  an  ammonia  machine,  540,  541 
Charles'  law  of  expansion  of  gases,  12,  13 
Chart  applicable  to  any  value  of  n,  con- 
struction of,  14-16 
Chatwood  electrical  thermometer,  575, 

576 
Cheese,  imports  of,  from  Canada,  16 

—  refrigeration  of,  386 

Chemical  process  of  refrigeration,  the, 
20,  21-24 

—  works,  use  of  refrigeration  in,  472 
Cherries,  cold  storage  of,  389 

Chew,  Mr  Leuig,  submerged  condenser, 

154 
Chief  danger  of  deterioration  of  frozen 

meat,  6 

-  features  to  be  looked  for  in  an  air- 

cooling  tower,  157,  158 
Childs,  J.    G.,  &   Co.,    Ltd.,  automatic 

electric  beef  hoist,  372-376 

mutton  hoist,  376 

Chilled  beef,  imports  of,  3 

Chilling,    amount   of  refrigerating  pipes 

necessary  for,  280 

—  or  freezing  on  wall  system,  292,  293 
Chill-room,  bacon,  with  side  and  ceiling 

cooling  pipes,  303-306 

-  beef,     cooled     by     brine     air-cooling 

battery,  301-303 

—  —  fitted    with   patent   pipe   system, 

298-303 
Chimogene,   use  of,    as    a  refrigerating 

agent,  44 
Chloride,  methyl,  properties  of,  120 

—  of  sodium,  brine  made  from,  274 
Chocolate,  cold  slabs  or  tables  for  manu- 
facture of,  193,  194 

—  cooler,  rotary,  443,  444 

—  cooling  by  cold  air,  442,  443 

-  Enock  &  Co.,  Ltd.,  440-442 

—  first   application    of  refrigerating 

machine  to,  440 

—  manufacture,  use  of  refrigeration  in, 

440-444 

Choice  of  agent  for  refrigerating  pur- 
poses, 35-37 

Choking  up  or  freezing  of  compression 
system,  557,  558 

Christiansen,  Adolph  Gothard,  improve- 
ments in  absorption  machines,  175, 
184,  185 

—  See  also  Mackay  and  Christiansen 
Circulation,     methods    of    piping    that 

hinder  air,  313-316 

—  of    air    in    cold    storage    chambers, 

313-328 
Citron.     See  Citrus  fruits 


6io 


INDEX. 


Citrus  fruits,  cold  storage  of,  388 

Clark,  Mr  D.  K.,  report  on  experiments 
with  non-conducting  substances,  336 

Classification  of  refrigerating  machinery, 
20 

Clausius,  definition  of  heat  by,  9 

Clearances     in |:  ammonia     compressors, 

'-^53-56 

Clear  or  crystal  ice,  arrangements  for 
making,  485-508 

Cleveland,  Ohio,  Twining's  compression 
machine  in,  37,  38 

Clothes,  white  bleaching  of,  by  refrigera- 
tion, 472 

Cloth,  hard-pressed  asbestos,  value  of,  as 
an  insulating  material,  335 

Clouet,  experiments  by,  in  liquefaction 
of  gases,  588 

Coal  ashes,  use  of,  for  insulating  pur- 
poses, 329 

—  consumption  of,  by  cold-air  machines, 

273,  274 

Coating  of  ice  on  direct  expansion  pipes, 
560 

Coatings  for  brick  surfaces,  waterproof, 
345-350 

Cochran  Co.,  carbonic  acid  com- 
pressor, 149 

Cocks  and  valves,  246-269 

expansion  or  regulating,  53,  246- 

252 

stop,  252-256 

—  —  suction  and  discharge,  256-260 
Coil  bend,  evaporating,  265-267 

Coils    defrosting    of    refrigerating,   560, 

561 
of    pipe    in    submerged    condenser, 

dimensions  of,  155-157 
Coke,   use  of,   for  charging    air-cooling 

tower,  296 
Cold  air  blast  system,  the,  279-280 

machines,  20,  211-245,  272-274 

— advantages  of,  212 

—  for  marine  work,  414-417 
-  marine  types,  396-421 

modern  patterns  of,  416 

.—  proper  management  of,  562 

pumps  of,  211 

—  —  —  refrigeration,  by,  270-274 
system,  the,  211-245 

—  —  trunk    for    marine    installations, 

416,  417 

—  brine,    passing  air  through  body  of, 

297 

—  rooms  or  chambers,  construction  of, 

285-364 

packing  of  carcasses  in,  286 

-  simple  method  of  producing,  in  hot 
climates,  25 


Cold  slabs  or  tables  for  the  manufacture 
of  chocolate,  193,  194 

—  storage  chambers,   circulation  of  air 

in,  313-328,  417 

-  temperatures  for,  392-395 

-  ventilation  of,  312,  313 

—  cubic   feet   of   space  per   running 

foot  of  2-in.  piping,  281 

space,  inspection  of,  417 

270-328 

-  stores,  ceilings  for,  356,  357 

divisional  partitions  for,  353,  354, 

355,  356 

-  flooring  for,  355,  356 

lighting  of,  576-578 

in  United  Kingdom,  7 

—  piping  for,  280-284 

-  ventilating  shafts  for,  312 
walls  for,  350-354 

-  various  manufacturing,  &c.,  applica- 

tions, 439-483 

Coleman,  C.  J.;  improved  absorption 
machine,  203-205 

—  J.  J.,  experiments  by,  on  heat  con- 

ductivities of  substances,  335,  336 

-  See  Bell-Coleman 

Cole,  Messrs  T.  &  W.,  Ltd.,  chocolate 
cooling,  442,  443 

—    cold-air    machine,    211,    212, 
244 

— marine,  417 

Collectors  or  oil  separators,  76,  509,  510, 

544-549 

"  Colliery  Manager's  Handbook,"  Gobert 
congelation  method,  477-483 

—  shafts,  application  of  refrigeration  to 

sinking  of,  472,  474-483 

Collins,  Mr  W.  Hepworth,  on  evapora- 
tive values  of  various  substances, 
336 

Colyer,  Frederick,  C.E.,  results  obtained 
with  ether  machine,  43,  44 

-  on     working     of     absorption 
machine,  579,  580 

Combined  refrigerating  and  ice-making 
tank,  507 

-  utilisation  of  cold  air  and  brine  for 

cooling,  292 
Common  ammonia  of  commerce,  49,  50 

—  salt.     See  Chloride  of  sodium 
Compensating  chamber  for  stuffing  box, 

85 

Complete  discharge  of  gas  from  com- 
pressor cylinder,  to  ensure,  53,  54 

—  installation  of  ammonia  plant  on  the 

De  La  Vergne  system,  59-62 

—  small   brewery   fitted    with   refriger- 

ating plant,  458 
Composition  of  freezing  mixtures,  24 


INDEX. 


611 


Composition  of  fossil  meal,  use  of,  for  in- 
sulating purposes,  329,  330 

—  —  kieselguhr,  use  of,   for  insulating 

purposes,  329,  334,  335 
—  victuals,  383 

Compound  ammonia  compressors,  93-99, 
398,  407 

compressor,  Haslam  marine  type, 

406,  407 

Linde  marine  type,  403 

—  single-acting  marine  type,  402 

—  submerged  condensers,  154,  155 
Compression  head,  safety,  69,  70 

—  heat  generated  by,  misleading  phrase, 

16,  17 

—  machine,  refrigeration  by  means  of, 

274 

—  machines,  ammonia,  cycle   of   opera- 

tion in,  52 

main  parts  comprised  in  all,  20, 

34-36,  37 

-  process,  the,  18,  20,  34-151.     See  also 
Compression  system 

—  side  of  ammonia  machines,  52 

—  system,  choking   up   or   freezing   of, 

557,  558 

the,  20 

Compressor,  connection  of  oil  separator 

to,  so  that  oil  can  be  used  over  again, 

549 

—  diagrams,  interpretation  of,  566-569 

—  piston  rod  packings,  552-554 

—  safety  crosshead  for,  71,  72 
Compressors,  ammonia,  51-116,  402-413 

—  carbonic  acid,  45,  46 

—  double-acting,  51 

—  ether,  34-44 

—  methyl  chloride,  120 

—  methylic  ether,  40 

—  safety  spiing  heads  for,  66-74 

—  single-acting,  advantages  of,  51 
disadvantages  of,  51 

—  sulphurous  acid,  120-129 
Condensation  side  of  ammonia  machines, 

52 

Condensed  ammonia,  to  prevent  loss  of 
efficiency  by  heating  of,  543,  544 

—  water  cooler  and  oil  separator,  509 
Condenser,  accumulations  of  deposit  in, 

549-551 

—  atmospheric,   condensing   surface   re- 

quired, 155-157 

—  cooling  water  required,  142,  156,  157 
_ for,  168-173,  543 

—  distribution   of    cooling  water,    157, 

158 

—  Hall,  134 

—  incrustation,  560,  561 

—  marine  type,  408-409 


Condenser  preventing  spluttering  of 
cooling  water,  158,  159 

—  removing  liquefied  agent  from,  159, 

160 

—  usual  dimensions  of,  164 
Condensers,  ammonia,  marine  type,  401, 

409-411 

—  87,  120,  127,  128,  132,  133,  134,  135, 

138,  146,  149,  151,  152-168,  401,  409- 
411 

Condensing  pressure,  use  of,  for  ascer- 
taining whether  apparatus  is  fully 
charged,  564,  565 

—  .surface  for  atmospheric   condensers, 

amount  required,  1 64 

for  submerged  condensers,  amount 

required,  155-157 

Conductivity  of  various  substances,  ex- 
periments on,  330-345 
Confectionery,  cold   slabs  or  tables   for 

the  manufacture  of,  193,  194 
Congealing  tanks,  marine,  418 
Connections.     See  Flange  unions 
Conroy.     See  Douglas  and  Conroy 
Consistency  for  packing  insulating  spaces, 

Constructional  applications  of  refrigera- 
tion, 439,  440,  473-483 

Construction  of  ammonia  gas  com- 
pressors, 51-56 

—  and  arrangement  of  cold  stores,  285 

Consumption  of  water  in  sulphuric  acid 
machines,  28,  29 

—  See  also  Coal  consumption 
Continent,  number  of  firms  directly  inter- 
ested in  refrigeration  on,  7 

Continuous-acting   absorption    machine, 

175 

Conveying  machinery,  ice,  520-529 
See  also  Hoisting  arid   conveying 

machinery 
Coolers  for  cold-air  machines,  220,  222 

-  Baudelot,  446,  447 

Cooling  air,  arrangements  for,  292-328 

-  battery,  corrugated  brine,  292-294 

—  fermenting  rooms,  446-451 

—  pipes,  arrangement  of,  in  ceiling  lofts, 

303,  318,  319 

on    brine    circulation    system, 

274,  275,  289,  290 

—  surface  of  pipes,  means  for  increasing, 

268,  269,  292 

—  towers,  water,  168-173 

-  water,  formula  for  calculating  amount 

required   in    submerged  condensers, 

156 

-  for  condenser,  168-173,  543 

in  separator  jacket,  542 

to  economise,  168 


612 


INDEX. 


Cooper,  Madison,  arrangement  for  wash- 
ing, cooling,  and  drying  air,  297, 
298 

correct  relative  humidity  for  a 

given  temperature  in  egg  rooms, 
387,  388 

—  —  on  air  circulation  in  cold  storage 

chambers,  313-328 

on  cold  storage  of  eggs,  297,  298, 

387,  388 

—  system  of  mechanical  air  circulation, 

advantages  of,  328 

Corliss  engine  for  driving  ammonia  com- 
pressor, 81,  110,  114 

Correct  relative  humidity  for  a  given 
temperature  in  egg  rooms,  387,  388 

Corrosion  of  cooling  pipes,  protection  of, 
from,  276,  277 

Cost  of  ice-making,  approximate,  587 

—  of  operating  ice  factories,   approxi- 

mate, 586 

—  of  working  refrigerating  machinery, 

579-587 

Cotton  wool.     See  Slag  wool 
Coupon  system  of  selling  and  delivering 

ice,  536,  537 
Courrieres,  use  of  refrigeration  for  shaft 

sinking  at,  475 
CracknelPs   patent  absorption  machine, 

198-200 
Crane  with  long  jib  for  raising  carcasses 

from  barges  into  cold  stores,  378 
Cream  coolers,  430,  431 

—  trade  in  frozen,  6 

Creamery   Package  Manufacturing  Co., 

ammonia  compressor,  105,  106 
-  refrigerators,  431-436 
Creams,  freezing,  ice,  309 
Crescent    or    semi -cylindrical    door    for 

cold  storage  rooms,  310-312 
Crosshead,  safety,  for  compressors,  71, 

72 
Crushing    or    breaking    machinery,    ice, 

537,  538 

Crystal  ice.     See  Clear  ice 
Cube  ice,  530 
Cubic  feet  of  ammonia  gas  per  minute  to 

produce  one  ton  of  refrigeration  per 

day,  278 
of  space  per  running  foot  of  2-in. 

piping,  281 

—  ice,  530 

Cullen,  Dr,  experiments  with  ether,  34 

vacuum  machine,  26 

Currants,  cold  storage  of,  389,  393 
Curve  PV?i  =  constant,  to  construct,  14, 

15 
Cycle    of     operations     in    compression 

machines,  35-37 


Cylinder  system   creamery  refrigerator 

433 
Cylindrical  oil  separators  or   collectors, 

545-548 
Cyrogene,  use  of,  as  a  refrigerating  agent, 

44 


DAIRIES,  refrigeration  in,  422-438 
Davy,  Sir  Humphry,  definition  of 

heat  by,  8 

Dead  bodies,  preservation  of,  by  refrigera- 
tion, 391 

—  weight  safety  valve,  144 
De-aerated  water,  making  clear  ice  with, 

485 
De-aerating  or  distilling  apparatus,  508- 

517 
Definition  of  latent  heat,  10 

—  of  specific  heat,  10 
Definitions  of  heat,  various,  8-10 
Defrosting  of    refrigerating    coils,   560, 

561 

Dehydrator.     See  Drier 
De  La  Vergne  arrangement  for  cooling 

in  brewery,  448-450 

—  atmospheric  condenser,  153 

—  disc   or  gill  for   cooling  pipes,  268, 

269 

—  expansion  cock,  247,  148 

—  installation  at  skating  rink,  473 

—  installations    on     "Campania"    and 

"Lucania,"  411-413 

—  marine  types  of  ammonia   machines, 

402 

—  oil  separator  or  collector,  76,  544,  545 
--  patent  pipe  system,  268,  269,  298-301 

—  safety  suction  valve,  260 
-  stop-cock,  252,  253 

—  type  of  ammonia  compressor,  56-66 

-  of  pipe  joint,  261,  262,  265 
Delion  and  Lepen,  sulphurous  acid  ma- 
chine, 129 

Delia  Beffa  and  West  ether  machine,  42 
De  Mairan,  specific  gravity  of  ice,  484 
De  Motay  and  Rossi  absorption  machine, 

210 

Denmark,  butter  brought  over  from,  6 
Dense  air  machine,  228-241 
Denton,  Professor,  losses  in  compressors, 

91 
Deposit  in  condenser,  accumulations  of, 

549-551 
Deterioration     of    frozen     meat,    chief 

dangers  of,  6 
Determination  of  moisture  in  air,  570- 

573 
Dewar,  Professor,  production  of  liquid 

air,  590,  591,  592 


INDEX. 


Dewar,  Professor,  use  of  ethylene  as  an 
agent,  590 

—  —  vacuum  flask,  591 

Diagrams  from    "Arctic"   cold-air  ma- 
chine, 237,  238 
Frick  compressors,  70,  71 

—  interpretation  of  compressor,  566-569 
Diagram  showing  variations  in  capacity 

of  refrigerating  machine,  277 

—  taken  from  double-acting  compressor, 

with  sealing  oil,  64,  66 

single-acting  compressor,  with- 
out sealing  oil,  63,  64 

single-acting  compressor,  with 

sealing  oil,  64,  66 

Diameter  and  stroke,  ratio  between,  in 
ammonia  compressors,  54-56 

Dickerson,  Mr  Walter,  on  physical  con- 
stants of  liquefied  gases,  599-601 

Dimensions    of    submerged    condensers, 
155-157 

Direct   expansion,  cooling   brewery   fer- 
menting room  by,  448 

making  ice  by,  486 

pipes,  effect  of  a  coating  of  ice  on, 

560 
-  -  system,  275-279 

Disadvantages  of  cold-air  system,  211 

cold-air  blast  sj^stem,  279 

Discharge   of    gas   from    compressor,    to 
effect  complete,  53,  54 

—  valves.     See   Suction   and   discharge 

valves 
Discs  or  gills  for  cooling  pipes,  268,  269 

—  rotating,  cooling  air  with,  297 
Dissolution  of  a  solid,  abstraction  of  heat 

by,  20 
Distillation  of  anhydrous  ammonia,  49, 

50 
Distilling.     See  De-aerating 

—  machine,  methylic  ether,  40 
Distinctive  feature  of  the  Yaryan  evapo- 
rator, 513 

Distinct  meanings  of  heat  and  tempera- 
ture, 10 

Distributing  valve.    See  Expansion  valve 
Distribution    of   water    in    atmospheric 
condenser,  158,  159 

—  of  work  of  compressor  piston,  105 
Divisional  partitions  for  cold  stores,  353, 

354 
Dobbie,  John  G.,  tests  by,  to  determine 

conductivity   of  asbestos   and    Kie- 

selghur  composition,  334,  335 
Donaldson,  H.  F.,  lifts  designed  by,  378- 

380 

—  non-conductive    values    of    different 

materials,  337,  338 
Door  insulation,  357-360 


Door,  rotary,  310-312 

-  wedge,  357 

Dortch.     See  Suppes  and  Dortch 
Douane,   Messrs,  methyl   chloride  com- 
pression machines,  120 
Douane,  Mr  M.  E.     See  Douane,  Messrs 
Double-acting  compressor    and    tandem 
compound  condensing  steam  engine, 
90 

compressors,  advantages  of,  51 

disadvantages  of,  51 

—  —  compressor  stuffing  boxes,  packing 

for,  553 

De  La  Vergne  ammonia  com- 
pressor, 56-66 

Kilbourn  horizontal  ammonia  com- 
pression machine,  408 

—  effect  water-distilling  apparatus,  516 

-  pipe  condensers,  165 

Douglas  and  Conroy  patent  sulphurous 
acid  compressor,  124-128 

Douglas,  Messrs  Wm.,  &  Sons,  Ltd.,  air- 
cooling  apparatus,  295-297 

sulphurous  acid  compressor,   124- 

128 

—  Mr  Loudon,    on  dairy  refrigeration, 

422 

—  Mr  T.,  apparatus  for  cooling  air,  295- 

297 

Dourges,  use  of  refrigeration  for  sinking 
shafts  at,  475 

Drawbacks  to  wall  or  plate  system  of  ice- 
making,  495 

Drier  or  dehydrator  of  ammonia  still, 
lime  in,  50 

Drip  trays  for  cooling  pipes,  298,  305 

Drop  valve  steam  engine  for  driving 
compressor,  94 

Dry  air  refrigerator,  242 

—  system    of   working    ammonia    com- 

pression machines,  52,  53 
Drying,  cooling,  and  washing  air,  appar- 
atus for,  297,  298 
Dual  absorption  system,  209,  210 
Duplex    marine    type   of   carbonic   acid 

machines,  398-401 

Duterne,  Victor,  metallic  packing,  478 
Dynamics,  thermo,  first  lesson  of,  8-19 
Dynamite  factories,  refrigeration  in,  471 


EARLY     investigators     and     experi- 
menters in  the  production  of  very 
low  temperatures,  588-592 
Eclipse  atmospheric  condenser,  158 

—  can  ice-making  box,  488 

—  —  system,  plan  of  ice  factory  on,  520, 

526 


614 


INDEX. 


Economiser  or  temperature  exchanger, 

181,  197 
Economy  of    direct    expansion    system, 

275 

—  of  multiple  effect  distilling  apparatus, 

512 

Effective  surface  of  cooling  pipes,  to 
increase,  268,  269 

—  effect  of  a  coating  of  ice  on  direct  ex- 

pansion pipes,  560 

Efficiencies  of  ice  plants,  531 

Efficiency,  loss  of,  in  ammonia  compres- 
sors, 56 

—  of    refrigerating    machines,    greatest 

theoretical,  17 

—  of    submerged  condenser,   to  ensure 

utmost,  154 

—  principal  qualities  to   be  sought  for 

in  compressor  to  ensure  maximum, 
53-56 

—  water-cooling  apparatus,  170 

Egg  rooms,  correct  relative  humidity  in, 
387,  388 

Eggs,  cold  storage  of,  297,  298,  386-388 

Egypt,  use  of  ether  machine  during  mili- 
tary operations  in,  120 

Elder,  Dempster,  &  Co.,  transport  of 
bananas  from  Jamaica  by,  3 

Electrically  driven  ammonia  compressor, 
110,  111,  413 

compressor  on  railway  van,  371 

—  operated  beef  hoist,  372-376 
mutton  hoist,  377 

thermometer  or  telethermometer, 

575,  576 

—  heated  absorption  machine,  203-205 
Electrical  temperature  tell-tales  and  long- 
distance thermometers,  573,  574 

—  welding  of  condenser  and  evaporator 

coils,  135 

Electric  fans,  use  of,  for  circulating  air, 

319,  320 
-  welding,  135 

Elevating  and  conveying  machinery,  ice, 
520-529 

Elevators  or  hoists,  ice,  527-529 

Emery,  Charles  E.,  experiments  with 
non-conductors  of  heat,  335 

Enclosed  compressors.     See  Inclosed 

Endless  travelling  band  or  apron  choco- 
late-cooling apparatus,  444 

Engineer,  description  of  Poetsch  method 
in,  475 

Engineering,  non-heat-conducting  pro- 
perties of  various  substances,  341 

Engine-room  of  steamships,  location  of 
carbonic  acid  machines  in,  397 

Enock,  Arthur  G.,  safety  device  for  com- 
pressors, 71,  72 


Enock  compressors,  71-79 
—  marine  type,  413 

—  milk-cooling  plant,  423-425 

—  on    proper    temperature    for    storing 

butter,  438 
Equation  expressing  greatest  theoretical 

efficiency  of  a  refrigerating  machine, 

17 
Equivalent  of  a  ton  of  ice,  484 

—  of  heat,  mechanical,  11,  18 

Escher,    Wyss,    et    Cie,    carbonic    acid 

machine,  151 
Esthonian  tribe,  use  of  artificial  cold  by, 

21 
Estimate    of    refrigeration    required    in 

breweries,  437 
Ether,  advantages  of,  as  an  agent  in  hot 

climates,  44 

—  composition  of,  117 

—  compression  machines,  34-44,  117-120 

—  experiments  with,  by  Dr  Cullen,  34 

—  machine  at  brewery,  first,  439 
cost  of  working,  582,  583 

—  methylic,  distilling  machine,  40 

—  objections  to  the  use  of,  as  a  refriger- 

ating agent,  44 

-  properties  of,  117 
Evaporating  coil  bend,  265-267 
Evaporative  surface  condensers,  157-164 
Evaporator,  care  of,  517 
Evaporators,  87,  91,  135,  155 

Even  distribution  of  work  of  compressor, 

arrangement  for,  105 
Ewing,  Professor,  on  cascade  or  successive 

cycle  system,  589,  590 

—  on  regenerative  method,  592 
Exchanger,  heat.     See  Economiser 
Exhaust  steam,   apparatus  for   making 

distilled  water  from,  510 

Exhibition,   Paris,    carbonic    acid    com- 
pressor in  brewery  section,  151 

Expansion,  direct,  economy  of,  275 

—  of  gases,  laws  of,  12 

—  side  of  ammonia  compression  machines, 

52 

-  system,  the,  275-279 

-  valve  for  methylic  ether  machine,  42 

—  valves  and  cocks,  adjustment  of,  53 

various,  246-252 

Experiments  by  Dr  Cullen  with  ether,  34 

-  on  the  transmission  of  heat,  344,  345 

—  with  cold-air  machines,  244 

—  with  non-conducting  substances,  330- 

345 
Express  Dairy,  milk-cooling  installation 

at,  425-428 

External  carcass  hoist,  376-378 
Extreme  limits  of  space  per  foot  of  piping, 

281 


INDEX. 


615 


FACTORIES,  artificial  butter,  461-464 
—  bacon,  305,  306 

—  ice,  518-529 

—  sugar,  464,  465 

-  tea,  464 

Fahrenheit,  thermometrical  scale,  zero  on, 

12 
Fans  or  blowers  for  cooling  atmospheric 

condensers,  161 

—  use   of,    for    circulating   air   in    cold 

stores,  319-328 

Faraday,  Professor,  experiments  in  lique- 
faction of  gases,  588 

Feathering  agitators,  488 

Features,  chief,  to  be  looked  for  in  water- 
cooling  tower,  170 

Fermenting  rooms,  cooling  of,  446-450, 
464 

Film  evaporation,  513 

Firms  directly  interested  in  refrigeration, 
number  of,  7 

First  cargo  of  apples  from  Melbourne,  6 

—  class  ether  machine,  results  obtained 

with,  43 

—  compression  machine,  34 

—  law  of  thermo-dynamics,  8 
Fish,  cold  storage  of,  383-385 

—  freezing,    cubic    feet    of    space    per 

running  foot  of  2-in.  piping,  281 
Fixary  ammonia  compressor,  83,  84 

-  air  coolers,  303 

Flange  unions  or  connections,  264,  265 
Flash  valve.     See  Expansion  valve 
Flasks   of   C02,  warming  when  charging 

machine  from,  554 
Flasks,  vacuum,  for  liquid  air,  591 
Flat  plates  for  air-cooling  batteries,  292, 

293 
Flines  les  Raches,  use  of  refrigeration  for 

sinking  shafts  at,  475 
Flooring  for  cold  stores,  355,  356 

—  ice  houses,  356 

Floors  of  cold  stores,  radiation  of  heat 
through,  288 

Fluorine,  liquefaction  of,  592 

Fontaine.     See  Mollet,  Fontaine,  et  Cie 

Fontinette  canal  lift,  use  of  refrigeration 
in  construction  of,  476 

Forbidden  fruit,  cold  storage  of,  388 

Forced  air  circulation,  319-328 

Forecoolers.  See  Supplementary  con- 
densers 

Formula  for  ascertaining  amount  of  air 
delivered  by  cold-air  machine,  245 

—  calculating     amount     of     cooling 
water    for    submerged    condensers, 
156,  157 

dimensions  of  submerged  con- 
densers, 155,  156 


Foundations,  application  of  refrigeration 
to  the  construction  of,  473 

France,  simple  method  of  making  ice, 
used  in,  25 

—  use  of  cork  in,  as  a  non-conductor, 

329 

Freezing  chambers,  amount  of  refrigerat- 
ing pipes  necessary  for,  280 

-  fish,  method  of,  383,  384 

—  mixtures,  table  of,  24 

—  or  choking  up  of  compression  system, 

557,  558 

—  times  for  different  temperatures  and 

thicknesses  of  can  ice,  491 

—  water  slowly,  at  comparatively  high 

temperatures,  485 
French  absorption  machine,  193,  209 

—  brewery  section  of  Paris  Exhibition, 

carbonic  acid  compressor  at,  151 
Fresh  provisions,  trade  in,  1-7 
Frick    ammonia    compression    machine, 

66-71 

—  Co.,  apparatus  for  making  distilled 

water,  510 
arrangement  for  cooling  brewery 

fermenting  rooms,  451 
Baudelot  cooling  apparatus,  446, 

447 

brine  strainer,  491 

can  ice-making  box,  488 

cost    of   operating    ice    factories, 

586 

ice-can  hoist,  525 

pattern  of  suction  valve,  260 

plans  for  ice  factories,  520 

plans  for  insulation,  365 

stop-valves,  254 

truck  in  can  hoist,  525 

—  pipe  joints,  265-268 

Frigorific  mixtures,  general  law  govern- 
ing production  of  cold  by,  23 

observations  on,  23 

See  also  Freezing  mixtures 

Frozen  beef,  imports  of,  from  New  South 

Wales,  3 
imports  of,  from  New  Zealand,  3 

—  carcasses,  imports  of,  2-4 

—  cream,  trade  in,  6 

-  meat,  trade  in,  2 

—  mutton,  hanging  of,  before  cooking, 

286 
Fruit  cargo,  proper  stowage  of,  418,  419 

—  trees,  regulation  of,  by  refrigeration, 

472 

Fruits,  cold  storage  of,  388-390,  410,  419 
Fry,  J.  S.,  use  of  cold  air  for  chocolate- 
cooling  by,  440 

Function  of  refrigerating  and  ice-making 
apparatus,  main,  19 


6i6 


INDEX. 


Fungus  or  mould,  germs  of,  in  atmos- 
pheric air,  313 

Furnaces,  blast,  use  of  refrigeration  in, 
465-469 

Furniture,  upholstered,  preservation  of, 
by  refrigeration,  472 

Furs,  preservation  of,  by  refrigeration, 
391,  472,  473 


Gravity  air  circulation  in  cold  rooms  or 
chambers,  314-319 

—  apparatus  for  lowering  carcasses,  380 

Greatest  theoretical  efficiency  of  a  re- 
frigerating machine,  17 

Great  Southern  and  Western  Railway, 
Ireland,  refrigerator  car,  367 

Green  vegetables,  cold  storage  of,  390 


GALE,  ARTHUR  ROBERT,  paper 
on  refrigerating  machine,  241-243 
Gas,    ammonia,    difficulties    of    dealing 
with,  50 

—  compressor,  most  important  part  of 

compression  apparatus,  50,  57 

—  for  balloons,  use  of  refrigeration  for 

purification  of,  472 

—  motor,    advantages    of,    for    driving 

small   refrigerating   machines,    307, 
308 
Gases,  Charles'  law  of  expansion  of,  12 

—  laws  of,  12-14 

—  liquefaction  of,  588-601 

—  Lussac's  law  of  expansion  of,  12 
Gasoline,  use  of,  as  a  refrigerating  agent, 

44 
Gasworks  breeze,  use  of,  for  insulating 

purposes,  329 
Gay,  C.  M.,  arrangement  for  circulating 

air,  318 
General  law  governing  production  of  cold 

by  frigorific  mixtures,  23 
Generator  for  absorption  machine,  171, 

174,  185,  193,  204,  209,  210 
Germany,   use    of    cork    in,   as  a    non- 
conductor, 329 
Germs  of  fungus  or  mould  in  atmospheric 

air,  313 
Giffard  cold-air  machine,  215,  222-224, 

244 

Gill,  pipe,  268,  269 
Gland  of  carbonic  acid  machine,  to  pack, 

556 

Globe  expansion  valve,  247 
Gobert  method  of  using  refrigeration  for 

constructional  work,  477-483 
Godell,  Henry  Carr,  use  of  lampblack  as 

an  insulating  material,  330 
Gorman    improvements    in    absorption 

machines,  193 

Gorrie,  cold-air  machine,  214 
Gothenburg,    milk    shipped    to    London 

from,  6 

Gottbrecht,    Dr,    experiments    on    pro- 
perties of  ammonia,  276 
Grapes,  cold  storage  of,  388,  389,  394 

—  trade  in,  6 


HABRIER,    experiments    in    lique- 
faction of  gases,  588 

Hainault  coalfield,  refrigeration  for  shaft- 
sinking  at,  475 
Hair-felt,  use  of,  for  insulating  purposes, 

329 
Hall,  cold-air  machines,  233,  234,  292,  293 

—  J.    &   E.,    Ltd.,    carbonic  acid  com- 

pression machines,  131-141 

—  cold-air   machines,   marine  types, 
415,  416 

duplex    horizontal    carbonic  acid 

compressor,  139-141 
—  marine    types    of    carbonic    acid 
machines,  397-401 

—  plan  for  chilling  and  freezing  on  wall 

system,  294,  295 

—  small  vertical  self-contained  car- 
bonic acid  machine,  132-138 

single-cylinder  double-acting  hori- 
zontal carbonic  acid  compressor,  138 

—  steamers  fitted  with  refrigerating 
machinery  for  the  butter  trade,  6 

to  charge  and  work  carbonic  acid 

machine  of,  554-556 

—  system  for  cooling  milk,  425-428 
Hampson,  production  of  liquid  air  by, 

593,  595-599 

Hanbury.     See  Truman,  Hanbury,  &  Co. 
Handling  ice,  536,  537 
Hand-power  ice-making  machine,  33 
Hargreaves  and  Inglis  cold-air  machine, 

—  See  also  Hick  Hargreaves 
Harrison  ether  machine,  2,  38-40 
erected  at  brewery,  first,  439 

—  —  —  in  paraffin  works,  439 

—  James,  ether  compression  machine,  38 

—  improved  vacuum  apparatus,  29-31 

—  vacuum  machine,  cost  of  making  ice 

with,  584 

—  See  also  Twining  and  Harrison 
Haslam  air  agitation  ice  plant,  502 

—  ammonia  valves,  256 

—  atmospheric  or  open-air  evaporative 

surface  condenser,  160 
-  beef  chilling  room  fitted  with  patent 
brine-cooling  batteries,  301-303 

—  blast  furnace  installation,  466-469 


INDEX. 


617 


Haslam  brine  concentrator,  534 

—  carbonic  acid  compressors,  149-151 

—  cold-air  machines,  225-230,  244,  415 
at  London  and   St  Katherine 

Dock,  272-274 
for  marine  work,  415 

—  cold  storage  chamber,  small,  306-308 

—  distilling  apparatus,  512 

—  formula  for   ascertaining   amount   of 

air  delivered  by  cold-air  machine, 
245 

-  Foundry  and  Engineering  Co.,  Ltd., 

marine  types  of  ammonia  com- 
pressors, 97,  404-407 

—  open  water  cooler,  168 

—  Sir  Alfred  Scale,  apparatus  for  cooling 

air,  294,  295,  420,  421 
improvements   in   ammonia   com- 
pressors, 93-97 

—  water-cooling  tower,  173 
Head,  safety  compression,  66-79 
Healthy  working  of  ammonia  machine, 

signs  of,  541 

Heat  and  temperature,  distinct  meanings 
of,  10 

—  calculations  made  in  respect  of,  11-19 

—  conducting    power    of    various    sub- 

stances, slate  being  1,000,  342 

—  definitions  of,  8-10 

—  discovery  of,  8 

—  exchanger.        See    Temperature    ex- 

changer 

—  generated  by  compression,  misleading 

nature  of  phrase,  16 

-  latent,  10,  11 

—  mechanical  equivalent  of,  11,  18 

—  pump,  refrigerating,  machine,  a,  19 

—  sensible,  10 

-  specific,  10 

and  composition  of  victuals,  383 

"Heating  by  Hot  Water,"  experiments 

regarding  heat-conducting  properties 

of  various  substances,  341 
Hendrick's  condenser,  165-168 
Henry  Vogt  Machine  Co.,  absorption 

machine,  196,  197 
Hercules  discharge  and  suction  valve,  259 

—  Ice-making    and    Refrigerating    Ma- 

chinery Co.,  ammonia  compressor, 
106-108 

Hick  Hargreaves,  cold-air  machine,  224, 
225 

Hickmann,  Ltd.,  refrigerating  installa- 
tion, 466-469 

Hill,  F.  B.,  arrangement  of  cold  store  or 
chamber,  290-292 

—  arrangement  for  removing  snow  or 

hoar  frost  from  refrigerating  sur- 
faces, 292 


Hill  and  Gorman,  improvements  in  ab- 
sorption machines,  193 

—  and  Sinclair,  improvements  in  absorp- 

tion machines,  193 

-  Frederick  Barker,    improvements   in 
absorption  machines,  193,  194-196 

—  method  of  making  clear  or  crystal  ice, 

499-502 
History  of  trade  in  frozen  meat,  2,  3 

—  of  fresh  provision,  1-7 

Hoar  frost,  removal  of,  from  refrigerating 

surfaces,  292 
Hoisting  and  conveying  machinery,  372- 

380 

Hoists.     See  Elevators  or  Hoists 
Holden  system  of  ice-making,  507,  508 
Holds  of  vessels,  cooling  of,  473 
Hollow  or  semi-cylindrical  door  for  cold 

storage  chamber,  310-312 
Hopkinson,  Dr,   on  cost  of   making  ice 

with  Windhausen  machine,  583,  584 

—  description  of  Windhausen  machine, 

27-29 
Hops,  cold  storage  for  preservation  of, 

456 
Horizontal  duplex  marine  type  carbonic 

acid  machines,  398-401 

—  pipe,  mercury  well  for,  563 
Hospitals,  cooling  of  atmosphere  of,  in 

warm  climates,  472 
Hot  beer  wort,  refrigeration  of,  444-446 

—  climates,    simple    methods    of    pro- 

ducing cold  in,  25 
Hotel,  arrangement  of  refrigerating  plant 

in,  309-312 
Houses,  ice,  ceilings  for,  356,  357 

—  floorings  for,  356 
Houssu  coalfields,  use  of  refrigeration  for 

sinking  shafts  at,  475,  476 
Hubner.     See  Wegelin  and  Hubner 
Humboldt,  ammonia  compressor,  83 

—  sulphurous  anhydride  compressor,  129 

—  carbonic  acid  compressor,  149 

—  meat-cooling  plant,  303 

—  milk-cooling  arrangement,  428 
Humidity,  correct  relative,  for  a  given 

temperature  in  egg  rooms,  387,  388 
Hydrants,  advisability  for  provision  of, 

in  ice  factory,  530 
Hygrometers,  571 


T  CE  and  Cold  Machine  Co. ,  absorption 
I     machine,  197,  198 

—  and  refrigeration,  articles  on  circula- 

tion of  air  in  cold  storage  chambers, 
313-328 
—  apparatus  for  manufacture  of,  62 

—  can  hoist  for  small  plants,  525 


6i8 


INDEX. 


Ice  cans  or  moulds,  27 

—  crushing  or  breaking  machinery,  537, 

538 

—  cube,  530 

—  dump,  automatic,  525-527 

—  effect  of  a  coating  of,   on  expansion 

pipes,  560 

—  elevating  and  conveying  machinery, 

520-529 

-  factories,  518-529 
advisability     for      provision      of 

hydrants  in,  530 
approximate  cost  of  operating,  586 

—  houses,  ceilings  for,  356,  357 
flooring  for,  356 

—  making,  484-538 

cost  of,  579-587 

in  breweries,  457,  458 

machine,  American,  22 

machines,  management  of,  539-578 

testing  of,  562-566 

or  congealing  tanks,  marine,  416, 

417,  418,  419 

vacuum  system  of  ice-making,  517, 

518 
various  methods  of,  485 

—  packing,  535-537 

—  properties  of,  484 

—  stores,  refrigeration  of,  535 
ventilation  of,  535 

—  tanks    and     refrigerator    combined, 

Pictet's,  45 

—  water.     See  Attemperating 

Ideal  Refrigerating  and  Manufacturing 
Co.,  ammonia  compressor,  105 

Illinois  Central  Railway,  refrigerator 
car  on,  368-370 

Imitation  of  natural  system  of  ice-making, 
518 

Imperfections  of  first  absorption  ma- 
chines, 174,  175 

Important  part  of  ammonia  machine, 
most,  50-56 

Imports  of  butter,  6 

—  of  cheese,  6 

—  of  chilled  beef,  3,  5 

—  of  frozen  carcasses,  3,  4 
Improved  Carre  hand-power  ice  machine, 

32 
Improving  air  circulation,    means    for, 

327,  328 
Inclosed  types  of  ammonia  compressors, 

73-77,  87,  114-116 
Increase  the  effective  surface  of  cooling 

pipes,  to,  268,  269 

Incrustation  on  condenser  coils,  560-562 
India  Docks,  London  and,  274 

—  simple  method  of  making  ice  in,  25 

—  West,  Docks,  lifts  at,  378 


India-rubber  packings  for  ammonia  com- 
pressors, 553,  554 

—  works,  use  of  refrigerating  machinery 

in,  472 
Indicator  diagrams,  63-66,  71,  237,  238, 

566-569.     See  also  Diagrams 
Industrial  applications,  439-483 
Inflation  of  balloons,  use  of  refrigeration 

for  purification  of  gas  for,  472 
Inglis.  See  Hargreaves  and  Inglis 
Injections  of  sealing  aud  lubricating  oil 

into  compressor  cylinder,  53 
Inlet  valves,  256-260 
Inspection  of  cold  storage  space  on  board 

ship,  417 
Instructions  to  surveyors  re  carbonic  acid 

machines,  Board  of  Trade,  397 
Insulating  structures,  transmission  of 

heat  through  various,  340 
Insulation,  329-371 

-  door,  357-361 

—  of  marine  installations,  409,  411,  412 

-  methods  of,  used  in  U.S.,  365 

—  tank,  360-364 

-  window,  360 

Interlaced  type  of  condenser,  160 
Internal  arrangement  of  cold  stores,  285 
Interpretation  of  compressor  diagrams, 

566-569 

Introduction,  1-7 

Inventions    for    refrigerating    and    ice- 
making,  various,  20 

Iron,  ammonia  no   chemical  action   on, 
276,  277 

—  ceilings,  cellars  with,  306 


JACOBUS,    Professor,  latent  heat  of 
air,  599 

Jamaica,  transport  of  bananas  from,  3 
Jamieson,    Professor    Andrew,     experi- 
ments by,  on  conductivity  of  sub- 
stances, 332,  333,  334 
Jib,  crane,  long,  for  raising  carcasses  from 

barges,  378 

Johnson  and  Whitelaw's  absorption  ma- 
chine, 209 
Joints,  breaking  of,  in  ammonia  machines, 

551,  552 

—  pipe,  and  unions,  260-268 
Joint  socket  bend,  soldered,  265 
Jones,    Walter,    experiments    regarding 
non-conducting  properties  of  various 
substances,  341 

Joule  on  production  of  very  low  tempera- 
tures, 594 

Joule's  mechanical  equivalent  of  heat,  11 
Juice,  precautions  to  prevent  loss  of,  from 
frozen  mutton,  286 


INDEX. 


619 


KELVIN,  on  production  of  very  low 
temperatures,  594 

Kieselguhr,  result  of  tests  as  to  conduc- 
tivities of,  333,  334,  335 

—  use  of,  as  an  iusulating  material,  329, 

330 

Kilbourn  ammonia  compressor,  inclosed 
type,  87-89 

—  cream  cooler,  425 

—  improved  type  of  ammonia  compres- 

sion machine  in  dairy,  425 

—  marine     ice-making     or     congealing 

tank,  418,  419 

type    of     ammonia     compression 

machine,  407-409 

—  M.  J.  K.,  inventor  of  improvements 

in  refrigerating  machinery,  88 

—  pipe  joints,  262-264 

—  stop-cock,  253 

Kingdom,  United,  cold  stores  in,  7 
Kingsford,     improvements     in     vacuum 

machines,  26 
Kirk,  Alexander,  cold-air  machine,  215 

—  Dr    A.     C.,     application     of     ether 

machine   to    extraction   of    paraffin 
from  shale  oil,  439 

Klein  oil  separator  or  collector,  509 
-  water-cooling  tower,  170 

"Knight's   Dictionary,"   description    of 
Van  der  Weyde's  machine,  44 

Koch  method  of  using  refrigeration  for 
constructional  work,  477 

Kroeschell  Bros.    Ice-Making  Co.,    car- 
bonic acid  compressor,  144-149 

—  —  horizontal     belt-driven     carbonic 

acid  compression  machine,  147-149 
rope-driven  carbonic  acid  com- 
pressor, 140 

—  —  vertical  belt-driven  carbonic  acid 

compression  machine,  147-149 


LAGER  beer  fermenting  rooms  and 
store  cellars,  cooling  of,  450 

La  Hire's  epicycloidal  device,  224 

Lampblack,  use  of,  for  insulating  pur- 
poses, 330 

Land  installations,  Linde  machine 
especially  designed  for,  80 

Lange's  improved  pump  for  vacuum 
machine,  29 

Latent  heat,  10,  11 

—  heat,  discovery  of,  10 

of  ammonia,  48 

Laundries,  use  of  refrigeration  ice,  472 

Laurenson,  method  of  making  ice,  496 

Lavoisier  ice  calorimeter,  tests  of  con- 
ductivity with,  336 


Law,  general,  governing  production  of 

cold  by  frigorific  mixtures,  23 
Laws  of  gases,  12-14 
Lawton,  Mr  A.  W.,  process  for  preserving 

fruit,  389,  390 
Leakage  at  joints,  cocks,  valves,  &c.,  in 

direct  expansion  system,  276 
—  of  gas   past  piston  rod,   methods  of 

preventing,  80,  83,  84,  94,  102,  103 
past  piston  rod,  stuffing  box,  and 

gland,  Linde  method  of  preventing, 

72,73 

—  See  also  Piston  rod 

Leaks  in  ammonia  apparatus,  559 

—  in  carbonic  acid  machines,  560 
Lebrun,  Mr  B. ,  cooling  pipe  with  gills  or 

flanges,  269 

inclosed  type  of  compressor,  116 

Lemons,  cold  storage  of,  388,  394 
Leslie,    improvements    in    vacuum    ma- 
chines, 26 

Lifts.     See  Elevators  or  Hoists 
Lightfoot  cold-air  machine,  230-233 

-  insulation  recommended  by,  329 

—  T.  B.,  ammonia  compressor,  91 

cold-air  machine,  230-234 

use  of,  for  chocolate  cooling, 

440 

—  combined  refrigerating  and  ice-making 

tank,  507 

—  condenser,  155 

experiments  on  heat  conductivity 

of  slag  wool  and  charcoal,  342,  343 

—  —  observations  by,  on  frigorific  mix- 

tures, 23 
on  cold-air  machines,  212-214 

on  cost  of  working,  580,  581 

—  particulars    regarding    ether    ma- 
chine, 42,  43 

results  of  tests  with  Linde  com- 
pression machine,  80 

Lighting  cold  stores,  576-578 

Ligny-les-Aire,   use  of  refrigeration  for 
sinking  shafts  at,  476,  477 

Lime,  cold  storage  of,  388 

Limit  to  ratio   between    diameter   and 
stroke  in  ammonia  compressors,  55 

Linde,  Carl,  ammonia  compressors,  79-83 

method  of  agitating  water  during 

freezing,  492 

—  Company,   water-cooling  tower,  172, 

173 

—  marine    type    ammonia    compression 

machine,  402,  403 

-  production  of  liquid  air  by,  593 
Lineal  feet  of  1-in.  piping  required  per 

cubic  foot  of  cold  storage  space,  282 
Liquefaction  of  a  solid,  abstraction  of 
heat  by,  20 


620 


INDEX. 


Liquefaction  of  gases.      See  Production 

of  very  low  temperatures 
—  process,  the,  20-24 

—  use  of,  by  the  ancients  for  refriger- 

ating purposes,  21 

Liquefactor.     See  Condenser 

Liquefied  agent,  arrangement  for  remov- 
ing, from  condenser,  159,  160 

Liquefier.     See  Condenser 

Liquid  air,  cooling  van  by  means  of,  371 

See  Production  of  very  low  tem- 
peratures 

Liquor  ammonia,  strength  of,  49 

Live  cattle,  cooling  holds  of  vessels  for, 
473 

Lobrist,  John,  refrigerator  car  designed 
by,  370,  371 

London  and  India  Docks  Co.,  refriger- 
ating installation  at,  274 

—  and  Tilbury  Lighterage  Co. ,  refriger- 

ated barges,  421 

Long-distance  thermometers,  573,  574 
Loose  tools  required  in  an  ice  factory,  529 
Lorenz,    Hans,    interpretation    of    com- 
pressor diagrams,  566-569 
Lowe,  carbonic  acid  machine,  46 
Low-pressure  refrigerating  agents.     See 

Ether,  Methyl  chloride,  Sulphurous 

acid 
Low,  Professor  D.  A.,  construction   of 

chart  applicable  to  any  value  of  n, 

14-16 
Low  temperatures,  production  of,  588- 

601 
Lubrication  of  refrigerating  machinery, 

558,  559 

—  qualities  of  ammonia,  552 
"Lucania,"  refrigeration  of  cargo  holds 

of,  409-411 

of  provision  stores  of,  411-413 

Lugo  and  M'Pherson,  cold-air  machine, 
224 

—  See  also  Tuttle  and  Lugo 

Lussac's  law  of  expansion  of  gases,  12,  13 
Lyon's    improved    absorption    machine, 
200-203 


MACDONALD,  Mr  C.  A.,  ammonia 
compressor  designed  by,  106-108 
Mach,  Dr  Ernest,  on  heat,  9 
Machines,  absorption,  20 

—  ammonia  compression,  51-116 

—  carbonic  acid  compression,  45-49 

—  capacity  of,  required  for  refrigeration 

of  cold  storage  chamber,  286-289 

—  cold-air,  20,  211-245,  415-417 

—  ether  compression,  37-44,  117-120 

—  liquefaction  process,  21,  22 


Machines,  methyl  chloride  compression, 
120 

—  sulphurous    acid     compression,     120- 

129 

Mackay  and  Christiansen,  improvements 
in  absorption  machines,  175,  184, 
185 

—  Frederick  Noel,  arrangement  for  cool- 

ing cold  storage  rooms  or  chambers, 
292 

improvements  in  absorption 

machines,  184,  185 

M'Pherson.     See  Lugo 

M'Rae,  Mr  J.,  rotary  chocolate  cooler, 
443,  444 

Main  function  of  refrigerating  and  ice- 
making  apparatus,  19 

-  items  of  expense  in  working,  579 
Management  and  testing  of  refrigerating 

machinery,  530,  539-578 

—  cold-air  machines,  proper,  562 
Manufacture  of  chloride  of  calcium  and 

salt  solutions,  532-534 

Manufacturing  industrial  and  construc- 
tional applications,  439-483 

Maquet  gilled  piping,  269 

Marcet,  Alex.,  rate  of  passage  of  heat 
through  various  materials,  329 

Marchant  cold-air  machine,  215 

Marine  refrigeration,  396-421 

Mariotte's  law,  18 

Martindale,  Colonel  B.  H.,  on  refriger- 
ating chambers  at  St  Katherine's 
Docks,  272 

Marvin  hygrometer,  572 

Mash  tuns  refrigerated,  445,  446 

"  Mataura,"  cargo  of  frozen  meat  in,  2 

Matthews,  F.  F.,  amount  of  refrigeration 
required,  381-383 

can  ice,  time  required  for  freezing, 

491,  492 

modern  absorption  machine,  205- 

209 
—  plate  or  wall  system,  495 

Maurs'  experiments  on  transmission  of 
heat,  344,  345 

Maxwell,  absolute  zero,  12 

-  definition  of  heat,  9,  10 

Means  for  improving  air  circulation,  316- 
319 

—  increasing   cooling  surface  of  pipes, 

268,  269,  292 

—  preventing    leakage    at    compressor 

piston  rod,  80,  83,  84,  94,  102,  103 
Meat-carrying  chamber  on  board  "Cam- 
pania" and  "Lucania,"  409-411 
Meat,  cold  storage  of,  363 

—  frozen,  history  of  trade  in,  2 

—  cooling  plant,  abattoir,  Riga,  303 


INDEX. 


621 


Meat,  trade  in  frozen,  2 

Meats  and  fish,  freezing  and  storing  of, 

383-385 
Mechanical  equivalent  of  heat,  11,  18 

—  or  forced  air  circulation,  319-328 

—  refrigeration,  theory  and  practice  of, 

8-20 
work  demanded  of  a  machine  for, 

13,  14 

Mediums,  refrigerating.     See  Agents 
Melbourne,  first  cargo  of  apples  from,  6 
Mercury  well  for  horizontal  pipe,  563 

for  vertical  pipe,  563,  564 

Method  for  preventing  leakage   of  gas 

past  compressor  piston-rod,  80,  83, 

84,  94,  102,  103 
—  of  testing  capacity  of   refrigerating 

machine,  562-566 
Methods  of  ice-making,  various,  485-508 

—  of  piping  that  hinder  circulation,  313- 

316 

Methyl  chloride,  advantages  of,  as  a  re- 
frigerating agent,  120 

composition  of,  120 

—  compression  machines,  120 

—  disadvantages  of,  as  a  refrigerating 
agent,  120 

properties  of,  120 

Methylic  ether  compression  machine,  40- 

42 
compression    machine,    expansion 

valve  for,  42 

distilling  apparatus,  40 

Meyer  steam  engine  for  driving  ammonia 

compressor,  114 
Mica,  use  of,  as  an  insulating  material, 

329,  367 
Mild-cured   bacon,   use  of  refrigerating 

machinery  for  production  of,  306 
Milk,  refrigeration  of,  386,  422-438 

—  shipped  from  Gothenburg  to  London,  6 
-  trade  in  frozen,  6 

Mirrlees,  Watson, &  Yaryan  Co. ,  distilling 

apparatus,  514-517 
Miscellaneous  arrangements  for  making 

clear  or  crystal  ice  by  agitation,  499- 

507 

Mixer  for  making  brine,  532,  533 
Mixtures,  freezing,  principal,  24 

—  frigorific,  observations  on,  23 
Modern  physicists  on  heat,  9 

—  types  of  Boyle  ammonia  compressors, 

97 
Mois    Scientifique    et    Industriel.       See 

Maurs 
Moissau,  experiments  by,  in  liquefaction 

of  gases,  592 
Moisture  in  air,  determination  of,  470- 

473 


Moisture  properties  of  absorbing  gases, 
313 

Molesworth,  heat-conducting  power  of 
various  substances,  342 

Mollet,  Fontaine,  et  Cie,  carbonic  acid 
compressor,  151 

Morgues,  refrigeration  in,  391 

Mort,  improvements  in  absorption  ma- 
chines, 175,  181 

—  temperature  exchanger,  181 

—  See  also  Nicolli  and  Mort 

Morton,    Professor    Henry,    on     power 

obtainable   by   expansion   of   liquid 

air,  599-601 

Mortuaries.     See  Morgues 
Mouge,  experiments  by,  in  liquefaction 

of  gases,  588 

Mould,  germs  of,  in  atmospheric  air,  313 
Moulds,  cold  slabs  or  tables  for,  193,  194 
—  or  cans,  ice,  27 
Multiple  effect  distilling  apparatus,  510- 

517 
Mutton,  frozen,  hanging  before  cooking, 

286 

—  hoist,  electrically-driven,  376 


NATRNE  vacuum  machine,  26 
Nalder    Brothers    &    Thompson, 
Ltd.,  telethermometer,  575,  576 
Naphtha,  use  of,  as  a  refrigerating  agent, 

44 
Natteur,  experiments  in  the  liquefaction 

of  gases,  588 
Natural  system  of  ice-making,  imitation 

of,  518 
Neff,  Mr  Peter,  on  ratio  of  diameter  to 

stroke  in  ammonia  compressors,  56 
Nelson's   cold    storage   wharf,    external 

carcass  hoists  at,  376-378 
Nessler's  reagent,  559 
Neubecker  ammonia  compressor,  85 
"Neuere  Kuehlmaschinen,"  interpreta- 
tion of  compressor  diagrams,  566-569 
New   South   Wales,    imports    of  butter 

from,  6 

—  —  —  imports  of  frozen  meat  from,  2 

—  Zealand,  imports  of  frozen  beef  from,  2 

—  Shipping  Co. ,  refrigerating  instal- 
lation, 407 

—  use  of  pumice  stone  as  an  insulat- 
ing material  in,  329 

Niagara  Hall,  artificial  ice  skating  rink 
at,  473 

Nicolli  and  Mort's  improvements  in  ab- 
sorption machines,  210 

Nishigawa  improvements  in  absorption 
machines,  193 


622 


INDEX. 


Non-conducting  materials,  experiments 
on  transmission  of  heat  through,  344, 
345 

Non-conductive  values  of  different  ma- 
terials, results  of  tests  as  to,  337, 
338 

Non-heat-conducting  properties  of  various 
substances,  337,  340 

"Nonpareil,"  first  cargo  of  West  Indian 
fruit  in,  3 

Northmore,  experiments  by,  in  the  lique- 
faction of  gases,  588 

Number  of  cubic  feet  covered  by  1  ft. 
of  1-in.  iron  pipe,  282 

—  of   cubic  feet   covered   by    1  ton   re- 

frigerating capacity,  283 

—  of    firms   directly   interested    in    re- 

frigeration, 7 

—  of  vessels  fitted  with  refrigerating 
machinery,  7 


/^vBJECTIONABLE  features  of  can 
\_/     system  of  ice-making,  488-490 
Objections  to  the  cold-air  machine,  242, 
243 

—  double  pipe  condensers,  165 

—  to  the  use  of  ether  as  a  refrigerating 

agent,  43,  44 

Observations  on  frigorific  mixtures,  23 
"  Oceana,"  first  cargo  of  apples  in,  3 
Oil   for   lubricating  ammonia  machines, 

542 

—  injection   of  sealing  and  lubricating 

into  compressor  cylinder,  53,  56-66 

—  presence  of,  in  ammonia  system,  542 

—  separators  or  collectors,  76,  509,  510, 

544-549 
Olszewski,  experiments  by,  in  liquefaction 

of  gases,  591 

Onions,  cold  storage  of,  390,  391,  394 
Onnes,  experiments  by,  in  liquefaction  of 

gases,  592 

Opaque  ice,  reasons  for,  484,  485 
Open-air   condensers,     tiee   Atmospheric 

condensers 
Opening  up  ammonia  machines,  necessary 

precautions,  52 
carbonic  acid  machines,  necessary 

precautions,  556 
Open  trough  system  of  cooling,  302,  303 

—  water  cooler,  168 

Operation   of  absorption   machine,    178, 
179,  205-209 

—  of    Frick    safety   compression    head, 

68-70 

Operations,   cycle  of,  in  ammonia  com- 
pression machines,  52 

Oranges,  cold  storage  of,  388,  394 


Ordinary  form  of  atmospheric  condenser, 

158 

—  —  of  cream  cooler,  430 
Ordway,  Professor  John  M. ,  experiments 
by,  on  non-conducting  coverings,  304 
experiments   regarding    non-heat- 
conducting    properties    of     various 
substances,  340 

"  Orient,"  cargo  of  frozen  meat  in,  2 
Origin  of  artificial  refrigeration,  1 
Orosius  on  production  of  cold  by  Estho- 

nian  tribe,  21 

Oscillating  ice-making  tank  or  box,  504 
Oxydising  of  tea,  regulation  of,  by  re- 
frigeration, 464 


PACIFIC  Coast,  salmon-freezing  works 
on,  384 

Packing  carcasses  in  cold  rooms  or 
chambers,  271,  286 

—  house,  cubic  feet  of  space  per  running 

foot  of  piping,  281 
-  ice,  535-537 
Packings,    compressor    piston-rod,    552- 

554 

—  in  ammonia  compressor  stuffing  boxes, 

to  drive  home,  554 
Pamely,    Caleb,    on    Gobert    method   of 

congelation  for  constructional  work, 

477-483 
Paper  or  cloth,   hard  pressed  asbestos, 

value  of,  as  an  insulating  material, 

335 

—  use  of,  for  insulating  purposes,  331 
"  Para,"  accident  on  board,  390 
Paraffin  oil  works,  refrigeration  in,  459- 

461 

—  solid,  extraction  of,  from  shale  oil  by 

refrigeration,  459-461 

Paris  Exhibition,  carbonic  acid  com- 
pressor at  brewery  section,  151 

Parsnips,  cold  storage  of,  391,  395 

Partially  submerged  pump  or  piston 
agitator,  358,  359 

Particulars  regarding  ether  machine, 
42-44 

Partitions,  divisional,  for  cold  stores, 
353,  354 

Parts,  main,  required  in  all  compression 
machines,  36,  37 

—  required    in     ammonia     compression 

machines,  51 

Pasteurisation  of  milk  in  dairies,  431 
Pastry,  cold  slabs  or  tables  for  the  manu- 
facture of,  193,  194 

Patent  system  of  preventing  leakage  at 
ammonia  stuffing  boxes,  554 


INDEX. 


623 


Peaches,  cold  storage  of,  389,  395 

—  trade  in,  6 

Pears,  cold  storage  of,  388,  395 
—  trade  in,  6 

Peninsular  and  Oriental  Co.  's  cold  storage 
chamber,  418 

Periodical  publications  dealing  wholly  or 
partly  with  refrigeration,  604 

Perkins',  Jacob,  lirst  compression  ma- 
chine, 34,  35 

Photographic  accessories,  use  of  refrigera- 
tion in  manufacture  of,  471 

Physical  constants  of  liquefied  gases,  598 

Physicists,  modern,  on  heat,  9 

Picteau  fluid,  34 

Pictet  ammonia  compressors,  91,  92 

—  experiments  by,  in  the   liquefaction 

of  gases,  588,  591 

—  Raoul,  experiments  by,  on  radiation 

at  low  temperatures,  331,  332 
heat  units  transmitted  per  square 

foot  per  hour,  330,  331 
sulphur    dioxide,     or    sulphurous 

acid  machine,  44,  45 
Pictet' s     improvements     in     absorption 

machines,  210 

Pictet.     See  also  Tellier  and  Pictet 
Pieper,  Mr,  on  amount  of  water  used  by 

Windhausen  machine,  504 
Pipe  joints  and  unions,  260-269 
Pipe-loft,  or  coil-room,  system  of  air 

circulation,  318,  319 

—  means  for  increasing  cooling  surface 

of,  268,  269 

—  See  also  Cooling  pipes 
Piping  for  cold  stores,  280-284 

-  methods  of,  that  hinder  air  circula- 

tion, 313-316 

-  breweries,  456,  457 

Piston  or  pump  agitators  for  making 
clear  or  crystal  ice,  504-507 

—  rod,  means  for  preventing  leakage  at, 

80,  83,  84,  94,  102,  103 

packings,  compressor,  552-554 

Pitch,  use  of,  for  insulating  purposes,  330 
Plant  growth,  regulation  of,  by  refrigera- 
tion, 472 

Plate,  heat-units  transmitted  through, 
square  foot  per  hour,  331 

—  or  wall  system   of  ice-making,  485, 

493-496 

—  system  of  making  clear  or  crystal  ice, 

485-508 

Poetsch  process  for  sinking  shafts  by 
refrigeration,  475-477 

Points  to  be  looked  for  in  a  water-cool- 
ing tower,  170 

Pontifex  expansion  or  regulating  valve, 
249 


Pontifex  gas-tight  joint,  260,  261 

—  E.    L.,  improvements    in   absorption 

machines,  175,  186-198 
Pontifex-Wood  absorption  machine,  cost 

of  making  ice  with,  580 
use    of,     in    artificial     butter 

works,  461-464 
absorption    machine,    use    of,   in 

brewery,  451-455 
working  of,  499,  500 

—  brine  refrigerator,  445 

—  can  ice-making  tank  or  box,  487,  488 

—  ice-making  tank  or  box  on  wall  or 

plate  system,  493,  494 

—  improvements  in  absorption  machines, 

175,  186-193 

—  pyramid  ice-making  box,  487 

—  stationary  cell  system  of  ice-making, 

497-499 

Portable  distilling  apparatus,  516,  517 
Postle  cold-air  machine,  215,  216 
Power  obtainable  by  expansion  of  1  Ib. 

of  liquid  air,  599-601 
Practice,    limit    in,    between    ratio    of 

diameter   and    stroke    in   ammonia 

compressors,  55 

—  theory  and,  of  mechanical  refrigera- 

tion, 8-20 

Precautions  when  opening  up  compres- 
sion machines,  necessary,  52,  555 

Preservation  of  dead  bodies  by  refrigera- 
tion, 391 

—  of  furs    and   various   fabrics   by  re- 

frigeration, 472-473 

—  of  meat  by  refrigeration,  270-272 
Pressure,  absolute,  11,  12 

—  and  boiling  point  of  liquids  available 

for  use   in  refrigerating    machines, 
48,  117,  120 

—  back,   loss  of  efficiency  in  ammonia 

compressors  from,  56 

Principal  freezing  mixtures,  table  of, 
24 

Principle  of  the  absorption  machine,  174, 
205-209 

Principles  involved  in  process  of  refrigera- 
tion, simplicity  of,  19 

—  of  operation  of  ammonia  compressor, 

51,  52 

Process,  absorption,  the,  201 
-  compression,  the,  18,  20,  34-151 

—  liquefaction,  the,  20,  21-24 

—  vacuum,  20,  25-55 

Production  of  cold  by  frigorific  mixtures, 
general  law  of,  23 

—  of  very  low  temperatures,  588-601 
Progress,  history  of  trade  in  fresh  pro- 
visions, 1-7 

Propeller  for  brine  agitation,  490,  491 


624 


INDEX. 


Proper  management  of  cold-air  machines, 
562 

—  methods  of  storing,  and  temperatures 

for  cold  storage,  381-391 
Properties  of  ammonia,  48 

—  carbonic  acid,  129 

-  ether,  117 

—  methyl  chloride,  120 

—  sulphurous  acid,  120 

"  Protos,"  cargo  of  frozen  meat  in,  2 
Provisional  specification  of  Dr  William 

Hampson,  595 
Provision   stores  or  chambers  on  board 

S.  S.    "  Campania  "  and  ' '  Lucania, " 

411-413 

-  trade,  fresh,  1,  2 
Psychrometers.  571 

Publications,  periodicals,  dealing  wholly 
or  partly  with  refrigeration,  602-604 

Public  buildings,  cooling  atmosphere  of, 
in  warm  climates,  472 

—  morgues  or  mortuaries,  391 
Pulsometer  Engineering  Co.,  Ltd.,  am- 
monia compressors,  85-87 

cell  ice -making   tank   or  box, 

499 

cold  storage  chamber,  289,  290 

cost  of  working,  582 

—  hand-power  ice  machine,  33 
ice  delivery  machines,  527 

ice  tank  or  box  room  of  ice 

factory,  519,  520 
ice-making  box,  495,  496 

—  refrigerated  barges,  421 

—  refrigerated  railway  van,  365 
Pumice  stone,  use  of,  as  an  insulating 

material,  329 

Pump  agitator  for  making  clear  or  crystal 
ice,  504-507 

—  for  clearing  absorber,  188 

—  for  vacuum  machine,  improved,  29 
Puplett  agitators  for  ice-can  box,  488 

—  ammonia     compression     machine     in 

small  store,  303,  304,  308 

—  and    Rigg,    arrangement  for    lifting 

ice  cans,  523-525 

patent  separator,  545,  546 

regulating  valve,  248,  249 

—  marine  type  of  ammonia  compressor, 

403 

—  Samuel,   improvements  in    ammonia 

compressors,  92,  93 

Puplett's  water-saving  and  cooling  ap- 
paratus, 168,  169 

Purification  of  gas  for  inflation  of 
balloons,  use  of  refrigeration  for, 
472 

Purity  of  carbonic  acid,  to  test,  129 

Pyramid  ice-making  box,  487 


/^VITALITIES    of     ammonia,     lubri- 
\J         eating,  552 

^ principal,  to  be  sought  for  in 

compressor,  53,  56 

—  rendering  carbonic  acid  particularly 
suitable  for  use  on  ship-board,  397 

Quality  of  oil  to  be  used  for  sealing  and 
lubricating  purposes  in  ammonia 
compressors,  57 

Queensland,  imports  of  frozen  beef  from, 
3 

Quiri  &  Co.,  atmospheric  condensers,  161 

sulphur  dioxide  compression  ma- 
chines, 123,  124 


RABBITS,  trade  in  frozen,  3 
Radiation  of  heat  through  walls  of 
cold  storage  chambers,   &c.,  287 
289 

Railway  vans,  refrigerated,  365-371 
Ransome  and  Rapier  absorption  machine, 

198-200 

Raoul  Pictet  Co.,   sulphurous  acid  ma- 
chine, 129 
—  sulphur  dioxide  or  sulphurous 

acid  machine,  44,  45 
Rapid  liquefaction  of  a  solid,  abstraction 

of  heat  by,  20 
Ratio  between   diameter  and  stroke   of 

ammonia  compressor,  54,  56 
Rau's  atmospheric  condenser,  161 
Reaumur's  thermometrical  scale,  zero  on, 

12 
Reciprocating  agitators  for  making  clear 

or  crystal  ice,  487-499 
Red  currants,  cold  storage  of,  389 
Reece,  Rees,.  improvements  in  absorption 

machines,  175,  179-181 
Refineries,  sugar,  refrigeration   in,  464, 

465 

Refrigerated  railway  vans,  365-371 
Refrigerating     apparatus,     amount     of 

water  required  by,  570 

—  capacities,  table  of,  284 

—  capacity  in  B.T.U.  required  per  cubic 

foot  of  storage,  283 
—  coils,  defrosting,  560,  561 

—  machine  a  heat  pump,  19 

—  greatest  theoretical  efficiency  of, 
17 

—  machinery,  classification  of,  20 
lubrication  of,  558,  559 

-  testing  of,  564  -568 
Refrigeration,    amount   of,   required    in 
cold  stores,  286-289 

—  and  cold  storage,  270-395 
-  bibliography  of,  602-604 


INDEX. 


625 


Refrigeration    by     means     of      cold-air 

machines,  272,  274 

compression  and  absorption  ma- 
chines, 274 

—  chemical  process  of,  20,  21-24 

—  in  butter  manufactories  and  dairies, 

422-438 

—  marine,  396-421 

—  mechanical,  theory  and   practice  of, 

8-20 
working  of  a  machine  for,  15,  16 

-  number  of  firms  directly  interested 

in,  7 

—  use  of,  in  various  industries,  439-483 
Refrigerator.     See  Evaporator 
Regealed  ice  machine,  507,  508 
Regenerative  method  of  producing  very 

low  temperatures,  592-599 
Registering  thermometers,  574,  575 
Regularity  of  temperature  of  fruit  cargo, 

necessities  for,  419,  420 
Regulating  the  temperature  of  ferment- 
ing of  tea  by  refrigeration,  464 

-  valves.    See  Expansion  valves 
Regulation  of  plant-growth  by  refrigera- 
tion, 472 

Relative  humidity  for  a  given  tempera- 
ture in  egg  rooms,  correct,  387,  388 

of  air  per  cent. ,  572 

Remington  Machine  Co.,  single-acting 
inclosed  pattern  ammonia  com- 
pressor, 99,  100 

Results  of  experiments  on  the  conduc- 
tivities of  various  substances,  336 
—  regarding     heat-conducting     pro- 
perties of  various  substances,    339, 
340 

-  regarding  non  -  heat  -  conducting 
properties  of  various  substances, 
340,  341 

—  of   tests   to  determine    the   non-con- 

ductive values  of  different  materials, 
Donaldson,  337,  338 

—  the    non-conductive  values    of 
various  materials,  Wallace,  338 

—  of  tests  on  the  heat-conductivity  of 

different  substances,  339,  340 
Return  socket  bend,  265,  266 
Revolving  door  for  cold  storage  rooms, 

310-312 
Rhigoline,  use  of,  as  a  refrigerating  agent, 

4o 
Rice,  Mr  A.  L. ,  on  production  of  very 

low  temperatures,  593,  594,  599 
Richardson,    Dr    B.    W.,    on    effect   of 

ammonia  on  fresh  meat,  276,  277 
Rich,  H.  S.,  &  Co.,  work  on  eggs  in  cold 

storage,  388 

Riga  abattoir  meat-cooling  plant,  303 
40 


Rigg,  Jonathan  Lucas,  improvements  in 
ammonia  compressors,  92,  93 

—  See  Puplett  and  Rigg 

Rilleux,  triple-effect  distilling  apparatus, 

510 

Rink,  artificial  surfaces  of  ice  at,  473 
River  Plate,   imports  of  frozen  mutton 

and  beef  from,  3,  5 
Rocking  or  oscillating  ice-making  tank 

or  box,  504 

Romans,  cooling  of  wine  by,  with  salt- 
petre, 21 
Roscoe,  Sir  Henry  E.,  on  carbonic  acid, 

47 

Rossi.     See  De  Motay  and  Rossi 
Rotary  agitators    for    making   clear  or 

crystal  ice,  487 
Rotating  discs,  arrangement  for  cooling 

air  with,  297 

—  door  for  cold  storage  rooms,  310-312 

—  exhaust  pump  or  cylinder,  30 
Rough     estimate     of     refrigeration     in 

breweries,  457 

"  Ruapehu,"  refrigerating  installation  on 
board  of,  407 

Ruddick,  J.  A.,  on  dairy  refrigeration, 
431-436 

Rugs,  preservation  of,  by  use  of  refrigera- 
tion, 472 

Rumford,  Count,  definition  of  heat  by,  8 

Ryan,  T.  J.,  refrigerator  car,  371 


SABROE   &  CO.,  LTD.,  D.,   carbonic 
acid  machine,  151 

Thomas     Ths.,     sulphurous     acid 

machine,  129 

Sacking  saturated  with  cold  brine,  cool- 
ing air  with,  297 
Safety  devices  for  compressors,  71-76 

—  heads  for  compressor  cylinders,  66-74, 

105 

—  valves  for  carbonic  acid  machine,  135, 

144,  146,  149 
Salmon-freezing  works  on  Pacific  Coast, 

384 

Salsify,  cold  storage  of,  391 
Sand  bach,    combined   cream   cooler    and 

heater,  430 
Santorio,  cooling  wine  by  mixture  of  snow 

and  salt,  21 
Saving  of  power   and  cooling   water  in 

condensers,  164,  165 
Schmidt,  M.  E.,  refrigerator  car,  371 

—  on  Poetsch  process  of  sinking  shafts 

by  refrigeration,  477 
Schmitz,     Mr     Constanz,     method     of 
testing     capacity     of     refrigerating 
•   machine,  566,  567 


626 


INDEX. 


Schou,  H.  H.,  patent  evaporator,  155 

Scientific  American,  article  on  effect  of 
ammonia  on  fresh  meat,  276 

Screen  or  apron  in  front  of  side-wall 
piping,  316,  317 

Screw  agitator.     See  Agitator 

Screwed  and  soldered  joints,  261-266 

Seeley,  improvements  in  absorption 
machines,  193,  209 

Self-contained  marine  type  of  ammonia 
compression  machine,  407,  408 

Selfe,  Norman,  ammonia  compressor,  108 

Self -registering  thermometer.  See  Ther- 
mograph 

Selling  ice,  536,  537 

Semi-cylindrical  door  for  cold  storage 
rooms,  310-312 

Semi-steel,  use  of,  in  compressor 
cylinder,  145 

Senssenbrenner,  C.,  ammonia  absorp- 
tion machine,  203 

Sensible  heat,  10 

Separators  or  collectors,  oil,  76,  509,  510, 
544-549 

Shafts,  use  of  refrigeration  for  sinking, 
472,  474-483 

—  ventilating,  for  cold  stores,  312 
Shale  oil,  extraction  of  solid  paraffin  from, 

by  refrigeration,  460,  461 

Shallow  stationary  cell  system  of  mak- 
ing clear  ice,  485 

Shipley,  Mr  Thomas,  improvements  in 
St  Clair  compressor,  116 

Ships'  holds,  method  of  sterilising  cold 
air  for  use  in,  420,  421 

Siberian  rivers,  use  of  refrigeration  for 
prospecting  in,  477 

Siebe,  Gorman,  &  Co. ,  ether  compression 
machine,  38-40,  43 

Siebel,  Professor,  amount  of  condensing 
surface  required  in  atmospheric 
condensers,  156 

on  cold  storage  of  fruits,  388 

on  dimensions  of  submerged  con- 
densers, 155 
radiation  through  walls,  £c. ,  287 

Siemens'  ice-making  apparatus,  22 

—  experiments    by,    in    liquefaction    of 

gases,  588,  592 

—  liquefaction  process,   cost  of  making 

ice  by,  584 

Silicate  cotton.     See  Slag  wool 

Silks,  preservation  of,  by  means  of  re- 
frigeration, 472 

Simple  method  of  procuring  ice,  used  in 
France,  25 

of  producing  ice  in  hot  climates, 

25 

"Simplex"  absorption  machine,  198-200 


Simplicity  of  principles  involved  in  pro- 
cess of  refrigeration,  19 

Sinclair     improvements     in     absorption 
machines,  193,  194 

Single-acting  compressors,  advantages  of, 
57 

disadvantages  of,  51 

losses  due  to  clearances  in,  54,  55 

—  compound     marine     type     ammonia 

compressor,  407 

—  effect,    Yaiyan   distilling    apparatus. 

510-517 
Sinking  of  colliery  shafts,  application  of 

refrigeration  to,  472,  474-483 
Sizes  and  capacities  of  various  ice-making 

plants,  532 

Skelp,  condenser  pipes  made  of,  161 
Skinkle,  Eugene  T.,  table  of  dimensions 

of  atmospheric  condensers,  157 
of    submerged    condensers, 

157 
Slabs  or  table,  cold,  for  manufacture  of 

chocolate,  &c.,  193,  194 
Slag  wool,  consistency  for  packing  insu- 
lating spaces  with,  330 
use  of,  as  an  insulating  material, 

329 
Small    brewery,    plan    of    refrigerating 

plant  for,  458 

—  cold  storage  chamber,   with   Haslam 

cold-air  machine,  306-308 

—  with  Puplett  ammonia  com- 
pression machine,  308 

—  — with      Triumph      ammonia 

compression  machine,  308,  309 

Snow,    removal    of,    from    refrigerating 
surfaces,  292 

marine  cold  storage  chamber, 

417 

Societe  Genevoise  de  Construction,  sul- 
phurous acid  machine,  129 

Socket  bent  joint,  265 
-  return,  265-267 

Soda-water  works,  vise  of  refrigeration  in, 
472 

Sodium,  chloride  of.     See  Salt 

Soft  fruits,  trade  in,  6 

Solid,  abstraction  of  heat  bv  liquefaction 

of,  20 

-  paraffin,    extraction    of,    from    shale 
oil,  by  refrigeration,  459-461 

—  steel  forging  for  compressor  cylinders, 
144 

Solidification  as  a  test  for  purity  of  car- 
bonic acid,  129,  130 

Solway,  regenerative  method  of  produc- 
ing low  temperatures,  593 

Soudan  Campaign,  use  of  ether  machine 
during,  120 


•  INDEX. 


627 


South  Africa,  use  of  ether  machine  in, 

120 
Southampton    Docks,     cold     stores     or 

chambers  at,  285,  286 

—  Cold  Storage  Co.,  elevators,  375,  376 
Southby.     See  Blyth  and  Southby 
South  Wales,   New,   imports   of  butter 

from,  6 

—  imports  of  frozen  beef  from,  2 

Spattering  of  cooling  water  in  atmos- 
pheric condensers,  to  prevent,  159 

Specific  gravity  of  ice,  484 

-  heat,  10 

and  composition  of  victuals,  498 

-  —  definition  of,  10 

-  of  ice,  484 

—  of  water,  10 

Spiral  agitator  for  can  ice-making  box, 
487 

Spring  safety  compressor  heads,  65-70 

Stallman's  ammonia  compressor,  105, 
106 

Standard  Butter  Co.,  railway  van 
cooled  by  liquid  air,  371 

Stanley,  H.  F. ,  improvements  in  absorp- 
tion machines,  175,  181-184 

—  refrigerator  car,  designed  by,  368-370 
Starr,    transmission     of    heat     through 

various  insulating  structures,  344 
Starting  ammonia  machine,  541 
Stationary   cell   system   of   ice   making, 

496-499 

St  Clair  compound  ammonia  compres- 
sor, 116 

—  system  of   circulating  air  in  cold 
chambers,  318,  319 

St      Katherine      Docks,      refrigerating 

chambers  at,  272-274 
Steel  flange  unions,  264 
Steinle  thermometer,  used  on  chocolate 

cooler,  443 

Sterne,  L.,  &  Co.,  Ltd.,  ammonia  com- 
pressors, 56-66 

Stevenson's  cold-air  machine,  225 
Stewart  &  Co.,  Ltd.,  D.,  carbonic  acid 

compression  machine,  151 
Stewart  Balfour  on  rise  of  temperature 

of  air  under  compression,  10 
Still   for  absorption  machine,   174.     See 

also  Generator 

Stocker  water-cooling  tower,  170 
Stockholm,    construction    of    tunnel    by 

refrigeration  at,  474 
Stoddard,  paper  on  waterproofing  bricks, 

345-350 

Stop-cocks  and  valves,  252-256 
Storage  chambers,  amount  of  refrigerating 

pipes  required  for,  280,  281 

—  of  fruit  cargo,  proper,  418,  419 


Storage  of  various  articles,  proper  tem- 
perature for,  392-395 

Stores,  cold,  number  of,  in  United  King- 
dom, 7 

walls  for,  350-354 

Storing  ice,  535-537 

—  meats  and  fish,  383-385 
Strainer,  brine,  491 

Straiton,  Mr  John,  door  for  cold  storage 

rooms,  360 
"  Strathleven,"  first  cargo  of  frozen  meat 

brought  over  in,  2 
Strawberries,  cold  storage  of,  389 
Stroke,  ratio  between,  and  diameter  in 

ammonia  compressors,  54-56 
Stuffing  boxes  for  ammonia  compressors, 

552-554 

—  box  glands,  sealing  of,  56,  57 
Sturgeon's  cold-air  machine,  225 
Submerged  condensers,  134,  152-157 
Successive   cycle    system    of    producing 

very  low  temperatures,  589,  590 
Suction  and  discharge  valves,  256-260 
Sugar  factories  and  refineries,  use  of  re- 
frigeration in,  464,  465 

—  machinery,  treatise  on,  465 
Sulphur  dioxide.     See  Sulphurous  acid 
Sulphuric   acid    refrigerating   machines, 

27,  33 
—  ether  compression  machine,  39,  40 

Sulphurous  acid,  advantages  of,  as  a  re- 
frigerating agent,  44,  45 
-  machine,  44,  45,  120-129 
—  objections  to  use  of,    as   a   refri- 
gerating agent,  45 

properties  of,  44,  45 

Sulzer  engine,  compressor  pumps  driven 
by,  81,  124 

Superheating  of  ammonia  gas  in  com- 
pressor cylinder,  means  for  pre- 
venting, 91 

Suppes  and  Dortch,  expansion  valve,  251, 
252 

Supplementary  condensers  or  forecoolers, 
164,  165 

Surfaces,  brick,  waterproof  coatings  for, 
345-350 

—  of  cooling  pipes,  to  increase,  268,  269, 

292 
Swiss  Co-operative  Society  refrigerating 

plant,  428,  429 
Sylvester  process  for  waterproofing  brick, 

350 
System,  absorption,  the,  20,  174-210 

—  cold  air,  the,  211-245 

-  compression,  the,  20,  34-151,  557,  558 

—  liquefaction,  the,  20,  21-24 
Systems  of  operating  ammonia  compres- 
sion machines,  two,  52 


628 


INDEX. 


TABLE  giving  size  and  capacities  of 
various  ice-making  plants,  523 
—  the  extreme  limits  of   cubic  feet 
of   space  per  running  foot  of   2-in. 
piping,  281 

the   relative  heat-conductivity  of 

various     boiler-covering     materials, 
340 

—  of  amount  of  heat-units  transmitted, 

per  square  foot   per  hour,   through 
various  substances,  330 

—  of  approximate   cost   of   ice-making, 

587 

—  operating  ice  factories,  586 

-  of  calculated  relative  amounts  of 
vapour  condensed  and  deposited  in 
the  various  stages  of  cooling,  230, 
231 

—  of    conductivities    of    asbestos    and 

Kieselguhr  composition,  334 

—  of    correct  relative  humidity  for    a 

given   temperature    in    egg    rooms, 
388 

—  of    cubic   feet   of  ammonia   gas    per 

minute  to  produce  1  ton  of  refri- 
geration per  day,  278 

of   space   per  running  foot   of 

2-in.  pipe  direct  expansion,  281 

—  of    dimensions   of    atmospheric    con- 

densers, 164 
of  submerged  condensers,  157 

—  of  extreme  limits  of  cubic  feet  of  space 

per  running    foot    of   2-in.    piping, 
281 

—  of   freezing   times  for  different  tem- 

peratures, and  thicknesses  of  can  ice, 
530 

—  of  heat-conducting  power  of  various 

substances,  slate  being  1,000,  342 

—  of  ice  plant  efficiencies,  531 

—  of   ice   required   for   refrigeration   in 

dairies,  435 

—  of    lineal    feet    of    1-in.    piping    re- 

quired per  cubic  foot  of  cold  storage 
space,  282 

—  of     non- heat-conducting     properties 

of  various  substances,  340 

—  of  number  of  cubic  feet  covered  by 

1  ft.  of  1-in.  iron  pipe,  282 

—  of  number  of  cubic  feet  covered  by 

1-ton     refrigerating     capacity     for 
twenty-four  hours,  283 

—  of    physical    constants    of    liquefied 

gases,  598 

—  of  principal  freezing  mixtures,  24 

—  of  rate  of  passage  of  heat  through 

various  materials,  339 

—  of  ratio  of  piping  in  brewery  cellars, 

456,  457 


Table  of  refrigerating  capacities,  284 

—  capacity  required  per  cubic  foot 
of  storage  room,  283 

—  refrigeration  required  to  cool  meats, 

382 

—  of  relative  humidity  for  given  tem- 

perature in  egg  rooms,  388 
-  per  cent. ,  572 

—  of  results  of  different  experiments  on 

the  heat  conductivities  of  various 
substances,  336 

—  of  experiments  regarding  non-heat- 
conducting  properties  of  various 
substances,  340,  343 

of   test   experiments    made    with 

cold-air  machines,  244 

of  tests  to  determine  the  non- 
conductive  values  of  different  ma- 
terials, 337,  338 

of  tests  to  determine  the  non- 
conductive  values  of  various  ma- 
terials, 338 

of  tests  on  the  heat  conductivity 

of  different  substances,  339 

of    tests    by   Professor    Jamieson 

as  to  relative  and  absolute  thermal 
conductivities  of  substances,  333 

—  of  specific  heat  and  composition  of 

victuals,  383 

—  of  temperatures  adapted  for  the  cold 

storage  of  various  articles,  392- 
395 

—  of  tests  of  waterproofing  bricks,  345- 

350 

—  of  time  required  for  water  to  freeze  in 

ice  cans,  491,  531 

—  of  weights  of  aqueous  vapour  held  in 

suspension  in  pure  dry  air,  573 

—  of    yearly    imports    of    frozen    and 

chilled  beef,  5 

—  of  yearly  imports  of   frozen  mutton 

and  lamb,  3,  4 

—  showing  transmission  of  heat  through 

various  insulating  structiires,  344 
Tables  or  slabs,  cold,  for  manufacture  of 

chocolate,  &c.,  193,  194 
Tabor,    C.    J.,    on  preservation  of   fish, 

384,  385 
Taiicredus,   Latinus,    freezing  water   by 

mixture    of     snow    and     saltpetre, 

21 

Tangye  pattern  frame  ammonia  compres- 
sor, 108,  109 
Tank  insulation,  361-364 
Tapestries,  preservation  of,  by  means  of 

refrigeration,  472 
Tayler.     See  Wallis-Tayler 
Taylor's  patent  fittings  for  doors  of  cold 

stores,  360 


INDEX. 


629 


Tea  regulating,  fermenting  of,  by  refriger- 
ation, 464 

Telethermometer,  or  electrical  ther- 
mometer, 575,  576 

Tellier  and  Pictet  machines,  cost  of 
making  ice  with,  583 

—  Charles,  methylic  ether  compression 

machine,  40-42 

Tell-tales.     See  Temperature  tell-tales 
Temperature  absolute,  12 

—  and  heat,  distinct  meanings  of,  10 
-  best,  to  maintain  a  fruit  cargo,  419 

—  exchanger  and  economise!',  181,  197 

—  of   condensed    gas    most  economical, 

168 

—  of  oxydising  or  fermentation  of  tea 

by  refrigeration,  464 

—  tell-tales    and     long    distance    ther- 

mometers, 573,  574 

Temperatures  for  the  cold  storage  of 
various  articles,  proper,  392-395 

—  production  of  very  low,  588,  601 
Tender  fruits,  cold  storage  of,  388 
Testing  of  refrigerating  machinery,  563- 

576 

—  work  of  carbonic  acid  machine,  481 
Tests  of  purity  of  carbonic  acids,  129- 

131 

—  of  waterproofing  brick,  345-350 
Thames,  refrigerated  barges  on,  421 
Theoretical  efficiency  of   a  refrigerating 

machine,  greatest,  17 

Theory  and  practice  of  mechanical  re- 
frigeration, 8-20 

Thermo-dvnamics,  first  laws  of,  8-19 

Thermographs,  419,  574,  575 

Thermometers,  long  distance,  573,  574 

Thermometrical  scale,  Fahr.,  zero  on, 
12 

Thomas,  F.  S.,  arrangement  for  increas- 
ing the  surface  of  cooling  pipes, 
292 

Thompson,  Benjamin.     /See  Rumford 

—  M.  R.,  on  filling  ice  houses,  335 
Thorne,  method  of  making  ice,  495 
Time  required  for  water  to  freeze  in  ice 

cans,  491,  531 

Tomkins,  E.  H.,  improvements  in  absorp- 
tion machines,  175,  185,  186 

Tools,  loose,  required  in  ice  factory, 
529 

Toselli's  ice-making  machine,  22 

Tower,  air-cooling,  295-297 

-  water-cooling,  168-173 

Track  system  for  ice  factories,  527 
Trade  in  Australian  apples,  6 

-  in  fresh  provisions,  1-7 

—  in  frozen  cream,  6 

—  in  frozen  meat,  2 


Trade  in  grapes,  6 

—  in  peaches,  6 

—  in  pears,  6 

Trans-Mississippi  Exposition,  refrigerat- 
ing machine  at,  110,  111 

Trays,  drip.     /Ste  Drip  trays 

Triple-effect  distilling  apparatus,  510- 
512 

Tripler's  apparatus  for  the  produc- 
tion of  very  low  temperatures,  593- 
595 

Triumph  Ice  Machine  Co.,  approximate 
cost  of  ice-making,  587 

—  atmospheric  condenser,  160 

—  automatic  ice  dump,  525-527 

—  complete  brewery  refrigerating  plant, 

458 

—  dimensions  of  submerged  condensers, 

155,  156 

—  discharge   and    suction    valves,   259, 

260 

—  double-acting    ammonia    compressor, 

89-91 

—  expansion  valves,  247,  252 

—  oil  separator  or  collector,  509,  549 

—  plan  of  ice  factory,  520 

-  plan  for  insulation,  365 

—  propeller    for    brine    agitation,    490, 

491 

-  small  cold  storage  room,  308,  309 

—  stop-valve,  253,  254 

—  water-cooling  tower,  171,  172 
Tropical  climates,  cooling  of  hospitals, 

&c.,  in,  472 

Trotter,  Mr  A.  P.,  long  distance  ther- 
mometer, 574 

Trough,  open,  system  of  cooling,  303 
Truman,  Hanbury,  &  Co. ,  brewery,  first 

use  of  ether  machine  at,  439 
Trunk  for  admitting  cold  air  in  marine 

installations,  416,  417 
Trunks  or  ducts,  Puplett's  arrangement 

of,  303,  304 
Tunnelling,  application  of  refrigeration 

to,  474 

Tuttle  and  Lugo,  cold-air  machine,  224 
Tuxen     and     Hammerich     Engineering 

Works,  Ltd.,  ammonia  compressor, 

100-102 

—  carbonic  acid  compressor,  151 
Twining    and    Harrison,  wall    or    plate 

system  of  ice  making,  493 

—  Professor,      improved       compression 

machine,  37,  38 
Tyler  and  Ellis  Manufacturing  Co. ,  Ltd. , 

ammonia   absorption   machine,    198- 

200 
Tyndall,    Professor,    definition    of    heat 

by,  9 


630 


INDEX. 


UNIONS,  flange,  264-269 
-  pipe  joints  and,  260-269 
United  Kingdom,  cold  stores  in,  7 
—    -    imports  of  frozen  provisions  into, 

1-7 

—  States,  construction  of  first  refrigera- 
tor car  in,  366 

—  Illinois      Central      Railway,      re- 
frigerator car  on,  367-370 

—  method  of  freezing  fish  in,  383, 
384 

insulation  used  in,  365 

-  pattern  of  Linde   ammonia   com- 
pressor made  in,  81 

—  refrigeration  in,  7 

—  selling  and  delivering  of  ice  in, 
536,  537 

water  -  cooling     towers     in,     168- 

173 

Unit  of  measure  of  heat,  1 1 
Unnecessary  clearance  spaces  in  ammonia 

compressor,  53-56 
Upholstered   furniture,   preservation  of, 

by  refrigeration,  472 
Utilisation  of  dissolution  of  a  solid  to 

abstract  heat,  20,  21-24 


VACUUM  flasks  for  liquid  air,  591 
—  machine,  cost  of  making  ice  by, 
584 

—  improved  pump  for,  29 

-  process,  the,  20,  25-33 

-  system  of  ice  making,  517,  518 

—  of  refrigeration,  the,  20.      See  also 
Vacuum  process 

Vallance,     improvements      in     vacuum 

machines,  26 
Valves,    safety,    52,   54,    135,    144,   146, 

149 

—  compressor,     unnecessary     clearance 

spaces,  56 

-  discharge,  256-260 

—  expansion,  42,  53 

-  inlet,  256-260 

-  suction,  256-260 

—  See  also  Cocks,  Valves,  &c. 

Value  of  different  substances,  non-con- 
ductive, 337,  338 

Van  der  Weyde  refrigerating  machine, 
44 

—  system  of  packing  ice,  530 
Vans,  railway,  refrigerated,  365-371 
Vapour,  method  of  cooling  in  compres- 
sion cylinder,  80 

—  See  also  Gas 

Various  articles,  proper  temperatures  for 
cold  storage  of,  381-395 


Various  insulating  structures,  table  show- 
ing transmission  of  heat  through,  344 

—  inventions  for  refrigerating  and  ice- 
making,  20 

—  manufacturing,  industrial,    and   con- 

structional applications  of  refrigera- 
tion, 438-483 

-  methods  of  ice-making,  485-508 

—  substances,    results    of    experiments 

on  the  heat  conductivity  of,    331, 
336 

—  of    tests    on     the     heat    con- 
ductivity of,  333 

used    for    purposes  of  insulation, 

329-371 

Vault  in  brewery,  cooling  of,  451 
Vegetables,  cold  storage  of,  390,  391 
Vendin-Sens,  use  of  refrigeration  for  sink- 
ing shafts  at,  475 
Ventilation  of    cold   storage   chambers, 

312,  313 

Ventilating  shafts  for  cold  stores,  312 
Vernon,  Mr  C.  E.,  electric  temperature 

tell-tales,  573,  574 

Vertical  duplex  marine  type  of  carbonic 
acid  machine,  401 

-  marine   types   of    cold-air   machines, 

414-417 

—  type  of  single-acting  ammonia  com- 
pression machine,  402 

—  pipe,  mercury  well  for,  563 
Very  low  temperatures,  588-601 
Vessels  carrying  live  cattle,  cooling  holds 

of,  473 

—  fitted  with  refrigerating  machinery, 

number  of,  7 

Vicq-Auzin,  use  of  refrigeration  for  sink- 
ing shafts  at,  475 

Victoria  Dock,  lifts  at,  378 
imports  of  butter  from,  6 

imports  of  frozen  beef  from,  3 

Victuals,  specific  heat  and  composition 
of,  383 

Villafranca,  Blasius,  use  of  saltpetre  by, 
for  the  reduction  of  temperature, 
21 

Vilter  Manufacturing  Co.,  ammonia 
compressor,  81-83 

Vogt  Machine  Co.,  Henry,  improved 
ammonia  absorption  machine,  196, 
197 

Volatile  liquid  agents,  34 

Voorhees,  Mr  Gardner  F.,  oil  separator 
or  collector,  547 

V-shaped  or  corrugated  bottom  to  cool- 
ing tank,  291,  292 

Vulcan  Iron  Works,  amount  of  water 
required  in  refrigerating  apparatus, 
570 


INDEX. 


63' 


Vulcan  horizontal  double-acting  ammonia 
compression  machine,  112-114 

—  ice  factory,  520 

—  inclosed  type    ammonia  compressor, 

114,  115 

—  track  system,  527 


WAGONS,  refrigerated.     See  Vans 
Walker    laboratory    ice-making 

machine,  22 

Wallace,  Dr  Wm.,  results  of  tests  by,  to 
determine  non-conductive  values  of 
various  materials,  338 
Wallis-Tayler  and  Whitehead,  revolving 
door  for  cold  stores,  310-312 

—  tests     conducted     by,     on     cold-air 

machines,  244 

Wall  or  plate  system  of  making  clear  ice, 
485,  493-496 

—  system,   plan  for  chilling  and  freez- 

ing by  circulation  of  cold  brine  on, 
292,  293 
Walls  for  cold  stores,  350-354 

—  of     cold    stores,    radiation    of    heat 

through,  287-289 

Washed  intestines  of  freshly  killed 
pigs,  experiments  with  ammonia  on, 
276 

Washing,  cooling,  and  drying  air,  ap- 
paratus for,  297,  298 

Wastage  of  ice,  536 

Water,  amount  of,  required  in  refriger- 
ating apparatus,  570 

—  common    arrangement    for    distribu- 

tion in  atmospheric  condensers,  157, 
158 

—  consumption    in    carbonic    acid   ma- 

chines, 142 

in  sulphuric  acid  machine,  28,  29 

in  sulphuric  ether  machine,  39,  43 

—  cooling  apparatus,  152-173 
towers,  168-173 

—  de-aerating   or    distilling  apparatus, 

508  517 

—  distributing  arrangement,  158,  159 

—  presence  of,  in  ammonia  system,  542 

—  saving    and   cooling  apparatus,    168- 

173 

—  specific  heat  of,  10 

Waterproof  coatings  for  brick  surfaces, 

345-350 
Way  good  &  Co.,  external  carcass  hoist, 

376-378 

-  lifts,  passenger  or  goods,  378-380 
Webb's  arrangement   of   suction   valves 

for  ammonia  compressors,  408 
Weddel  &  Co.,   on  imports  of  mutton, 

lamb,  and  beef,  2-5 


Wedge,  adjustable  shoes  on  crossheads 
of  compressor,  83 

—  doors  for  cold  stores,  357-360 
Wegelin  and  Hiibner  carbonic  acid  com- 
pression machine,  151 

Well,  mercury,  for  horizontal  pipe,  563 
vertical  pipe,  563,  564 

—  sinking,   application   of  refrigeration 

to,  473 

Westerlin  and  Campbell  double -pipe  con- 
denser, 165 

West,  H.  J.,  £  Co.,  Ltd.,  carbonic  acid 
compression  machines,  141-144 

—  ether  compression  machine,  118-120 

—  submerged  condenser,  154 

-  See  also  Delia  Beffa  and  West 
West  India  Docks,  lifts  at,  378 

—  Indian  fruit,  first  cargo  of,  3 

-  Smithfield,  lifts  at,  378-380 

Wet  system  of  operating  ammonia  com- 
pression machines,  52,  53 

Wetzel  pan,  water- cooling  tower  on 
principle  of,  173 

Weyde,  Van  der,  refrigerating  machine, 
44 

—  system  of  packing  ice,  530 

White  bleaching  of  clothes  by  refrigera- 
tion, 472 

Whitehead.  See-  Wallis-Tayler  and 
Whitehead 

Whitelaw.     See  Johnson  and  Whitelaw 

Williamson's  cold  storage  chamber,  293, 
294 

Wilson,  Thos.,  Sons,  &  Co.,  steamers 
fitted  with  refrigerating  machinery 
for  the  butter  trade,  6 

Windhausen  apparatus  for  production  of 
very  low  temperatures,  593 

—  carbonic  acid  machine,  45,  46,  131 

—  cold-air  machine,  216-221 

—  Franz,  compound  vacuum  pump,  27 

—  machine,  cost  of  making  ice  with,  583, 

584 

installation  of,  at  Bayswater,  27 

Window  insulation,  360 

Windows  of  cold  stores,  radiation  of  heat 
through,  287 

Wine  growers  and  merchants,  use  of  re- 
frigerating machinery  by,  469-471 

Witting  gilled  piping,  269 

Wolf  Co.,  Fred.  W.,  atmospheric  con- 
densers, 161 

—  recent    design    of    Linde    compressor 

made  by,  81 

—  See  also  Pontifex  and  Wood 

Work,  carbonic  acid  machine,  to  charge 
and,  554-556 

—  demanded  of  a  machine  for  effecting 

mechanical  refrigeration,  15-19 


632  INDEX 

Working,  cost  of,  579-587  York     Manufacturing     Co.,     compound 

Wort,  beer,  cooling  of,  444-446  ammonia  compressor,  97-99 

Worthington  water-cooling  tower,  170  —  improved    St    Clair    ammonia    com- 

Wroblewski,   experiments  by,   in  lique-  pressor,  116 

faction  of  gases,  591  —  single-acting    ammonia    compressor, 

97-99 

Y  ARYAN     catchalls,     modified      ar- 
rangement of,  547,  548  r^ERO  on  Centigrade  thermometrical 
—  distilling  apparatus,  510-517  /^     scale,  12 

—  oil  separator,  547,  548  —  on  Fahrenheit  thermometrical  scale,  12 

Yeast   rooms,    brewery,   cooling   air   in,  —  real,  12 

446,  447  Zschocke  water-cooling  tower,  171 


Printed  by  THE  DARIEN  PRESS,  Edinburgh. 


CROSBY  LOCKWOOD  &  SON'S 


LIST  OF  WORKS 


ON 


CIVIL,    MECHANICAL, 

MARINE   AND    ELECTRICAL 

ENGINEERING. 


A  Complete  Catalogue  of  NEW  and  STANDARD 
WORKS  on  MINING  and  COLLIERY  WORK- 
ING ;  ARCHITECTURE  and  BUILDING;  The 
INDUSTRIAL  ARTS,  TRADES  and  MANU- 
FACTURES ;  CHEMISTRY  and  CHEMICAL 
MANUFACTURES;  AGRICULTURE,  FARM- 
,  GARDENING,  AUCTIONEERING,  LAND 
AGENCY,  &c.  Post  Free  on  Application. 


LONDON : 
7,   STATIONERS'   HALL  COURT,    LUDGATE   HILL,  E.G. 

AND 

5,  Broadway,  Westminster,  S.W. 
1913 


Messrs.  CROSBY  LOCKWOOD  &  SON  beg  to 
announce  that  they  have  been  appointed  Agents 
for  the  sale  of  the  series  of  "  BOOKS  FOR 
HOME  STUDY,"  issued  under  the  American 
School  of  Correspondence,  Chicago.  These  books 
are  both  practical  and  scientific,  written  by 
experts  whose  experience  and  standing  make 
them  authorities  on  the  subjects  which  they 
treat.  A  full  descriptive  list  will  be  sent  post 
free  on  application. 


LIST    OF    WORKS 


ON 


CIVIL,   MECHANICAL,    ELECTRICAL 
AND    MARINE    ENGINEERING. 


ACETYLENE,  LIGHTING  BY.  Generators,  Burners,  and 
Electric  Furnaces.  By  WILLIAM  E.  GIBBS,  M.E.  With  66  Illustrations. 
Crown  8vo,  cloth  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  75.  6d. 

AERIAL  NAVIGATION.  A  Practical  Handbook  on  the 
Construction  of  Dirigible  Balloons,  Aerostats,  Aeroplanes,  and  Airships. 
By  FREDERICK  WALKER,  C.E.,  Associate  Member  of  the  Aeronautic 
Institute.  Second  Edition,  thoroughly  revised  and  enlarged.  176  pages. 
With  128  Illustrations.  Crown  8vo,  cloth  Net  5&* 

AERIAL  OR  WIRE-ROPE  WAYS.  Their  Construction 
and  Management.  By  A.  J.  WALLIS-TAYLER,  A.M.Inst.C.E.  254 
pages,  with  155  Illustrations.  Demy  8vo,  cloth  ...  Net  75.  6d. 

AERONAUTICS,  PRACTICAL.  An  understandable  Presenta- 
tion of  Interesting  and  Essential  Facts  in  Aeronautical  Science.  By 
CHARLES  B.  HAYWARD.  With  Introduction  by  ORVILLE  WRIGHT.  769 
pages,  Fully  Illustrated.  Medium  8vo,  cloth.  [Just  Published.  Net  \§s* 

ALTERNATING  CURRENTS,  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF. 

For  Students  of  Electrical  Engineering.  By  E.  T.  LARNER,  A.I.E.E., 
of  the  Engineering  Department,  G.P.O.,  London.  144  pages,  with 
69  Illustrations.  Crown  8vo,  cloth.  ,..  ...  ...  Net  35.  6d. 

ARMATURE    WINDINGS    OF    DIRECT     CURRENT 

DYNAMOS.  Extension  and  Application  of  a  General  Winding  Rule. 
By  E.  ARNOLD,  Engineer,  Assistant  Professor  in  Electro-Technics  and 
Machine  Design  at  the  Riga  Polytechnic  School.  Translated  from  the 
original  German  by  FRANCIS  B.  DE  GRESS,  M.E.,  Chief  of  Testing 
Department,  Crocker-Wheeler  Company.  Medium  8vo,  120  pp.,  with 
over  140  Illustrations  Net  12s. 

AVIATION,  THE  ART  OF.  A  Handbook  upon  Aeroplanes 
and  their  Engines,  with  Notes  upon  Propellers.  By  ROBERT  W.  A. 
BREWER,  A.M.I.C.E.,  M.I.M.E.,  Fellow  of  the  Society  of  Engineers 
(Gold  Medallist),  Member  of  the  Institution  of  Automobile  Engineers, 
author  of  "  The  Motor  Car,"  Recently  Manager  to  Mr.  Grahame- White. 
Popular  Edition.  Demy  8vo,  cloth,  294  pages,  with  Illustrations  and 
Dimensioned  Drawings  ...  ...  ...  \]ust Published,  Net  55. 

AVIATION  POCKET   BOOK  FOR  1913.     Containing  the 

Theory  and  Design  of  the  Aeroplane,  Structural  Material,  Examples  of 
Actual  Machines,  Meteorological  Data,  Military  Information  and 
Signalling,  &c.,&c.  ByR.  BORLASE  MATTHEWS,  A.M.I. C.E.,  M.I. E.E., 
Member  of  the  Aero  Club.  180  pages,  Fully  Illustrated.  Fcap.  8vo. 

[Just  Published.     Net  35.  6d. 

AVIATION*     See  also  FLYING  MACHINES. 

BALLOONS  —  MODEL     BALLOONS     AND     FLYING 

MACHINES,  with  a  Short  Account  of  the  Progress  of  Aviation.  By 
J.  H.  ALEXANDER,  M.B.,  A.I.E.E.,  Associate  of  the  Scottish  Aero- 
nautical Society.  136  pages,  with  46  Illustrations,  and  five  sheets  of 
Working  Drawings.  Crown  8vo,  cloth  Net  35.  6d. 


4  CROSBY  LOCKWOOD  &  SON'S   CATALOGUE. 

BEAMS.    EXPERIMENTS    ON   THEIR    FLEXURE. 

Resulting  in  the  Discovery  of  New  Laws  of  Failure  by  Buckling.  By 
ALBERT  E.  GUY.  Medium  8vo,  cloth Net  ps. 

BLAST   FURNACE   CALCULATIONS    AND   TABLES 

FOR  FURNACE  MANAGERS  AND  ENGINEERS.  Containing 
Rules  and  Formulae  for  Finding  the  Dimensions  and  Output  Capacity  of 
any  Furnace,  as  well  as  the  regular  Outfit  of  Stoves,  Heating  Surface, 
Volume  of  Air,  Tuyere  Area,  &c.,  per  ton  of  Iron  per  day  of  24  hours. 
By  JOHN  L.  STEVENSON.  Fcap.  8 vo,  leather  Net  55. 

BOILER    AND    FACTORY    CHIMNEYS.    Their  Draught- 

Power  and  Stability.  With  a  chapter  on  "  Lightning  Conductors."  By 
ROBERT  WILSON,  A.I.C.E.,  author  of  "A  Treatise  on  Steam  Boilers," 
etc.  Crown  8vo,  cloth  35.  6d. 

BOILER  CONSTRUCTION.  A  Practical  Handbook  for 
Engineers,  Boiler-Makers,  and  Steam  Users.  Containing  a  large 
Collection  of  Rules  and  Data  relating  to  Recent  Practice  in  the 
Design,  Construction,  and  Working  of  all  Kinds  of  Stationary,  Loco- 
motive, and  Marine  Steam-Boilers.  By  WALTER  S.  HUTTON,  Civil  and 
Mechanical  Engineer.  With  upwards  of  500  Illustrations.  Fourth 
Edition,  carefully  Revised  and  Enlarged.  Medium  8vo,  over  680  pages, 
cloth,  strongly  bound ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  i8s. 

HEAT,  RADIATION,  AND  CONDUCTION — NON-CONDUCTING  MATERIALS  AND  COVERINGS  FOR 
STEAM-BOILERS — COMPOSITION,  CALORIFIC-POWER  AND  EVAPORATIVE-POWER  OF  FUELS — COM- 
BUSTION, FIRING  STEAM-BOILERS,  PRODUCTS  OK  COMBUSTION,  ETC.— CHIMNEYS  FOR  STEAM- 
BOILERS — STEAM-BLAST — FORCED-DRAUGHT — FEED-WATEK — EFFECT  OF  HEAT  ON  WATER — 
EXPANSION  OF  WATER  BY  HEAT — WEIGHT  OF  WATER  AT  DIFFERENT  TEMPERATURES — CONVEC- 
TION— CIRCULATION — EVAPORATION — PROPERTIES  OF  SATURATED  STEAM — EVAPORATIVE  POWER 
OF  BOILERS — PRIMING,  ETC. — WATER-HEATING-SURFACES  OF  STEAM-BOILERS—TRANSMISSION  OF 
HEAT — SMOKE-TUBES — EVAPORATIVE  POWER  AND  EFFICIENCY  OF  BOILERS — WATER-CAPACITY 
AND  STEAM-CAPACITY  OF  BOILERS — FIRK-GRATES,  FIRE-BRIDGES,  AND  FIRE-BARS — POWER  OF 
BOILERS — CYLINDRICAL  SHELLS  AND  FURNACE.TUBES  OF  BOILERS,  ETC. — TESTS  OK  MATERIALS — 
STRENGTH  AND  WEIGHT  OF  BOILER-PLATES — EFFECT  OF  TEMPERATURE  ON  METALS — RIVET- 
HOLES —  RIVETS  —  RIVETED-JOINTS  OP  STEAM-BOILERS  —  CAULKING  —  ENDS  OF  CYLINDRICAL- 
SHELLS — STAYS  FOR  BOILERS,  ETC. — STEAM-GENERATORS — DESCRIPTION  AND  PROPORTIONS  OF 
CORNISH,  LANCASHIRE,  AND  OTHER  TYPES  OF  STATIONARY  BOILERS — BOILER-SETTING — MULTI- 
TUBULAR,  LOCOMOTIVE,  PORTABLE,  MARINE,  VERTICAL,  AND  WATER-TUBE  BOILERS— SUPER- 
HEATERS— COST  OF  STEAM  PRODUCTION — FURNACES  FOR  REFUSE-FUELS — DESTRUCTORS,  ETC. — 
SAFETY-VALVES— STEAM-PIPES — STOH- VALVES  AND  OTHER  MOUNTINGS  FOR  BOILERS — FEED- 
PUMPS—STEAM-PUMPS— FEED-WATER  CONSUMPTION — INJECTORS— INCRUSTATION  AND  CORROSION 
— FEED-WATER  HEATERS — EVAPORATORS — TESTING  BOILERS — EVAPORATIVE  PERFORMANCES  OF 
STEAM  BOILERS  :  STEAM-BOILER  EXPLOSIONS,  ETC. 

BOILERMAKER'S  ASSISTANT.  In  Drawing,  Templating, 
and  Calculating  Boiler  Work,  etc.  By  J.  COURTNEY,  Practical 
Boiler-Maker.  Edited  by  D.  K.  CLARK,  C.E.  Eighth  Edition. 
Crown  8vo,  cloth  2S. 

BOILERMAKER'S  READY  RECKONER.    With  Examples 

of  Practical  Geometry  and  Templating  for  the  Use  of  Platers,  Smiths, 
and  Riveters.  By  JOHN  COURTNEY.  Edited  by  D.  K.  CLARK, 
M.InstC.E  Crown  8vo,  cloth  45. 

BOILERMAKER'S  READY  RECKONER  AND  ASSIS- 

TANT,  being  the  two  previous  mentioned  volumes  bound  together  in 
one  volume.  With  Examples  of  Practical  Geometry  and  Templating  for 
the  Use  of  Platers,  Smiths,  and  Riveters.  By  JOHN  COURTNEY,  Edited 
by  D.  K.  CLARK,  M.Inst.C.E.  Fifth  Edition,  480  pp.,  with  140  Illustra- 
tions. Crown  8 vo,  half  bound  75. 


CIVIL,  MECHANICAL,  ELECTRICAL  &  MARINE  ENGINEERING.      5 


BOILER  MAKING  AND  PLATING*  A  Practical  Handbook 
for  Workshop  Operations,  including  an  Appendix  of  Tables.  By  JOSEPH 
G.  HORNER,  A.M.I.M.E.  Second  Edition  thoroughly  Revised  and 
Enlarged.  380  pp.  with  351  Illustrations.  Large  Crown  8vo,  cloth.  Netgs. 

BOILERS  (STEAM)*  Their  Construction  and  Management.  By 
R.  ARMSTRONG.  C.E.  Illustrated.  Crown  8vo,  cloth  ...  is.  6d. 

BOILERS.  Their  Strength,  Construction,  and  Economical  Working. 
Bv  R.  WILSON,  C.E.  Fifth  Edition.  T2mo,  cloth  6s. 

BOILERS-MODERN  STEAM  BOILERS:  THE  LAN- 
CASHIRE BOILER.  A  Practical  Manual  for  Owners  and  Users  of 
Steam  Boilers  generally.  By  \V.  D.  WANSBROUGH,  Author  of  "  The 
Portable  Steam  Engine."  186  pp.  with  117  Illustrations.  Demy  8vo,  cloth. 

[Just  Published.     Net  *s.  6d. 

BRIDGE  CONSTRUCTION  IN  CAST  AND  WROUGHT 

IRON.  A  Complete  and  Practical  Treatise  on,  including  Iron  Founda- 
tions. In  Three  Tarts. — Theoretical,  Practical,  and  Descriptive.  By 
WILLIAM  HUMBER,  A.M.Inst.C.E.,  and  M.Inst.M.E.  Third  Edition, 
revised  and  much  improved,  with  115  Double  Plates  (20  of  which  now 
first  appear  in  this  edition),  and  numerous  Additions  to  the  Text.  In  2 
vols.,  imp.  4to,  half-bound  in  morocco  ...  ...  Net  £6  i6s.  6d. 

BRIDGES  AND  VIADUCTS,  IRON  AND   STEEL*     A 

Practical  Treatise  upon  their  Construction.  For  the  Use  of  Engineers, 
Draughtsmen,  and  Students.  By  FRANCIS  CAMPIN,  C.E.  Crown  8vo, 
cloth  35.  6d. 

BRIDGES  (IRON)  OF  MODERATE  SPAN:    Their  Con- 

struction  and  Erection.     By  H.  W.  PENDRED.     With  40  illustrations 

Crown  8vo,  cloth  2S. 

BRIDGES,  OBLIQUE*  A  Practical  and  Theoretical  Essay. 
With  13  large  Plates.  By  the  late  GEORGE  WATSON  BUCK,  M.Inst.C.E. 
Fourth  Edition,  revised  by  his  Son,  J.  H.  WATSON  BUCK,  M.InstC.E. ; 
and  with  the  addition  of  Description  to  Diagrams  for  Facilitating  the 
.Construction  of  Oblique  Bridges,  by  W.  H.  Barlow,  M.Inst.C.E.  Royal 
8vo,  cloth  I2S. 

BRIDGES,  TUBULAR  AND  OTHER  IRON  GIRDER* 

Describing  the  Britannia  and  Conway  Tubular  Bridges.  With  a  Sketch 
of  Iron  Bridges,  Etc.  By  G.  D.  DEMPSEY,  C.E.  Crown  8vo,  cloth  2s. 

CALCULATOR  (NUMBER,  WEIGHT  AND  FRAC- 
TIONAL). Containing  upwards  of  250,000  Separate  Calculations,  show- 
ing at  a  Glance  the  Value  at  422  Different  Rates,  ranging  from  ^th  of  a 
Penny  to  2os.  each,  or  per  cwt,  and  £20  per  ton,  of  any  number  of 
articles  consecutively,  from  i  to  470.  Any  number  of  cwts.,  qrs.,  and  Ibs.j 
from  i  cwt.  to  470  cwts.  Any  number  of  tons,  cwts.,  qrs.,  and  Ibs.,  from 
i  to  1,000  tons.  By  WILLIAM  CHADWICK,  Public  Accountant.  Fifth 
Edition,  Revised  and  Improved.  8vo,  strongly  bound  ...  ...  i8s. 

CALCULATOR  (WEIGHT)*  Being  a  Series  of  Tables  upon  a 
New  and  Comprehensive  Plan,  exhibiting  at  one  Reference  the  exact 
Value  of  any  Weight  from  i  Ib.  to  15  tons,  at  300  Progressive  Rates, 
from  id.  to  i68s.  per  cwt.,  and  containing  186,000  Direct  Answers,  which, 
with  their  Combinations,  consisting  of  a  single  addition  (mostly  to  be 
performed  at  sight),  will  afford  an  aggregate  of  10,266,000  Answers  ;  the 
whole  being  calculated  and  designed  to  ensure  correctness  and  promote 
despatch.  By  HENRY  HARBEN,  Accountant.  Sixth  Edition,  carefully 
Corrected.  Royal  8vo  strongly  half-bound  £i  5S. 


CROSBY  LOCKWOOD  6-   SON'S   CATALOGUE, 


CARBURATION:     IN     THEORY     AND    PRACTICE, 

including  a  Criticism  of  Carburation  Development.  A  Manual  of 
Reference  for  Automobile  Engineers  and  Owners.  By  ROBERT  W.  A. 
BREWER,  A.M.Inst.C.E.,  Author  of  "Motor  Car  Construction."  With 
numerous  Illustrations,  Tables,  and  Diagrams. 

\In  Preparation.     Price  about  8s.  6d.  net. 

CHAIN  CABLES  AND  CHAINS*  Comprising  Sizes  and 
Curves  of  Links,  Studs,  Etc.,  Iron  for  Cables  and  Chains,  Chain  Cable 
and  Chain  Making,  Forming  and  Welding  Links,  Strength  of  Cables  and 
Chains,  Certificates  for  Cables,  Marking  Cables,  Prices  of  Chain  Cables 
and  Chains,  Etc.,  Etc.  By  THOMAS  W.  TRAILL,  F.E.R.N.,  M.Inst.C.E., 
Engineer-Surveyor-in-Chief,  Board  of  Trade,  etc.  With  numerous  Tables, 
Illustrations,  and  Lithographic  Drawings.  Folio,  cloth  ...  £2  2S. 

CIVIL  ENGINEERING.  By  HENRY  LAW,  M.Inst.C.E.  Includ- 
ing a  Treatise  on  Hydraulic  Engineering  by  G.  R.  BURNELL,  M.Inst.C.E. 
Seventh  Edition,  Revised,  with  Large  Additions  on  Recent  Practice  by 
D.  KINNEAR  CLARK,  M.Inst.C.E.  Crown  8vo,  cloth  ...  6s.  6d. 

COKE— MODERN    COKING    PRACTICE,     Including  the 

Analysis  of  Materials  and  Products.  A  handbook  for  those  engaged 
or  interested  in  Coke  Manufacture  with  recovery  of  Bye-Products.  By 
T.  H.  BYROM,  F.I.C.,  F.C.S.,  Mem.  Soc.  Chem.  Industry  ;  Chief  Chemist 
to  the  Wigan  Coal  and  Iron  Co. ;  Author  of  "  The  Physics  and  Chemistry 
of  Mining";  and  J.  E.  CHRISTOPHER,  Mem.  Soc.  Chem.  Industry. 
1 68  pp.,  with  numerous  Illustrations.  Demy  8vo,  cloth.  Net  8s.  6d. 

COMPRESSED  AIR  WORK  AND  DIVING.    A  Handbook 

for  Engineers,  comprising  Deep  Water  Diving  and  the  use  of  Compressed 
Air  for  Sinking  Caissons  and  Cylinders  and  for  Driving  Subaqueous 
Tunnels.  By  G.  W.  M.  BOYCOTT,  Assoc.  M.Inst.C.E.  With  numerous 
Plates  and  other  Illustrations.  Medium  8vo,  cloth.  ...  Net  ios.  6d. 

STAGE  DECOMPRESSION  —  THE  COMMON  DIVING  DRESS  AND  HELMET  —  ROUQUAYROL- 
DENAYROUZE  APPARATUS— FLEUSS  DRESS — THE  DIVING  BELL — PUMPS — PNEUMATIC  CAISSONS 
AND  CYLINDERS  —  TUNNELLING  —  BLACKWALL  AND  ROTHERHITHE  TUNNELS  —  EAST  RIVER 
TUNNELS,  NEW  YORK — ROCK  BLASTING — AIR  COMPRESSORS. 

CONTINUOUS  RAILWAY  BRAKES*  A  Practical  Treatise 
on  the  several  Systems  in  Use  in  the  United  Kingdom,  their  Construction 
and  Performance.  By  M.  REYNOLDS.  8vo,  cloth  ps. 

CRANES,  the  Construction  of,  and  other  Machinery  for  Raising 
Heavy  Bodies  for  the  Erection  of  Buildings,  Etc.  By  J.  GLYNN,  F.R.S. 
Crown  8vo,  cloth is.  6d. 

CURVES*    TABLES  OF  TANGENTIAL  ANGLES  AND 

MULTIPLES.  For  Setting-out  Curves  from  5  to  200  Radius.  By 
A.  BEAZELEY,  M.Inst.C.E.  Seventh  Edition,  Revised.  With  an 
Appendix  on  the  use  of  the  Tables  for  Measuring  up  Curves.  Printed 
on  50  Cards,  and  sold  in  a  cloth  box,  waistcoat-pocket  size...  35.  6d. 

DIESEL   OR   SLOW.COMBUSTION   OIL   ENGINE.    A 

Practical  Treatise  on  the  Design  and  Construction  of  the  Diesel  Engine 
for  the  Use  of  Draughtsmen,  Students,  and  others.  By  G.  JAMES  WELLS, 
Wh.Sc.,  A.M.Inst.C.E.,  M.I.Mech.E.,  and  A.  J.  WAI.LIS-TAYLER,  C.E., 
A.M.Inst.C.E.,  Author  of  "Refrigeration,  Cold  Storage,  and  Ice- 
Making,"  &c.  \In  Preparation. 

DRAINAGE  OF  LANDS,  TOWNS  AND  BUILDINGS. 

By  G.  D.  DEMPSEY,  C.E.  Revised,  with  Large  Additions  on  Recent 
Practice  in  Drainage  Engineering  by  D.  KlNNEAR  CLARK,  M.Inst.C.E. 
Fourth  Edition.  Crown  8vo,  cloth  45.  6d. 


CIVIL,  MECHANICAL,  ELECTRICAL  &  MARINE  ENGINEERING.      ^ 

DREDGES  AND  DREDGING*  By  CHARLES  PRELINI,  Author 
of  "Earth  and  Rock  Excavation,"  "Tunnelling,"  &c.  290  pp.,  with  82 
Illustrations.  Royal  8vo,  cloth  Net  125.  6d. 

DRYING  MACHINERY  AND  PRACTICE.    A  Handbook 

on  the  Theory  and  Practice  of  Drying  and  Desiccating,  with  Classified 
Description  of  Installations,  Machinery,  and  Apparatus,  including  also 
a  Glossary  of  Technical  Terms  and  Bibliography.  By  THOMAS  G. 
MARLOW,  Grinding,  Drying,  and  Separating  Machinery  Specialist. 
346  pages,  with  174  Illustrations,  and  numerous  tables.  Medium  8vo, 
cloth Net  I2S.  6d. 

DYNAMIC  ELECTRICITY  AND  MAGNETISM,  ELE- 
MENTS OF.  A  Handbook  for  Students  and  Electrical  Engineers. 
By  PHILIP  ATKINSON,  A.M.,  Ph.D.  Crown  8vo,  cloth,  417  pp.,  with 
1 20  Illustrations  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  IDS.  6d. 

DYNAMO  BUILDING.    HOW  TO  MAKE  A  DYNAMO. 

A  Practical  Treatise  for  Amateurs.  By  A.  CROFTS.    Crown  8vo,  cloth.  25. 

DYNAMO    ELECTRIC    MACHINERY.     Its  Construction, 

Design  and  Operation.     In  Two  Volumes  (Sold  separately). 

Vol.  I.— DIRECT  CURRENT  MACHINES.  By  SAMUEL  SHELDON, 
A.M.,  Ph.D.,  and  ERICH  HAUSMANN,  B.S.,  E.E.  Eighth  Edition, 
completely  rewritten.  Large  crown  8vo,  cloth.  338  pp.,  210  Illustrations. 

Net  I2S. 

Vol.  II.— ALTERNATING  CURRENT  MACHINES.  By  SAMUEL 
SHELDON,  A.M.,  Ph.D.,  and  HOBART  MASON,  B.S.,  E.E.,  and  ERICH 
HAUSMANN,  B.S.,  E.E.  Eighth  Edition,  Completely  Rewritten.  Large 
crown  8vo,  cloth.  366  pp.,  with  236  Illustrations  Net  125. 

DYNAMO  MANAGEMENT.  A  Handybook  of  Theory  and 
Practice.  For  the  use  of  Mechanics,  Engineers,  Students,  and  others 
in  charge  of  Dynamos.  By  G.  W.  LUMMIS-PATERSON,  Electrical 
Engineer.  Fourth  Edition,  Revised  and  Enlarged.  300  pp.,  with  117 
Illustrations.  Crown  8vo,  cloth  Net  45.  6d. 

DYNAMO,  MOTOR,  AND  SWITCHBOARD  CIRCUITS 

FOR  ELECTRICAL  ENGINEERS,  A  Practical  Book  dealing  with 
the  subject  of  Direct,  Alternating,  and  Polyphase  Currents.  By 
WM.  R.  BOWKER,  Consulting  Electrical  and  Street  Railway  Engineer, 
Prof,  of  Physics  in  the  University  of  Southern  California.  Second 
Edition,  Revised.  Medium  8vo,  cloth.  With  Diagrams...  Net  75.  6d. 

DYNAMOS  (ALTERNATING  AND  DIRECT  CUR- 
RENT). A  Text-book  on  their  Construction  for  Students,  Engineer- 
Constructors  and  Electricians-in-Charge.  ByTYSON  SEWELL,  A.M.I.E.E., 
Lecturer  and  Demonstrator  in  Electrical  Engineering  at  the  Polytechnic, 
Regent  Street.  328  pp.,  with  over  230  Illustrations.  Large  crown  8vo, 
cloth Net  75.  6d. 

EARTHWORK  DIAGRAMS*  These  Diagrams  or  Scales  have 
been  designed  with  the  intention  of  reducing  the  labour  connected  with 
the  computation  of  earthwork  quantities,  and  especially  those  of  railways 
and  roads.  By  R.  A.  ERSKINE-MURRAY,  A.M.Inst.C.E.,  and  Y.  D. 
KlRTON,  A.M.Can.Soc.C.E.  On  a  sheet  in  a  roll,  net  55.,  or  mounted 
on  card,  net  73.  6d. 

EARTHWORK  MANUAL.  By  ALEX.  J.  GRAHAM,  C.E.  With 
numerous  Diagrams.  Second  Edition.  i8mo,  cloth  ...  2s.  <5d. 


8  CROSBY  LOCK  WOOD   &   SOWS   CATALOGUE. 

EARTHWORK  TABLES*  Showing  the  Contents  in  Cubic  Yards 
of  Embankments,  Cuttings,  &c.,  of  Heights  or  Depths  up  to  an  average 
of  80  feet.  By  JOSEPH  BKOADBENT,  C.E.,  and  FRANCIS  CAMPIN,C.E. 
Crown  8vo,  cloth  55. 

EARTHWOR.K   TABLES,  HANDY  GENERAL*     Giving 

the  Contents  in  Cubic  Yards  of  Centre  and  Slopes  of  Cuttings  and 
Embankments  from  3  inches  to  80  feet  in  Depth  or  Height,  for  use  with 
either  66  feet  Chain  or  100  feet  Chain.  By  J.  H.  WATSON  BUCK, 
M.Inst.C.E.  On  a  Sheet  mounted  in  cloth  case  35.  6d. 

ELECTRIC  LIGHT*  Its  Production  and  Use.  By  J.  W.  URQUHART. 
Crown  8vo,  cloth 75.  6d. 

ELECTRIC  LIGHT  FITTING*  A  Handbook  for  Working 
Electrical  Engineers.  By  J.  W.  URQUHART.  Crown  8vo,  cloth  55. 

ELECTRIC  LIGHT  FOR  COUNTRY  HOUSES.  A  Prac- 
tical Handbook,  including  Particulars  of  the  Cost  of  Plant  and  Working. 
By  J.  H.  KNIGHT.  Crown  8vo,  wrapper  is. 

ELECTRIC  LIGHTING*  By  ALAN  A.  CAMPBELL  SWINTON, 
M.InstC.E.,  M.I.E.E.  Crown  8vo,  cloth  is.  6d. 

ELECTRIC  LIGHTING  AND  HEATING*  A  POCKET- 
BOOK.  Comprising  useful  Formulas,  Tables,  Data,  and  Particulars 
of  Apparatus  and  Appliances  for  the  Use  of  Central  Station  Engineers, 
Contractors,  and  Engineers-in-Charge.  By  SYDNEY  F.  WALKER,  R.N., 
M.I.E.E.,  M.I.M.E.,  A.M.InstC.E.,  Etc.  Fcap.  Svo,  448  pp.,  270 
Diagrams,  and  240  Tables Net  75.  6d. 

ELECTRIC   MOTORS:    THEIR   ACTION,  CONTROL, 

AND  APPLICATION.  By  FRANCIS  B.  CROCKER,  E.M.,  Ph.D., 
Professor  of  Electrical  Engineering,  Columbia  University  ;  Past  Pres. 
A.I.E.E.  ;  Mem.  British  Inst.  E.E.  ;  and  M.  ARENDT,  E.E.,  Assistant 
Professor  of  Electrical  Engneering,  Columbia  University;  Mem.  A.I.E.E. 
297  pages,  158  Illustrations.  Medium  Svo,  cloth  ...  Net  los.  6d. 
ELECTRIC  POWER  CONDUCTORS.  By  WM.  A.  DEL  MAR, 
A.C.G.I.,  Assoc.  Mem.  A.I.E.E.,  Assoc.  I. E.E.  Large  crown  Svo,  cloth. 
336  pages,  with  numerous  illustrations.  Net  ps. 

MATERIALS  AND  GAUGES— TESTING  WIRE  AND  CABLE— ELECTRICAL  PROPERTIES— INSTALLA- 
TION— INSULATION  AND  INSULATED  CONDUCTORS— DEPRECIATION  AND  DETERIORATION — 
DETERMINATION  OF  SIZE  FOR  GIVEN  VOLTAGE  DROP  AND  POWER  Loss — THIRD  RAIL  CIRCUITS 
— DETERMINATION  OF  SIZE  FOR  GIVEN  STRESS  IN  SPANS— RAIL  BONDS — SPECIFICATIONS — 
TABLES  OF  INDUCTANCE,  REACTANCE,  AND  CAPACITY,  &c. 

ELECTRIC  POWER  CONDUCTORS :— CONDUCTORS 

FOR  ELECTRICAL  DISTRIBUTION,  their  Materials  and  Manufac- 
ture. The  Calculation  of  Circuits,  Pole-line  Construction,  Under- 
ground Working,  and  other  Uses.  By  F.  A.  C.  PERRINE,  A.M.,  D.Sc., 
Mem.Am.Inst.E.E.  Second  Edition,  Revised.  Medium  Svo,  300  pp., 

fully  illustrated        Net  155. 

ELECTRIC  SHIP-LIGHTING.  A  Handbook  on  the  Practical 
Fitting  and  Running  of  Ship's  Electrical  Plant.  By  J.  W.  URQUHART. 
Fourth  Edition,  Revised  and  Enlarged.  365  pages,  with  90  Illustrations. 
Crown  Svo,  cloth  75.  6d. 

ELECTRIC  TRACTION  AND  TRANSMISSION  ENGI- 
NEERING. By  SAMUEL  SHELDON,  A.M.,  Ph.D.,  D.Sc.,  and  ERICH 
HAUSMANN,  E.E.,  M.S.  317  pp.,  127  Illustrations.  Large  crown  Svo, 
cloth  [  Just  Published.  Net  1 2s. 

ELECTRIC  WIRING,  DIAGRAMS  AND  SWITCH- 

BOARDS.  By  NEWTON  HARRISON,  E.E.,  Instructor  of  Electrical 
Engineering  in  the  Newark  Technical  School.  Crown  Svo,  cloth.  Net  55. 


CIVIL,  MECHANICAL,  ELECTRICAL  &  MARINE  ENGINEERING.       9 

ELECTRIC  WIRING,  &c.— continued. 

THE  BEGINNING  OF  WIRING — CALCULATING  THE  SIZE  OF  WIRE — A  SIMPLE  ELECTRIC  LIGHT 
CIRCUIT  CALCULATED — ESTIMATING  THE  MAINS,  FEEDERS,  AND  BRANCHES — USING  THE  BRIDGE 
FOR  TESTING — THE  INSULATION  RESISTANCE — WIRING  FOR  MOTORS — WIRING  WITH  CLEATS, 
MOULDING  AND  CONDUIT — LAYING-OUT  A  CONDUIT  SYSTEM — POWER  REQUIRED  FOR  LAMPS — 
LIGHTING  OF  A  ROOM — SWITCHBOARDS  AND  THEIR  PURPOSE — SWITCHBOARDS  DESIGNED  FOR 
SHUNT  AND  COMPOUND-WOUND  DYNAMOS — PANEL  SWITCHBOARDS,  STREET  RAILWAY  SWITCH- 
BOARDS, LIGHTNING  ARRESTERS— THE  GROUND  DETECTOR — LOCATING  GROUNDS — ALTERNATING 
CURRENT  CIRCUITS — THE  POWER  FACTOR  IN  CIRCUITS — CALCULATION  OF  SIZES  OF  WIRE  FOR 
SINGLE,  Two  AND  THREE-PHASE  CIRCUITS. 

ELECTRICAL    AND     MAGNETIC     CALCULATIONS. 

For  the  use  of  Electrical  Engineers  and  Artisans,  Teachers,  Students, 
and  all  others  interested  in  the  Theory  and  Application  of  Electricity  and 
Magnetism.  By  A.  A.  ATKINSON,  M.S.,  Professor  of  Physics  and 
Electricity  in  Ohio  University,  Athens,  Ohio.  Crown  8vo,  cloth  Net  95. 

ELECTRICAL   CALCULATIONS    (ELEMENTARY).     A 

Manual  of  Simple  Engineering  Mathematics,  covering  the  whole  field 
of  Direct  Current  Calculations,  the  Basis  of  Alternating  Current 
Mathematics,  Networks  and  Typical  Cases  of  Circuits,  with  Appendices 
on  Special  Subjects.  By  T.  O'CONOR  SLOANE,  A.M.,  E.M.,  Ph.D., 
Author  of  "The  Standard  Electrical  Dictionary."  Large  Crown  8vo, 
cloth,  314  pp.  with  Diagrams  ,  ...  Net  ps. 

ELECTRICAL  DICTIONARY.  A  Popular  Encyclopedia  of 
Words  and  Terms  used  in  the  Practice  of  Electrical  Engineering. 
By  T.  O'CONOR  SLOANE,  A.M.,  E.M.,  Ph.D.  Fourth  Edition,  with 
Appendix.  690  pages  and  nearly  400  Illustrations.  Large  Crown  8vo, 
cloth Net  7S.  6d^ 

ELECTRICAL    ENGINEERING.      A    First-Year's    Course  for 
Students.     By  TYSON  SEWELL,  A.M.I.E.E.,  Lecturer  and  Demonstrator 
in    Electrical   Engineering  at  the  Polytechnic,  Regent  Street,  London.. 
Fifth  Edition,  Thoroughly  Revised.     Large  Crown  8vo,  cloth.     465  pp.r 
with  277  Illustrations      ...         ...         ...         ...         ...          ..  Net  55. 

OHM'S  LAW— UNITS  EMPLOYED  IN  ELECTRICAL  ENGINEERING— SERIES  AND  PARALLEL 
CIRCUITS — CURRENT  DENSITY  AND  POTENTIAL  DROP  IN  THE  CIRCUIT — THE  HEATING  EFFECT 
OF  THE  ELECTRIC  CURRENT  — THE  MAGNETIC  EFFECT  OF  AN  ELECTRIC  CURRENT  — THE 
MAGNETISATION  OF  IRON— ELECTRO  CHEMISTRY— PRIMARY  BATTERIES— ACCUMULATORS- 
INDICATING  INSTRUMENTS — AMMETERS,  VOLTMETERS,  OHMMETERS — ELECTRICITY  SUPPLY 
METERS— MEASURING  INSTRUMENTS,  AND  THE  MEASUREMENT  OF  ELECTRICAL  RESISTANCE- 
MEASUREMENT  OF  POTENTIAL  DIFFERENCE,  CAPACITY,  CURRENT  STRENGTH,  AND  PERME- 
ABILITY—ARC LAMPS— INCANDESCENT  LAMPS— MANUFACTURE  AND  INSTALLATION— PHOTO- 
MKTRY — THE  CONTINUOUS  CURRENT  DYNAMO — DIRECT  CURRENT  MOTORS — ALTERNATING 
CURRENTS — TRANSFORMERS,  ALTERNATORS,  SYNCHRONOUS  MOTORS— POLYPHASE  WORKING— 
APPENDIX  I.,  THE  THREE  WIRE  SYSTEM— APPENDIX  II.,  QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS 

ELECTRICAL    ENGINEERING    (ELEMENTARY).     In 

Theory  and  Practice.  A  Class  Book  for  Junior  and  Senior  Students  and 
Working  Electricians.  By  J.  H.  ALEXANDER.  With  nearly  200  Illustra- 
tions. Crown  8 vo,  cloth  A7^/ 35.  6d. 

FUNDAMENTAL  PRINCIPLES— ELECTRICAL  CURRENTS  — SOLENOID  COILS,  GALVANOMETERS. 
VOLT-METERS  —  MEASURING  INSTRUMENTS  —  ALTERNATING  CURRENTS  —  DYNAMO  ELECTRIC 
MACHINES— CONTINUOUS  CURRENT  DYNAMOS— INDUCTION,  STATIC  TRANSFORMERS,  CONVERTERS- 
MOTORS  —  PRIMARY  AND  STORAGE  CELLS— ARC  LAMPS  —  INCANDESCENT  LAMPS  —  SWITCHES, 
FUSES,  ETC. — CONDUCTORS  AND  CABLES  —  ELECTRICAL  ENERGY  METERS  —  SPECIFICATIONS  — 
GENERATION  AND  TRANSMISSION  OF  ELECTRICAL  ENERGY— GENERATING  STATIONS 

ELECTRICAL  ENGINEERING,  GENERAL  LECTURES 

ON.  By  C.  PROTEUS  STEINMETZ,  A.M.,  Ph.D.  Third  edition,  com- 
piled and  edited  by  J.  LEROY  HAYDEN.  284  pages,  with  Diagrams. 
Medium  8vo,  cloth  Net  &s.  6d. 

ELECTRICAL  ENGINEERING*   See  ALTERNATING  CURRENTS. 


io  CROSBY  LOCK  WOOD   6-  SON'S   CATALOGUE. 

ELECTRICAL    TRANSMISSION     OF     ENERGY.      A 

Manual  for  the  Design  of  Electrical  Circuits.  By  ARTHUR  VAUGHAN 
ABBOTT,  C.E.,  Member  American  Institute  of  P^lectrical  Engineers, 
etc.  Fifth  Edition,  Rewritten  and  Enlarged,  with  numerous  Tables, 
Plates,  and  other  Illustrations.  Royal  8vo,  700  pages.  Strongly  bound 
in  cloth  Net  us. 

ELECTRICAL  TRANSMISSION  OF  ENERGY— THREE 

PHASE  TRANSMISSION,  A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Economic 
Conditions  governing  the  Transmission  of  Electric  Energy  by  Under- 
ground and  Overhead  Conductors.  By  WILLIAM  BREW,  M.I.E.E.,  Late 
Chief  Expert  Assistant,  Dublin  Corporation  Electricity  Supply.  i86pp., 
with  83 'illustrations.  Demy  8vo,  cloth  Net  75.  6d. 

ELECTRICITY  AS  APPLIED  TO  MINING.    By  ARNOLD 

LUPTON,  M.InstC.E.,  M.I.Mech.E.,  M.I.E.E.,  late  Professor  of  Coal 
Mining  at  the  Yorkshire  College,  Victoria  University  ;  G.  D.  ASPINALL 
PARR,  M.I.E.E.,  A.M.I. Mech.E.,  Head  of  the  Electrical  Engineering 
Department,  Yorkshire  College,  Victoria  University ;  and  HERBERT 
PERKIN,  M.I.M.E.,  Assistant  Lecturer  in  the  Mining  Department  of  the 
Yorkshire  College,  Victoria  University.  Second  Edition,  Revised  and 
Enlarged, medium  Svo,  cloth, 300  pp., with  about  170  Illustrations.  Net  125. 

INTRODUCTORY — DYNAMIC  ELECTRICITY — DRIVING  OF  THE  DYNAMO — THE  STEAM  TURBINE — 
DISTRIBUTION  OF  ELECTRICAL  ENERGY — STARTING  AND  STOPI-ING  ELECTRICAL  GENERATORS  AND 
MOTORS  —  ELECTRIC  CABLES  —  CENTRAL  ELECTRICAL  PLANTS — ELECTRICITY  APPLIED  TO 
PUMPING  AND  HAULING — ELECTRICITY  APPLIED  TO  COAL  CUTTING — TYPICAL  ELECTRIC  PLANTS 
RECENTLY  ERECTED — ELECTRIC  LIGHTING  BY  ARC  AND  GLOW  LAMPS— MISCELLANEOUS  APPLICA- 
TIONS OF  ELECTRICITY— ELECTRICITY  AS  COMPARED  WITH  OTHER  MODES  OF  TRANSMITTING 
POWER — DANGERS  OF  ELECTRICITY. 

ELECTRICITY  IN  FACTORIES  AND  WORKSHOPS  : 

ITS  COST  AND  CONVENIENCE.  A  Handybook  for  Power 
Producers  and  Power  Users.  By  A.  P.  HASLAM,  M.I.E.E.  328  pp.,  with 
numerous  Illustrations.  Large  crown  Svo,  cloth Net  7$.  6d. 

THE  ELECTRIC  MOTOR  AND  ITS  ACCESSORIES  —  THE  DIRECT  CURRENT  MOTOR — THE 
ALTERNATING  CURRENT  MOTOR— THE  STARTING  AND  SPEED  REGULATION  OF  ELECTRIC 
MOTORS — THE  RATING  AND  EFFICIENCY  OF  ELECTRIC  MOTORS — THE  PROVISION  OF  ELECTRIC 
ENERGY — THE  COST  OF  ENERGY  AS  AFFECTED  BY  CONDITIONS  OF  WORKING — THE  QUESTION 
FOR  THE  SMALL  POWER  USER— INDEPENDENT  GENERATING  PLANTS— OIL  AND  GAS  ENGINE 
PLANTS — INDEPENDENT  GENERATING  PLANTS — STEAM  PLANTS — POWER  STATION  TARIFFS — THE 
APPLICATIONS  OF  ELECTRIC  POWER— THE  USE  OF  ELECTRIC  POWER  IN  TEXTILE  FACTORIES- 
ELECTRIC  POWER  IN  PRINTING  WORKS — THE  USE  OF  ELECTRIC  POWER  IN  ENGINEERING 
WORKSHOPS— MISCELLANEOUS  APPLICATIONS  OF  ELECTRIC  POWER— THE  INSTALLATION  OF 
ELECTRIC  MOTORS — THE  LIGHTING  OF  INDUSTRIAL  ESTABLISHMENTS. 

ELECTRICITY.      A    STUDENT'S     TEXT-BOOK.     By 

H.  M.  NOAD,  F,R.S.     650  pp.,  470  illustrations.     Crown  Svo    ...         95. 

ELECTRICITY,   POWER  TRANSMITTED    BY,    AND 

APPLIED  BY  THE  ELECTRIC  MOTOR,  including  Electric  Railway 
Construction.  By  PHILIP  ATKINSON,  A.M.,  Ph.D.,  author  of  "  Elements 
of  Static  Electricity."  Fourth  Edition,  Enlarged,  Crown  Svo,  cloth, 
224  op.,  with  over  90  illustrations  ...  ...  ...  ...  Net  ps. 

ELECTRO-PLATING  AND  ELECTRO-REFINING    OF 

METALS,  Being  a  new  edition  of  Alexander  Watt's  "  Electro-De- 
position," Revised  and  Largely  Re-written  by  ARNOLD  PHILIP, 
Assoc,  R.S.M.,  B.Sc.,  A.I.E.E.,  F.I.C.,  Principal  Assistant  to  the 
Admiralty  Chemist,  formerly  Chief  Chemist  to  the  Engineering  Depart- 
ments of  the  India  Office.  Second  Edition,  Revised.  700  pp.,  with  nu- 
merous Illustrations,  Large  Cr.  Svo,  cloth  ...  ...  ...Net  I2S.  6d. 


CIVIL,  MECHANICAL,  ELECTRICAL  dr»  MARINE  ENGINEERING.     1 1 

ENGINEERING    DRAWING*     A    WORKMAN'S 

MANUAL.     By  JOHN  MAXTON.     Crown  8vo,  cloth        ...         35.  6d 

ENGINEERING  ESTIMATES,  COSTS,  &  ACCOUNTS. 

A  Guide  to  Commercial  Engineering.  With  numerous  examples  of 
Estimates  and  Costs  of  Millwright  Work,  Miscellaneous  Productions, 
Steam  Engines  and  Steam  Boilers  ;  and  a  Section  on  the  Preparation  of 
Costs  Accounts.  By  A  GENERAL  MANAGER.  Third  Edition.  Revised 
and  Corrected.  276  pages.  8vo,  cloth  Net  73.  6d. 

ENGINEERING  PROGRESS  (1863-6).  By  WM.  HUMBER, 
A.M.Inst.CE.  Complete  in  Four  Vols.  Containing  148  Double  Plates, 
with  Portraits  and  Descriptive  Letterpress.  Imperial  4to,  half  morocco. 
Price,  complete,  £12  125.  ;  or  sold  separately  at  £3  35.  per  Volume. 

ENGINEER'S  AND  MILLWRIGHTS  ASSISTANT,    A 

Collection  of  Useful  Tables,  Rules,  and  Data.    By  WILLIAM  TEMPLETON. 

Eighth  Edition,  with  Additions.     :8mo,  cloth 2s.  6d. 

ENGINEER'S  HANDBOOK*  A  Practical  Treatise  on  Modern 
Engines  and  Boilers,  Marine,  Locomotive,  and  Stationary.  And  contain- 
ing a  large  collection  of  Rules  and  Practical  Data  relating  to  Recent 
Practice  in  Designing  and  Constructing  all  kinds  of  Engines,  Boilers,  and 
other  Engineering  work.  The  whole  constituting  a  comprehensive  Key 
to  the  Board  of  Trade  and  other  Examinations  for  Certificates  of  Com- 
petency in  Modern  Mechanical  Engineering,  By  WALTER  S.  HUTTON, 
Civil  and  Mechanical  Engineer,' Author  of  "  The  Works'  Manager's 
Handbook  for  Engineers,"  etc.  Seventh  Edition,  Revised  and  Enlarged. 
576  pp.,  with  430  Illustrations.  Med.  8vo,  cloth  i8s. 

ENGINEER'S,   MECHANIC'S,   ARCHITECT'S, 

BUILDER'S,  ETC.,  TABLES  AND  MEMORANDA.  Selected  and 
Arranged  by  FRANCIS  SMITH.  Seventh  Edition,  Revised,  including 
ELECTRICAL  TABLES,  FORMUL/E,  and  MEMORANDA.  Waistcoat-pocket 
size,  limp  leather  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  is.  dd. 

ENGINEER'S  POCKET  BOOK.  See  MECHANICAL  ENGINEER'S 
POCKET  BOOK. 

ENGINEER'S  YEAR-BOOK  FOR  1913.  Comprising  For- 
mulas, Rules,  Tables,  Data  and  Memoranda.  Forming  a  Compendium 
of  the  Modern  Practice  of  Civil,  Mechanical,  Electrical,  Marine,  Gas,  and 
Mine  Engineering.  By  H.  R.  KEMPE,  M.Inst.C.E.,  M.I.Mech.E., 
M.I.E.E.,  Electrician  to  the  Post  Office  (1907-1912),  formerly  Principal 
Staff  Engineer,  Engineer-in-Chiefs  Office,  General  Post  Office,  London, 
With  the  collaboration  of  eminent  specialists.  1,600  pages.  With  1,250 
Illustrations,  specially  Engraved  for  the  work.  Crown  8vo,  leather. 

[Just  Published.     I2S.  6d. 

LIST  OF  SPECIALIST  CONTRIBUTORS: — W.  VALENTINE  BALL,  M.A.,  Barrister-at-Law  (Legal 
TSTotes  for  Engineers);  WM.  H.  BOOTH,  C.E.,  F.G.S.,  M.Am.Soc.C.E.  (Steam  Engines  and  Boilers, 
Fuels,  Pumps,  Cotton  Mills,  Cranes,  Water  Softening,  Weil-Sinking,  &c.)  ;  G.  A.  BURLS,  M.Inst.C.E. 
•(Internal  Combustion  Engines,  Motor  Cars,  and  Aeroplanes);  Prof.  C.  A.  CARUS-WILSON,  M.A., 
M.I.E.E.,  A.M.Inst.C.E.  (Electrical  Engineering);  A.  B.  CHALKLEY,  B.Sc.,  A.M.Inst.CE. 
•(Marine  Diesel  Engines);  BRYSSON  CUNNINGHAM,  B.E.,  A.M.Inst.C.E.  (Harbour  and  Dock  En- 
gineering) ;  ALEX.  DREW,  M.I.Mech.E.,  M.C.I.  (Reinforced  Concrete  Construction) ;  Prof.  T. 
CLAXTON  FIDLER,  M.Inst.C.E.  (Beams,  Girders,  Bridges,  and  Joists);  H  L.  GUY,  A.M.Inst.C.E. 
A.M.I. Mech.E.  (Steam  Turbines)  ;  PERCY  A.  HILLHOUSE,  B.Sc.,  M.I.N.A.  (Naval  Architecture 
and  Marine  Engineering);  W.  HOWARD-SMITH,  A.M.Inst.C.E.  (Tramways,  Railways);  GEORGE 
HUGHES,  M.I.Mech.E.,  Chief  Mechanical  Engineer,  Lancashire  and  Yorkshire  Railway  (Loco- 
motives) ;  NEWTON  B.  KNOX,  E.M.,  M.l.M.M.  (Metalliferous  Mining  and  Mining  Machinery); 
Prof.  VIVIAN  B  LEWES,  F.I.C.,  F.C.S.,  (Acetylene  Gas  and  its  Applications);  R.  FAIRFAX 
MIDDLETON,  A.M.Inst.C.E.  (Waterworks  Engineer)  ;  HENRY  O'CONNOR,  F.R.S.Edin., 
A.M.Inst.C.E.  (Gas  and  Gas  Works);  REGINALD  RYVES,  A.M.Inst.C.E.  (Roads  and  Streets); 
E.  J.  SILCOCK,  M.Inst.C.E.,  F.G.S.,  F.S.I.  (Sewerage,  Sewage  Disposal,  and  House  Drainage); 
FRED  SIMPSON,  A.M.Inst.C.E.  (Refrigeration,  Ice-Making,  and  Cold  Storage);  The  ENGINEERS 
AND  CARRIAGE  SUPERINTENDENTS  of  the  principal  British  Railway  Companies  (Locomotives  and 
iRolIing  Stock  ;  Permanent-Way  Plant,  &c. 


12  CROSBY  LOCK  WOOD   &  SOWS   CATALOGUE. 


ENGINEMAN'S   POCKET   COMPANION,   and   Practical 

Educator  for  Enginemen,  Boiler  Attendants,  and  Mechanics.  By 
MICHAEL  REYNOLDS.  With  45  Illustrations  and  numerous  Diagrams. 
Fifth  Edition.  Royal  i8mo,  strongly  bound  for  pocket  wear  35.  6d. 

EXCAVATION     (EARTH    AND    ROCK).      A    Practical 

Treatise,  by  CHARLES  PRELINI,  C.E.  365  pp.,  with  Tables,  many 
Diagrams  and  Engravings.  Royal  8vo,  cloth  ...  ...  Net  ids. 

FACTORY  ACCOUNTS*  Their  Principles  and  Practice.  A 
Handbook  for  Accountants  and  Manufacturers.  By  E.  GARCKE  and 
J.  M.  FELLS.  Sixth  Edition,  Revised  and  considerably  extended.  314 
pages.  Demy  Svo,  cloth Net  6s. 

FIRE  PROTECTION  IN  BUILDINGS*  A  Practical  Treatise 
for  Engineers,  Architects,  Surveyors,  and  Property  Owners.  By 
HAROLD  G.  HOLT,  A.R.I.B.A.  280  pages,  with  Diagrams  and  Illus- 
trations. Demy  Svo,  cloth \_Jitst  Published.  Net  8s.  6d. 

FIRES,  FIRE-ENGINES,  AND  FIRE  BRIGADES*    With  a 

History  of  Fire-Engines,  their  Construction,  Use,  and  Management. 
Hints  on  Fire-Brigades,  &c.  By  C.  F.  T.  YOUNG.  Svo,  cloth.  £i  AS. 

FLYING  MACHINES  OF  TO-DAY.  By  WM.  DUANE  ENNIS, 
Professor  of  Mechanical  Engineering  in  the  Polytechnic  Institute  of 
Brooklyn.  218  pages,  with  123  Illustrations.  Large  Crown  Svo, 
cloth  {Just  Published.  Net  6s. 

FLYING  MACHINES.     See  also  AVIATION. 

FOUNDATIONS    AND    CONCRETE    WORKS.      With 

Practical  Remarks  on  Footings,  Planking,  Sand  and  Concrete,  Beton, 
Pile-driving,  Caissons,  and  Cofferdams.  By  E.  DOBSON.  Crown  Svo. 

is.  6d. 

FUEL,  ITS  COMBUSTION  AND  ECONOMY.    Consisting 

of  an  Abridgment  of  "  A  Treatise  on  the  Combustion  of  Coal  and  the 
Prevention  of  Smoke."  By  C.  W.  WILLIAMS,  A.Inst.C.E.  With  exten- 
sive Additions  by  D.  KINNEAR  CLARK,  M.Inst.C.E.  Fourth  Edition 
Crown  Svo  cloth  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  35.  6d. 

FUELS:   SOLID,  LIQUID,  AND  GASEOUS.    Their  Analysis 

and  Valuation.  For  the  Use  of  Chemists  and  Engineers.  By  H.  J. 
PHILLIPS,  F.C.S.,  formerly  Analytical  and  Consulting  Chemist  to  the 
Great  Eastern  Railway.  Fourth  Edition.  Crown  Svo,  cloth.  25.  od. 

GAS  AND  OIL  ENGINE  MANAGEMENT.    A  Practical 

Guide  for  Users  and  Attendants,  being  Notes  on  Selection,  Construction 
and  Management.  By  M.  Powis  BALE,  M.Inst.C.E.,  M.I.Mech.E., 
Author  of  "Woodworking  Machinery,"  etc.  Third  Edition,  Enlarged. 
Crown  Svo,  cloth  Net  35.  6d. 

GAS-ENGINE,   A   HANDBOOK   ON   THE.     Comprising 

a  Practical  Treatise  on  Internal  Combustion  Engines.  For  the  Use  of 
Engine  Builders,  Engineers,  Mechanical  Draughtsmen,  Engineering 
Students,  Users  of  Internal  Combustion  Engines,  and  others.  By 
HERMAN  HAEDER,  Civil  Engineer,  Wiesbaden.  Translated  from  the 
German,  and  edited  by  WILLIAM  M.  HUSKISSON,  A.M.I.E.E.  (9^  years 
with  Messrs.  Crossley  Bros.,  of  Openshaw).  With  the  addition  of  numerous 
Useful  Tables  and  other  Matter.  330  pages,  with  over  500  Illustrations 
and  Tables.  Small  4to,  cloth Net  i8s. 

"  There  can  be  no  question  as  to  the  utility  of  the  work,  and  the  translator  is  to  be  congratulated 
on  the  thoroughness  with  which  he  has  discharged  his  task." — Mechanical  World. 

"  The  work  is  in  every  respect  of  a  very  high  standard,  and  may  be  strongly  recommended  to 
those  who  wish  to  make  a  study  of  the  technical  details  of  the  internal  combustion  engine." — Journal 
of  Gas  Lighting. 


CIVIL,.MECHAN1CAL,  ELECTRICAL  &  MARINE  ENGINEERING.    13 

GAS  ENGINEER'S  POCKET-BOOK.  Comprising  Tables, 
Notes  and  Memoranda  relating  to  the  Manufacture,  Distribution,  and 
Use  of  Coal  Gas  and  the  Construction  of  Gas  Works.  By  H.  O'CONNOR, 
A.M.Inst.C.E.  Third  Ed.,  Revised.  Crown  8vo,  leather  Net  ics.  6d. 

GAS-ENGINE  HANDBOOK*  A  Manual  of  Useful  Information 
for  the  Designer  and  the  Engineer.  By  E.  W.  ROBERTS,  M.E.  With 
Forty  Full-page  Engravings.  Small  Fcap.  8vo,  leather.  Net  8s.  6d. 

GAS-ENGINES   AND   PRODUCER-GAS   PLANTS*     A 

Treatise  setting  forth   the    Principles    of    Gas    Engines   and    Producer 
Design,  the  Selection  and  Installation  of  an  Engine,  the  Care  of  Gas 
Engines  and  Producer-Gas  Plants,  with  a  Chapter  on  Volatile  Hydro- 
carbon and  Oil  Engines.     By  R.  E.  MATHOT,  M.E.     Translated  from 
the  French.     With  a  Preface  by  DUGALD  CLERK,  M.Inst.C.E.,  F.C.S. 
Medium  8vo,  cloth,  310  pages,  with  about  150  Illustrations.          Net  I2S. 
MOTIVE   POWER  AND  COST   OK    INSTALLATION— SELECTION  OF  AN  ENGINE— INSTALLATION 
OF  AN  ENGINE — FOUNDATION  AND  EXHAUST — WATER  CIRCULATION — LUBRICATION — CONDITIONS 
OF  PERFECT  OPERATION — How  TO  START  AN   ENGINE — PRECAUTIONS— PERTURBATIONS   IN   THE 
OPERATION  OF  ENGINES — PRODUCER-GAS   ENGINES — PRODUCER-GAS—PRESSURE   GAS-PRODUCERS 
— SUCTION    GAS-PRODUCERS—OIL    AND    VOLATILE    HYDROCARBON    ENGINES — THE    SELECTION 
OF  AN  ENGINE. 

GAS  ENGINES*  With  Appendix  describing  a  Recent  Engine  with 
Tube  Igniter.  By  T.  M.  GOODEVE,  M.A.  Crown  8vo,  cloth.  2S,  6d. 

GAS  ENGINES  (FARM).  By  H.  R.  BRATE.  200  pp.,  with 
36  Illustrations.  Crown  8vo,  cloth  ...  [Just  Published.  Net  45.  6d. 

GAS   ENGINES.     See  also  INTERNAL  COMBUSTION  ENGINES. 

GAS   LIGHTING.     See  also  ACETYLENE. 

GAS  LIGHTING  FOR  COUNTRY  HOUSES.  See  PETROL 
AIR  GAS. 

GAS  MANUFACTURE,  CHEMISTRY  OF.     A   Practical 

Manual  for  the  Use  of  Gas  Engineers,  Gas  Managers  and  Students.  By 
HAROLD  M.  ROYLE,  F.C.S.,  Chief  Chemical  Assistant  at  the  Beckton 
Gas  Works.  Demy  Svo,  cloth.  340  pages,  with  numerous  Illustrations 
and  Coloured  Plate  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  Net  125.  6d. 

PREPARATION  OF  STANDARD  SOLUTIONS — ANALYSIS  OF  COALS — DESCRIPTION  OF  VARIOUS 
TYPES  OF  FURNACES — PRODUCTS  OF  CARBONISATION  AT  VARIOUS  TEMPERATURES — ANALYSIS  OF 
CRUDE  GAS — ANALYSIS  OF  LIME — ANALYSIS  OF  AMMONIACAL  LIQUOR — ANALYTICAL  VALUATION 
OF  OXIDE  OF  IRON — ESTIMATION  OF  NAPHTHAI.IN — ANALYSIS  OF  FIRE-BRICKS  AND  FIRE-CLAY 
— ART  OF  PHOTOMETRY— CARBURETTED  WATER  GAS— APPENDIX  CONTAINING  STATUTORY  AND 
OFFICIAL  REGULATIONS  FOR  TESTING  GAS,  VALUABLE  EXCERPTS  FROM  VARIOUS  IMPORTANT 
PAPERS  ON  GAS  CHEMISTRY,  USEFUL  TABLES,  MEMORANDA,  ETC. 

GAS  WORKS.  Their  Construction  and  Arrangement,  and  the 
Manufacture  and  Distribution  of  Coal  Gas.  By  S.  HUGHES,  C.E.  Ninth 
Edition.  Revised,  with  Notices  of  Recent  Improvements,  by  HENRY 
O'CONNOR,  A.M.Inst.C.E.  Crown  Svo,  cloth  ...  6s. 

GEOMETRY.  For  the  Architect,  Engineer,  and  Mechanic.  By 
E.  W.  TARN,  M.A.,  Architect.  Svo,  cloth  95. 

GEOMETRY  FOR  TECHNICAL  STUDENTS.    By  E.  H. 

SPRAGUE,  A.M.Inst.C.E.     Crown  8vo,  cloth Net  is. 

GEOMETRY  OF  COMPASSES.  By  OLIVER  BYRNE.  Coloured 
Plates.  Crown  Svo,  cloth  35.  6d. 

GUNNERY.     See  RECOIL  OF  GUNS. 

HEAT,  EXPANSION   OF  STRUCTURES  BY.    By  JOHN 

KEILY,  C.E.     Crown  Svo,  cloth 35.  6d. 


I4  CROSBY  LOCKWOOD   &  SON'S    CATALOGUE. 

HOISTING  MACHINERY*  Including  the  Elements  of  Crane 
Construction  and  Descriptions  of  the  Various  Types  of  Cranes  in  Use. 
By  JOSEPH  HORNER,  A.M.I. M.E.  Crown  8vo,  cloth,  with  215  Illustra- 
tions, including  Folding  Plates  Net  75.  6d. 

HYDRAULIC  MANUAL.  Consisting  of  Working  Tables  and 
Explanatory  Text.  Intended  as  a  Guide  in  Hydraulic  Calculations  and 
Field  Operations.  By  Lowis  D'A.  JACKSON.  Fourth  Edition,  Enlarged. 
Large  Crown  8vo,  cloth i6s. 

HYDRAULIC     POWER     ENGINEERING.      A     Practical 

Manual  on  the  Concentration  and  Transmission  of  Power  by  Hydraulic 
Machinery.  By  G.  CROYDON  MARKS,  A.M.Inst.C.E.  Second  Edition, 
Enlarged,  with  about  240  Illustrations.  8vo,  cloth  ...  Net  ios.  6d. 

SUMMARY  OF  CONTENTS  :— PRINCIPLES  OF  HYDRAULICS— THE  FLOW  OF  WATER- 
HYDRAULIC  PRESSURES— MATERIAL — TEST  LOAD — PACKING  FOR  SLIDING  SURFACES — PIPE  JOINTS 
— CONTROLLING  VALVES — PLATFORM  LIFTS — WORKSHOP  AND  FOUNDRY  CRANES — WAREHOUSE 
AND  DOCK  CRANES— HYDRAULIC  ACCUMULATORS — PRESSES  FOR  BALING  AND  OTHER  PURPOSES — 
SHEET  METAL  WORKING  AND  FORGING  MACHINERY — HYDRAULIC  RIVETERS — HAND  AND  POWER 
PUMPS — STEAM  PUMPS  —  TURBINES — IMPULSE  TURBINES — REACTION  TURBINES  —  DESIGN  OF 
TURBINES  IN  DETAIL— WATER  WHEELS— HYDRAULIC  ENGINES  — RECENT  ACHIEVEMENTS— 
PRESSURE  OF  WATER — ACTION  OF  PUMPS,  ETC. 

INTERNAL    COMBUSTION    ENGINES.     Their   Theory, 

Construction,  and  Operation.  By  ROLLA  C.  CARPENTER,  M.M.E., 
LL.D.,  and  H.  DlEDERlCHS,  M.E.,  Professors  of  Experimental  Engi- 
neering, Sibley  College,  Cornell  University.  610  pages,  with  373  Illus- 
trations. Medium  8vo,  cloth  A>/2is. 

INTRODUCTION,  DEFINITIONS  AND  CLASSIFICATIONS,  INDICATED  AND  BRAKE  HORSF-POWER — 
THERMODYNAMICS  OF  THE  GAS  ENGINE — THEORETICAL  COMPARISON  OF  VARIOUS  TYPES  OF 
INTERNAL  COMBUSTION  ENGINES — THE  VARIOUS  EVENTS  OF  THE  CONSTANT- VOLUME  AND 
CONSTANT-PRESSURE  CYCLE  AS  MODIFIED  BY  PRACTICAL  CONDITIONS— THE  TEMPERATURE 
ENTROPY  DIAGRAM  APPLIED  TO  THE  GAS  ENGINE — COMBUSTION— GAS-£NGINK  FUELS,  THE 
SOLID  FUELS,  GAS  PRODUCERS— THE  GAS-ENGINE  FUELS,  LIQUID  FUELS,  CARBURETTERS  AND 
VAPORISERS — GAS-ENGINE  FUELS,  THE  GAS  FUELS,  THE  FUEL  MIXTURE  EXPLOSIBILITY,  PRES- 
SURE AND  TEMPERATURE— THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  GAS  ENGINE— MODERN  TYPES  OF  INTERNAL 
COMBUSTION  ENGINES — GAS  ENGINE  AUXILIARIES,  IGNITION,  MUFFLERS,  AND  STARTING 
APPARATUS— REGULATION  OF  INTERNAL  COMBUSTION  ENGINES— THE  ESTIMATION  OF  POWER 
OF  GAS  ENGINES — METHODS  OF  TESTING  INTERNAL  COMBUSTION  ENGINES — THE  PERFORMANCE 
OF  GAS  ENGINES  AND  GAS  PRODUCERS— COST  OF  INSTALLATION  AND  OF  OPERATION. 

IRON  AND  METAL  TRADES  COMPANION.    For  Ex- 

peditiously  Ascertaining  the  Value  of  any  Goods  bought  or  sold  by 
Weight,  from  is.  per  cwt.  to  H2s.  per  cwt.,  and  from  one  farthing  per 
pound  to  one  shilling  per  pound.  By  THOMAS  DOWNIE.  Strongly 
bound  in  leather,  396  pp.  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  95. 

IRON  AND  STEEL*  A  Work  for  the  Forge,  Foundry,  Factory, 
and  Office.  Containing  ready,  useful,  and  trustworthy  Information  for 
Ironmasters  and  their  Stock-takers  ;  Managers  of  Bar,  Rail,  Plate,  and 
Sheet  Rolling  Mills  ;  Iron  and  Metal  Founders  ;  Iron  Ship  and  Bridge 
Builders  ;  Mechanical,  Mining,  and  Consulting  Engineers  ;  Architects, 
Contractors,  Builders,  etc.  By  CHARLES  HOARE,  Author  of  "The 
Slide  Rule,"  etc.  Ninth  Edition.  32mo,leather  ...  ...  ...  6s. 

IRON   AND   STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONAL   WORK,  as 

applied  to  Public,  Private,  and  Domestic  Buildings.  By  FRANCIS 
CAMPIN,  C.E.  Crown  8vo,  cloth  '  35.  6d. 

IRON  AND  STEEL  GIRDERS*  A  Graphic  Table  for  Facili- 
tating the  Computation  of  the  Weights  of  Wrought  Iron  and  Steel 
Girders,  etc.,  for  Parliamentary  and  other  Estimates.  By  J.  H.  WATSON 
BUCK,  M.Inst.C.E.  On  a  Sheet  2s.  6d. 


CIVIL,  MECHANICAL,  ELECTRICAL  &  MARINE  ENGINEERING.     15 

IRON-PLATE  WEIGHT  TABLES.  For  Iron  Shipbuilders, 
Engineers,  and  Iron  Merchants.  Containing  the  Calculated  Weights  of 
upwards  of  1 50,000  different  sizes  of  Iron  Plates  from  I  ft.  by  6  in.  by 
i  in.  to  10  ft.  by  5  ft.  by  I  in.  Worked  out  on  the  basis  of  40  Ibs.  to  the 
square  foot  of  Iron  I  in.  in  thickness.  By  H.  BlJRLiNSON  and  W.  H. 
SIMPSON.  4to,  half-bound  £i  5S~ 

IRRIGATION  (PIONEER)*  A  Manual  of  Information  for 
Farmers  in  the  Colonies.  By  E.  O.  MAWSON,  M.Inst.C.E.,  Executive 
Engineer,  Public  Works  Department,  Bombay.  With  Chapters  on  Light 
Railways  by  E.  R.  CALTHROP,  M.Inst.C.E.,  M.I.M.E.  With  Plates  and 

Diagrams.     Demy  Svo,  cloth        Net  IDS.  6d. 

VALUE  OF  IRRIGATION,  AND  SOURCES  OF  WATER  SUPPLY — DAMS  AND  WEIRS — CANALS — 
UNDERGROUND  WATER— METHODS  OF  IRRIGATION — SEWAGE  IRRIGATION — IMPERIAL  AUTOMATIC 
SLUICE  GATES— THE  CULTIVATION  OF  IRRIGATED  CROPS,  VEGETABLES,  AND  FRUIT  TREES- 
LIGHT  RAILWAYS  FOR  HEAVY  TRAFFIC — USEFUL  MEMORANDA  AND  DATA. 

LATHE  PRACTICE*  A  Complete  and  Practical  Work  on  the 
Modern  American  Lathe.  By  OSCAR  E.  PERRIGO,  M.E.,  Author  of 
"  Modern  Machine  Shop  Construction,  Equipment,  and  Management," 
etc.  Medium  Svo,  424  pp.,  315  Illustrations.  Cloth  ...  Net  125. 

HISTORY  OF  THE  LATHE  UP  TO  THE  INTRODUCTION  OF  SCREW  THREADS — ITS  DEVELOPMENT 
SINCE  THE  INTRODUCTION  OF  SCREW  THREADS — CLASSIFICATION  OF  LATHES — LATHE  DESIGN. 
THE  BED  AND  ITS  SUPPORTS — THE  HEAD-STOCK  CASTING,  THE  SPINDLE,  AND  SPINDLE-CONE — THK 
SPINDLE  BEARINGS,  THE  BACK  GEARS,  AND  THE  TRIPLE-GEAR  MECHANISM — THE  TAIL  STOCK, 
THE  CARRIAGE,  THE  APRON,  ETC.— TURNING  RESTS,  SUPPORTING  RESTS,  SHAFT  STRAIGHTENERS, 
ETC. — LATHE  ATTACHMENTS — RAPID  CHANGE  GEAR  MECHANISMS — LATHE  TOOLS,  HIGH-SPEEI> 
STEEL,  SPEEDS  AND  FEEDS,  POWER  FOR  CUTTING  TOOLS,  ETC. — TESTING  A  LATHE— LATHE  WORK 
— ENGINE  LATHES — HEAVY  LATHES— HIGH-SPEED  LATHES — SPECIAL  LATHES — REGULAR  TURRET 
LATHES — SPECIAL  TURRET  LATHES — ELECTRICALLY-DRIVEN  LATHES. 

LATHE-WORK*  A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Tools,  Appliances, 
and  Processes  employed  in  the  Art  of  Turning.  By  PAUL  N.  HASLUCK. 
Eighth  Edition.  Crown  Svo,  cloth 53. 

LAW    FOR    ENGINEERS    AND    MANUFACTURERS. 

See  EVERY  MAN'S  OWN  LAWYER.  A  Handybook  of  the  Principles  of 
Law  and  Equity.  By  a  Barrister.  Fiftieth  (1913)  Edition,  Revised 
and  Enlarged,  including  Abstracts  of  the  Legislation  of  1912  of  especial 
interest  to  Engineering  Firms  and  Manufacturers.  Large  crown  Svo, 
cloth,  850  pages  [Just  Published.  Net  6s.  8d. 

LEVELLING,  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF*    Showing 

its  Application  to  Purposes  of  Railway  and  Civil  Engineering  in  the  Con- 
struction of  Roads  ;  with  Mr.  TELFORD'S  Rules  for  the  same.  By 
FREDERICK  W.  SIMMS,  M.InstC.E.  Ninth  Edition,  with  LAW'S 
Practical  Examples  for  Setting-out  Railway  Curves,  and  TRAUTWINE'S 
Field  Practice  of  Laying-out  Circular  Curves.  With  seven  Plates  and 
numerous  Woodcuts.  Svo  8s.  6d. 

LIGHTNING  CONDUCTORS,  MODERN.     An  Illustrated 

Supplement  to  the  Report  of  the  Lightning  Research  Committee  of  1905, 
also  the  Phoenix  Fire  Office  1910  Rules,  with  Notes  as  to  the  Methods  of 
Protection,and  Specifications.  By  KlLLlNGWORTH  HEDGES,M.Inst.C.E., 
M.I.E.E.,  Honorary  Secretary  to  the  Lightning  Research  Committee. 
Second  Edition,  with  additions.  132  pp.,  with  Illustrations.  Medium 
Svo,  cloth  ...  Net  6s.  6d, 

"...     The  information  given  is  most  valuable." — Electrical  Engineer. 

"The  work  now  appears  with  some  additions  that  noticeably  enhance  its  value." — Scotsman. 


16  CROSBY  LOCKWOOD   &*  SON'S   CATALOGUE. 

LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE*  The  Autobiography  of  an  old  Loco- 
motive Engine.  BY  ROBERT  WEATHERBURN,  M.I.M.E.  With  Illus- 
trations and  Portraits  of  GEORGE  and  ROBERT  STEPHENSON.  Crown 
8vo.  cloth Nef2&.  6d. 

LOCOMOTIVE   ENGINE   DEVELOPMENT.     A  Popular 

Treatise  on  the  Gradual  Improvements  made  in  Railway  Engines 
between  1803  and  1903.  By  CLEMENT  C.  STRETTON,  C.E.  Sixth 
Edition,  Revised  and  Enlarged.  Crown  8vo,  cloth  ...  Net  4&*  6d. 

LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  DRIVING.  A  Practical  Manual  for 
Engineers  in  Charge  of  Locomotive  Engines.  By  MICHAEL  REYNOLDS, 
M.S.E.  Twelfth  Edition.  Crown  8vo,  cloth,  35.  6d.  ;  cloth  boards 

43.  6d. 

LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINES.  A  Rudimentary  Treatise  on.  By 
G.  D.  DEMPSEY,  C.E.  With  large  additions  treating  of  the  Modern 
Locomotive,  by  D.  K.  CLARK,  M.Inst.C.E.  With  Illustrations.  Crown 
8vo,  cloth  35. 

LOCOMOTIVE  (MODEL)  ENGINEER,  Fireman  and  Engine- 
boy.  Comprising  a  Historical  Notice  of  the  Pioneer  Locomotive 
Engines  and  their  Inventors.  By  MICHAEL  REYNOLDS.  Crown  8vo, 
cloth,  35.  6d.  ;  cloth  boards  45.  6d. 

LOCOMOTIVES,    THE    APPLICATION    OF    HIGHLY 

SUPERHEATED  STEAM  TO.    See  STEAM. 

MACHINERY,  DETAILS  OF.  Comprising  Instructions  for 
the  Execution  of  various  Works  in  Iron  in  the  Fitting  Shop,  Foundry, 
and  Boiler  Yard.  By  FRANCIS  CAMPIN,  C.E.  Crown  8vo,  cloth  35. 

MACHINE  SHOP  TOOLS.  A  Practical  Treatise  describing  in 
every  detail  the  Construction,  Operation  and  Manipulation  of  both  Hand 
and  Machine  Tools  ;  being  a  work  of  Practical  Instruction  in  all  Classes 
of  Modern  Machine  Shop  Practice,  including  Chapters  on  Filing, 
Fitting  and  Scraping  Surfaces  ;  on  Drills,  Reamers,  Taps  and  Dies  ; 
the  Lathe  and  its  Tools  ;  Planers,  Shapers  and  their  Tools  ;  Milling 
Machines  and  Cutters  ;  Gear  Cutters  and  Gear  Cutting  ;  Drilling 
Machines  and  Drill  Work,  &c.  By  W.  H.  VAN  DERVOORT,  M.E., 
Illustrated  by  673  Engravings.  Medium  8vo  ...  ...  Net  2 is. 

MAGNETOS  FOR  AUTOMOBILISTS :  How  made  and  How 
used.  A  Handybook  on  their  Construction  and  Management.  By  S.  R. 
BOTTONE.  Second  Edition,  Enlarged.  118  pages,  with  52  Illustrations. 
Crown  8vo,  cloth Net  is. 

MARINE  ENGINEERING.  An  Elementary  Manual  for  Young 
Marine  Engineers  and  Apprentices.  By  J.  S.  BREWER.  Crown  8vo, 
cloth is.  6d. 

MARINE  ENGINEER'S  GUIDE  for  Board  of  Trade  Examina- 
tions for  Certificates  of  Competency.  Containing  all  Latest  Questions 
to  Date,  with  Simple,  Clear,  and  Correct  Solutions;  with  Notes  on 
Beams,  Boilers,  Mechanical  Powers,  and  the  latest  B.T.  Regulations. 
By  A.  C.  WANNAN.  C.E.,  Consulting  Engineer,  and  D.  LINDSAY, 
Southampton  Marine  Academy.  Illustrated  with  Sketches.  Fifth 
Edition,  Revised  and  further  Enlarged.  Large  Crown  8vo,  cloth.  In 
2  volumes,  sold  separately. 

ARITHMETIC [Just Published.    Net  6s. 

ELEMENTARY'S,  VERBALS,  AND    DRAWINGS. 

[Just  Published.     Net  6s. 


CIVIL,  MECHANICAL,  ELECTRICAL  &  MARINE  ENGINEERING.     17 

MARINE  ENGINEER'S  POCKET-BOOK.    Containing  latest 

Board  of  Trade  Rules  and  Data  for  Marine  Engineers.  By  A.  C.  WANNAN. 
Fifth  Edition,  1 86  pages,  Illustrated.  Square  i8mo,  with  thumb  Index, 
leather  Net  45.  6d. 

MARINE  ENGINES  AND  BOILERS*  Their  Design  and 
Construction.  A  Handbook  for  the  Use  of  Students,  Engineers,  and 
Naval  Constructors.  Based  on  the  Work  "  Berechnung  und  Konstruktion 
der  Schiffsmaschinen  und  Kessel,"  by  Dr.  G.  BAUER,  Engineer-in-Chief 
of  the  Vulcan  Shipbuilding  Yard,  Stettin.  Translated  from  the  Second 
German  Edition  by  E.  M.  DONKIN  and  S.  BRYAN  DONKIN,  A.M.I.C.E. 
Edited  by  LESLIE  S.  ROBERTSON,  Secretary  to  the  Engineering  Standards 
Committee,  M.I.C.E.,  M.I.M.E.,  M.I.N.A.,  Etc.  With  numerous  Illus- 
trations and  Tables.  Medium  8vo,  cloth  ...  ...  Net  255. 

SUMMARY  OF  CONTENTS  :-PART  I.  MAIN  ENGINES:  DETERMINATION  OF 
CVLINDER  DIMENSIONS — THE  UTILISATION  OF  STEAM  IN  THE  ENGINE— STROKE  OF  PISTON — 
NUMBER  OF  REVOLUTIONS— TURNING  MOMENT— BALANCING  OF  THE  MOVING  PARTS— ARRANGE- 
MENT OF  MAIN  ENGINES — DETAILS  OF  MAIN  ENGINES — THE  CYLINDER — VALVES — VARIOUS 
KINDS  OF  VALVE  GEAR— PISTON  RODS— PISTONS- CONNECTING  ROD  AND  CROSSHEAD— VALVE 
GEAR  RODS — BED  PLATES — ENGINE  COLUMNS — REVERSING  AND  TURNING  GEAR.  PART  II. 
PUMPS:  AIR,  CIRCULATING  FEED,  AND  AUXILIARY  PUMPS.  PART  III.:  SHAFTING,  RE- 
SISTANCE OF  SHIPS,  PROPELLERS:  THRUST  SHAFT  AND  THRUST  BLOCK— TUNNEL 
SHAFTS  AND  PLUMMER  BLOCKS— SHAFT  COUPLINGS— STERN  TUBE— THE  SCREW  PROPELLER- 
CONSTRUCTION  OF  THE  SCREW.  PART  IV.  PIPES  AND  CONNECTIONS:  GENERAL 
REMARKS,  FLANGES,  VALVES,  ETC.— UNDER-WATER  FITTINGS— MAIN  STEAM,  AUXILIARY  STEAM, 
AND  EXHAUST  PIPING — FEED  WATER,  BILGE,  BALLAST  AND  CIRCULATING  PIPES.  PART  V. 
STEAM  BOILERS:  FIRING  AND  THE  GENERATION  OF  STEAM— CYLINDRICAL  BOILERS — 
LOCOMOTIVE  BOILERS— WATKR-TUBE  BOILERS— SMALL  TUBE  WATER-TUBE  BOILERS— SMOKE 
Box — FUNNEL  AND  BOILER  LAGGING — FORCED  DRAUGHT — BOILER  FITTINGS  AND  MOUNTINGS. 
PART  VI.  MEASURING  INSTRUMENTS.  PART  VII.  VARIOUS  DETAILS:  BOLTS, 
NUTS,  SCREW  THREADS,  ETC. — PLATFORMS,  GRATINGS,  LADDERS — FOUNDATIONS — SEATINGS — 
LUBRICATION— VENTILATION  OK  ENGINE  ROOMS— RULES  FOR  SPARE  GEAR.  PART  VIII. 
ADDITIONAL  TABLES. 

MARINE  ENGINES  AND  STEAM  VESSELS,     By 

R.  MURRAY,  C.E.  Eighth  Edition,  thoroughly  Revised,  with  Additions 
by  the  Author  and  by  GEORGE  CARLISLE,  C.E.  Crown  8vo,  cloth  45.  6d. 

MARINE  INDICATOR  CARDS,  containing  an  exhaustive  course 
of  Indicator  Diagrams  specially  arranged  for  Board  of  Trade  First- Class 
Candidates,  and  also  intended  for  the  use  of  Marine  Engineers  of  all 
Grades.  By  J.  W.  SOTHERN,  M.I.E.S.,  Author  of  "The  Marine  Steam 
Turbine,"  &c.  163  pages  with  180  illustrations.  Medium  8vo,  cloth. 

Net  5S- 

MARINE  STEAM  TURBINE.  A  Practical  Description  of  the 
Parsons  Marine  Turbine  as  presently  constructed,  fitted,  and  run, 
intended  for  the  use  of  Students,  Marine  Engineers,  Superintendent 
Engineers,  Draughtsmen,  Works'  Managers,  Foremen  Engineers,  and 
others.  By  J.  W.  SOTHERN,  M.I.E.S.,  Principal,  Sothern's  Marine 
Engineering  College,  Glasgow.  Illustrated  by  over  180  Diagrams,  Photo- 
graphs, and  Detail  Drawings.  Third  Edition,  re-written  up  to  date 
and  greatly  enlarged.  354  pages.  Medium  8vo,  cloth  ...  Net  125.  6d. 

MARINE  STEAM  TURBINES.  Forming  the  Supplementary 
Volume  to  "Marine  Engines  and  Boilers."  By  DR.  G.  BAUER,  Director 
of  the  Vulcan  Works,  Stettin,  and  O.  LASCHE,  Director  of  the  A. E.G. 
Turbine  Works,  Berlin,  assisted  by  E.  LUDWIG  and  H.  VOGEL. 
Translated  from  the  German  and  edited  by  M.  G.  S.  SWALLOW.  214 
pages.  With  103  Illustrations  and  18  Tables.  Medium  8vo,  cloth. 

Net  I  OS.  6d. 

"  The  book  is  one  of  the  best  on  the  subject  of  Steam  Turbine  design."— Practical  Engineer. 
"The  work  is  solid  from  first  page  to  last,  and  the  book  is  one  which  every  student  ot   turbine 

theory  and  practice,   and  every  manufacturer  of  Turbine  machines  should  add  to   his  library."— 

Mechanical  Engineer. 


18  CROSBY  LOCKWOOD   &•  SON'S   CATALOGUE. 


MASONRY  DAMS  FROM  INCEPTION  TO  COM- 
PLETION. Including  numerous  Formulae,  Forms  of  Specification  and 
Tender,  Pocket  Diagram  of  Forces,  etc.  For  the  use  of  Civil  and  Mining 
Engineers.  By  C.  F.  COURTNEY,  M.Inst.C.E.  8vo,  cloth  ...  95. 

MASTING,  MAST.-MAKING,  AND   RIGGING   OF 

SHIPS.     Also    Tables    of  Spars,    Rigging,   Blocks  ;    Cham,  Wire,  and 
Hemp  Ropes,  etc.,  relative  to  every  class  of  vessels.     By  R.   KIPPING. 
Crown  8vo,  cloth  ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         •••         •••         2s. 

MATERIALS  AND  CONSTRUCTION.  A  Theoretical  and 
Practical  Treatise  on  the  Strains,  Designing,  and  Erection  of  Works  of 
Construction.  By  F.  CAMPIN.  Crown  8vo,  cloth  35. 

MATERIALS,  A  TREATISE  ON  THE  STRENGTH  OF. 

By  P.  BARLOW,  F.R.S.,  P.  W.  BARLOW,  F.R.S.,  and  W.  H.  BARLOW, 
F.R.S.  Edited  by  WM.  HUMBER,  A. M.Inst.C.E.  8vo,  cloth  ...  i8s. 
MATHEMATICAL  TABLES.  For  Trigonometrical,  Astrono- 
mical, and  Nautical  Calculations  ;  to  which  is  prefixed  a  Treatise  on 
Logarithms,  by  H.  LAW,  C.E.  With  Tables  for  Navigation  and  Nautical 
Astronomy.  By  Prof.  J.  R.  YOUNG.  Crown  8vo,  cloth 45. 

MEASURES:   BRITISH  AND    AMERICAN  CUSTOM- 

ARY  AND  METRIC  LEGAL  MEASURES,  For  Commercial  and 
Technical  Purposes,  forming  the  Measure  Section  of  Part  I.  of  "  The 
Mechanical  Engineer's  Reference  Book."  By  NELSON  FOLEY,  M.I.N.A. 

Folio,  cloth        Net  75.  6d. 

MECHANICAL  ENGINEERING.  Comprising  Metallurgy, 
Moulding,  Casting,  Forging,  Tools,  Workshop  Machinery,  Mechanical 
Manipulation,  Manufacture  of  the  Steam  Engine,  etc.  By  FRANCIS 
CAMPIN,  C.E.  Third  Edition.  Crown  8vo,  cloth 2s.  6d. 

MECHANICAL  ENGINEERING  TERMS,    LOCKWOOD'S 

DICTIONARY.  Embracing  terms  current  in  the  Drawing  Office, 
Pattern  Shop,  Foundry,  Fitting,  Turning,  Smiths',  and  Boiler  Shops,  etc. 
Comprising  upwards  of  6,000  Definitions.  Edited  by  J.  G.  HORNER, 
A.M.I.M.E.  Fourth  Edition,  Revised,  with  Additions.  Crown  8vo,  cloth. 

[Just  Published.     Net  js.  6d. 

MECHANICAL     ENGINEER'S     COMPANION*      Areas, 

Circumferences,  Decimal  Equivalents,  in  inches  and  feet,  millimetres, 
squares,  cubes,  roots,  etc.  ;  Strength  of  Bolts,  Weight  of  Iron,  etc. ; 
Weights,  Measures,  and  other  Data.  Also  Practical  Rules  for  Engine 
Proportions.  By  R.  EDWARDS,  M.Inst.C.E.  Fcap.  8vo,  cloth.  35.  6d. 

MECHANICAL  ENGINEER'S  POCKET- BOOK.  Com- 
prising Tables,  Formulas,  Rules,  and  Data  :  A  Handy  Book  of  Reference 
for  Daily  use  in  Engineering  Practice.  By  the  late  D.  KINNEAR  CLARK, 
M.Inst.C.E.  1913  Edition,  Revised  and  Enlarged.  By  H.  H.  P.  POVVLES, 
A.M.Inst.C.E.,  M.I.M.E.  Small  8vo,  700  pp.,  Limp  cloth. 

\_Just  Published.      Net  45.  6d. 

MATHEMATICAL  TABLES— MEASUREMENT  OF  SURFACES  AND  SOLIDS— ENGLISH  WEIGHTS 
AND  MEASURES — FRENCH  METRIC  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES — FOREIGN  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 
—MONEYS— SPECIFIC  GRAVITY,  WEIGHT,  AND  VOLUME— MANUFACTURED  METALS— STEEL  PIPES 
— BOLTS  AND  NUTS — SUNDRY  ARTICLES  IN  WROUGHT  AND  CAST  IRON,  COPPER,  BRASS,  LEAD, 
TIN,  ZINC— STRENGTH  OF  MATERIALS— STRENGTH  OF  TIMBER— STRENGTH  OF  CAST  IRON- 
STRENGTH  OF  WROUGHT  IRON — STRENGTH  OF  STEEL — TENSILE  STRENGTH  OF  COPPER,  LEAD, 
ETC.— RESISTANCE  OF  STONES  AND  OTHER  BUILDING  MATERIALS— RIVETED  JOINTS  IN  BOILER 
PLATES — BOILER  SHELLS — WIRE  ROPES  AND  HEMP  ROPES — CHAINS  AND  CHAIN  CABLES — 
FRAMING— HARDNESS  OF  METALS,  ALLOYS,  AND  STONES -LABOUR  OF  ANIMALS— MECHANICAL 
PRINCIPLES— GRAVITY  AND  FALL  OF  BODIES  —  ACCELERATING  AND  RETARDING  FORCES  —  MILL 
GEARING,  SHAFTING,  ETC.— TRANSMISSION  OF  MOTIVE  POWER— HEAT— COMBUSTION  :  FUELS- 
WARMING,  VENTILATION,  COOKING  STOVES — STEAM — STEAM  ENGINES  AND  BOILERS — RAILWAYS 
—TRAMWAYS— STEAM  SHIPS— PUMPING  STEAM  ENGINES  AND  PUMPS— COAL  GAS— GAS  ENGINES, 
ETC. — AIR  IN  MOTION  —  COMPRESSED  AIR  —  HOT-AIR  ENGINES — WATER  POWER  —  SPEED  OF 
CUTTING  TOOLS — COLOURS — ELECTRICAL  ENGINEERING. 


CIVIL,  MECHANICAL,  ELECTRICAL  &  MARINE  ENGINEERING.    19 

MECHANICAL  HANDLING  OF  MATERIAL.    A  Treatise 

on  the  Handling  of  Material  such  as  Coal,  Ore,  Timber,  etc.,  by 
Automatic  or  Semi-Automatic  Machinery,  together  with  the  Various 
Accessories  used  in  the  Manipulation  of  such  Plant,  and  Dealing  fully 
with  the  Handling,  Storing,  and  Warehousing  of  Grain.  By  G.  F. 
ZIMMER,  A.M.Inst.C.E.  528  pp.  Royal  8vo,  cloth,  with  550  Illustrations 
(including  Folding  Plates)  specially  prepared  for  the  Work  ...  Net  255. 

MECHANICS*  Being  a  concise  Exposition  of  the  General  Principles 
of  Mechanical  Science  and  their  Applications.  By  C.  TOMLINSON, 
F.R.S.  Crown  Svo,  cloth  ...  is.  6d. 

MECHANICS  CONDENSED.  A  Selection  of  Formulae,  Rules, 
Tables,  and  Data  for  the  Use  of  Engineering  Students,  etc.  By 
W.  G.  C.  HUGHES,  A.M.I. C.E.  Crown  8vo,  cloth 25.  6d. 

MECHANICS  OF  AIR  MACHINERY.    By  Dr.  J.  WIESBACH 

and  Prof.  G.  HERRMANN.  Authorised  Translation  with  an  Appendix  on 
American  Practice  by  A.  TROWBRTDGE,  Ph.B.,  Adjunct  Professor  of 
Mechanical  Engineering,  Columbia  University.  Royal  Svo,  cloth. 

Net  1 8s. 

MECHANICS'  WORKSHOP    COMPANION*    Comprising 

a  great  variety  of  the  most  Useful  Rules  and  Formulae  in  Mechanical 
Science,  with  numerous  Tables  of  Practical  Data  and  Calculated  Results 
for  Facilitating  Mechanical  Operations.  By  WILLIAM  TEMPLETON, 
Author  of  "  The  Engineer's  Practical  Assistant,"  etc.,  etc.  Nineteenth 
Edition,  Revised,  Modernised,  and  considerably  Enlarged  by  W.  S. 
HUTTON,  C.E.,  Author  of  "The  Works'  Manager's  Handbook,"  etc. 
Fcap.  8vo,  nearly  500  pp.,  with  8  Plates  and  upwards  of  270. Diagrams, 
leather Net  55. 

MECHANISM  AND  MACHINE  TOOLS.  By  T.  BAKER, 
C.E.  With  Remarks  on  Tools  and  Machinery  by  J.  NASMYTH,  C.E. 
Crown  Svo,  cloth .»,  as.  6d. 

MENSURATION  AND  MEASURING.    With  the  Mensura- 

tion  and  Levelling  of  Land  for  the  Purposes  of  Modern  Engineering. 
By  T.  BAKER,  C.E.  New  Edition  by  E.  NUGENT,  C.E.  Crown  Svo, 
cloth is.  6d. 

METAL  -TURNING.  A  Practical  Handbook  for  Engineers, 
Technical  Students,  and  Amateurs.  By  JOSEPH  HORNER,  A.M.I.Mech.E., 
Author  of  "  Pattern  Making,"  etc.  Large  Crown  Svo,  cloth,  with  488 
Illustrations  Net  9S. 

SUMMARY  OF  CONTENTS:— INTRODUCTION— RELATIONS  OF  TURNERY  AND  MACHINE  SHOP- 
SEC.  I.  THE  LATHE%  ITS  WORK  AND  TOOLS — FORMS  AND  FUNCTIONS  OF  TOOLS — REMARKS  ON 
TURNING  IN  GENERAL— SEC.  II.  TURNING  BETWEEN  CENTRES— CENTRING  AND  DRIVING— USE  OF 
STEADIES  —EXAMPLES  OF  TURNING  INVOLVING  LINING-OUT  FOR  CENTRES — MANDREL  WORK — 
SEC.  III.  WORK  SUPPORTED  AT  ONE  END— FACE  PLATE  TURNING— ANGLE  PLATE  TURNING- 
INDEPENDENT  JAW  CHUCKS — CONCENTRIC,  UNIVERSAL,  TOGGLE,  AND  APPLIED  CHUCKS — SEC.  IV. 
INTERNAL  WORK— DRILLING,  BORING,  AND  ALLIED  OPERATIONS— SEC.  V.  SCREW  CUTTINGS  AND 
TURRET  WORK— SEC.  VI.  MISCELLANEOUS— SPECIAL  WORK— MEASUREMENT,  GRINDING-TOOL 
HOLDERS— SPEED  AND  FEEDS,  TOOL  STEELS— STEEL  MAKERS'  INSTRUCTIONS. 

METRIC  TABLES*  In'which  the  British  Standard  Measures  and 
Weights  are  compared  with  those  of  the  Metric  System  at  present  in 
Use  on  the  Continent.  By  C.  H.  DOWLING,  C.E.  Svo,  cloth.  IDS."  6d. 


20  CROSBY  LOCKWOOD   6°  SON'S   CATALOGUE. 

MILLING  MACHINES:  their  Design,  Construction,  and  Work- 
ing. A  Handbook  for  Practical  Men  and  Engineering  Students. 
By  JOSEPH  HORNER,  A.M.I. Mech.E.,  Author  of  "Pattern  Making," 
etc.  With  269  Illustrations.  Medium  8vo,  cloth  ...  Net  125.  6d. 

MOTOR  CAR  (THE  MODERN),  ITS  MANAGEMENT, 

MECHANISM  AND  MAINTENANCE.  A  Practical  Handbook  for 
the  Use  of  Owners  and  Drivers.  By  W.  GALLOWAY  DUNCAN,  M.I.M.E., 
M.I.A.E.,  Lecturer  on  Automobile  Engineering,  Willesden  Polytechnic. 
Late  Principal  of  H.M.  Government  School  of  Engineering,  Dacca, 
India.  Second  Edition,  Revised.  120  pages,  with  Illustrations.  Crown 

8 vo,  cloth [Just  Published.     Net  2s.  6d . 

MOTOR  CAR  CATECHISM.  Containing  about  320  Questions 
and  Answers  Explaining  the  Construction  and  Working  of  a  Modern  Motor 
Car,  with  a  chapter  on  Motor  Cycles.  For  the  Use  of  Owners,  Drivers, 
and  Students.  By  JOHN  HENRY  KNIGHT.  Fourth  Edition,  Revised. 
Crown  8vo,  with  Illustrations  ...  [Just  Published.  Net  is.  6d. 

MOTOR  CAR  CONSTRUCTION.  A  Practical  Manual  for 
Engineers,  Students,  and  Motor  Car  Owners.  With  Notes  on  Wind 
Resistance  and  Body  Design.  By  ROBERT  W.  A.  BREWER,  Fellow  of 
the  Society  of  Engineers  (Gold  Medallist  and  Bessemer  Prizeman), 
Assoc.M.InstC.E.,  M.I. Mech.E.,  M.  1. Automobile  E.,  Author  of  "The 
Art  of  Aviation."  250  pp.  With  numerous  Illustrations.  Demy  8vo, 
cloth [Just  Published.  Net  ss. 

HISTORY  OF  THE  INTERNAL  COMBUSTION  ENGINE — MECHANICAL  DETAILS  OF  CONSTRUCTION 
— CONNECTING  RODS,  CRANKS  AND  VALVES— VALVE  ACTUATING  MECHANISM— STRATIFICATION — 
THERMAL  EFFICIENCY  —  CAUSE  AND  EXTENT  OF  HEAT  LOSSES —TESTING  OF  GAS  ENGINES 
AND  CALCULATIONS  OF  RESULTS — IGNITION  MECHANISM — POWER  AND  WEIGHT  OF  PETROL 
ENGINES— FRICTION  AND  LUBRICATION  OF  ENGINES— TWO-CYCLE  AND  FOUR-CYCLE  ENGINES 
CONTRASTED— CLUTCHES  AND  CHANGE  SPEED  GEARS — TRANSMISSION  GEAR — LIVE  AXLES,  BEVEL, 
AND  WORM  DRIVE— THE  DIFFERENTIAL  GEAR— BRAKES— A  REVIEW  OF  MODERN  PRACTICE- 
FRAMES — SUSPENSION—  FRONT  AXLES  AND  STEERING  GEARS— RADIATION — CARBURATION — LIQUID 
FUEL — CARBURETTERS  AND  THE  FLOW  OF  FUEL — WIND  RESISTANCE  AND  BODY  DESIGN. 

MOTOR  CARS  FOR  COMMON  ROADS*  By  A.  J.  WALLIS- 
TAYLER,  A.M.Inst.C.E.  212  pp.,  with  76  Illustrations.  Crown  8vo, 
cloth 45.  6d. 

MOTOR  CARS:  THE  GASOLINE  AUTOMOBILE.    A 

Practical  Discussion  of  the  Development  and  Present  Status  of  the 
Automobile.  By  V.  LOUGHEED,  Founder  Member,  Society  of  Automo- 
bile Engineers,  and  MORRIS  A.  HALL,  American  Society  of  Mechanical 
Engineers.  318  pp.,  profusely  Illustrated  Royal  8vo,  cloth. 

[Just  Published.     Net  8s.  6d. 

MOTOR  VEHICLES  FOR  BUSINESS  PURPOSES*     A 

Practical  Handbook  for  those  interested  in  the  Transport  of  Passengers 
and  Goods.  By  A.  J.  WALLIS-TAYLER,  A.M.Inst.C.E.  With  134  Illus- 
trations. Demy  8vo,  cloth  ...  Net  95. 

NAVAL    ARCHITECT'S    AND    SHIPBUILDER'S 

POCKET-BOOK.  Of  Formulas,  Rules,  and  Tables,  and  Marine 
Engineer's  and  Surveyor's  Handy  Book  of  Reference.  By  CLEMENT 
MACKROW,  M.I.N.A.  Tenth  Edition.  Fcap.,  leather  Net  125.  6d. 

SIGNS  AND  SYMBOLS,  DECIMAL  FRACTIONS  —  TRIGONOMETRY— PRACTICAL  GEOMETRY  — 
MENSURATION  —  CENTRES  AND  MOMENTS  OF  FIGURES  —  MOMENTS  OF  INERTIA  AND  RADII 
GYRATION  — ALGEBRAICAL  EXPRESSIONS  FOR  SIMPSON'S  RULES  —  MECHANICAL  PRINCIPLES- 
CENTRE  OF  GRAVITY — LAWS  OF  MOTION — DISPLACEMENT,  CENTRE  OF  BUOYANCY — CENTRE 
OF  GRAVITY  OF  SHIP'S  HULL— STABILITY  CURVES  AND  METACENTRES— SEA  AND  SHALLOW- 
WATER  WAVES — ROLLING  OF  SHIP'S — PROPULSION  AND  RESISTANCE  OF  VESSELS — SPEED  TRIALS- 
SAILING,  CENTRE  OF  EFFORT— DISTANCES  DOWN  RIVERS,  COAST  LINES— STEERING  AND  RUDDERS 
OF  VESSELS— LAUNCHING  CALCULATIONS  AND  VELOCITIES— WEIGHT  OF  MATERIAL  AND  GEAR 
— GUN  PARTICULARS  AND  WEIGHT— STANDARD  GAUGES— RIVETED  JOINTS  AND  RIVETING- 
STRENGTH  AND  TESTS  OF  MATERIALS  —  BINDING  AND  SHEARING  STRESSES  —  STRENGTH  OF 
SHAFTING,  PILLARS,  WHEELS,  ETC.,  ETC. 


CIVIL,  MECHANICAL,  ELECTRICAL  &>  MARINE  ENGINEERING.    21 

NAVAL  ARCHITECTURE*  An  Exposition  of  the  Elementary 
Principles.  By  J.  PEAKE.  Crown  8vo,  cloth  35.  6d. 

NAVIGATION   AND   NAUTICAL   ASTRONOMY.    In 

Theory  and  Practice.    By  Prof.  J.  R.  YOUNG.    Crown  8vo,  cloth.  2s.  6d. 

NAVIGATION,  PRACTICAL,  Consisting  of  the  Sailor's  Sea 
Book,  by  J.  GREENWOOD  and  W.  H.  ROSSER  ;  together  with  Mathe- 
matical and  Nautical  Tables  for  the  Working  of  the  Problems,  by 
H.  LAW,  C.E.,  and  Prof.  J.  R.  YOUNG  ...  75. 

PATTERN  MAKING.  Embracing  the  Main  Types  of 
Engineering  Construction,  and  including  Gearing,  Engine  Work, 
Sheaves  and  Pulleys,  Pipes  and  Columns,  Screws,  Machine  Parts, 
Pumps  and  Cocks,  the  Moulding  of  Patterns  in  Loam  and  Greensand, 
Weight  of  Castings,  etc.  By  J.  G.  HORNER,  A.M.I.M.E.  Fourth  Edition, 
thoroughly  Revised  and  much  Enlarged.  420  pp. ,  with  about  500  Illus- 
trations. Large  Crown  8vo,  cloth  Net  75.  6d. 

PATTERN  MAKING.  A  Practical  Work  on  the  Art  of  Making 
Patterns  for  Engineering  and  Foundry  Work,  including  (among  other 
matter)  Materials  and  Tools,  Wood  Patterns,  Metal  Patterns,  Pattern 
Shop  Mathematics,  Cost,  Care,  etc.,  of  Patterns.  By  F.  W.  BARROWS. 
Fully  Illustrated  by  Engravings  made  from  Special  Drawings  by  the 
Author.  Crown  8 vo,  cloth  Net  6s. 

PETROL  AIR  GAS.  A  Practical  Handbook  on  the  Installation 
and  Working  of  Air  Gas  Lighting  Systems  for  Country  Houses.  By 
HENRY  O'CONNOR,  F.k.S.E.,  A.M.Inst.C.E.,  &c.,  author  of  "The  Gas 
Engineer's  Pocket  Book."  Second  Edition,  Revised  and  Enlarged. 
100  pages  with  Illustrations.  Crown  8vo,  cloth. 


\_Just  Published.    Net  is.  6d. 

or 


PETROLEUM  MINING  AND  OIL-FIELD  DEVELOP- 
MENT. A  Guide  to  the  Exploration  of  Petroleum  Lands,  and  a 
Study  of  the  Engineering  Problems  connected  with  the  Winning  of 
Petroleum.  Including  Statistical  Data  of  important  Oil  Fields.  Notes 
on  the  Origin  and  Distribution  of  Petroleum,  and  a  description  of  the 
Methods  of  Utilising  Oil  and  Gas  Fuel.  By  A.  BEEBY  THOMPSON, 
A.M.I.Mech.E.,  F.G.S.,  Author  of  "The  Oil  Fields  of  Russia."  384 
pages,  114  Illustrations,  including  22  full-page  plates.  Demy  8vo,  cloth. 

Net  155. 

PIONEER  ENGINEERING*  A  Treatise  on  the  Engineering 
Operations  connected  with  the  Settlement  of  Waste  Lands  in  New 
Countries.  By  E.  DOBSON,  M.Inst.C.E.  Second  Edition.  Crown  8vo, 
cloth  45.  6d. 

PNEUMATICS.  Including  Acoustics  and  the  Phenomena  of  Wind 
Currents,  for  the  Use  of  Beginners.  By  CHARLES  TOMLINSON,  F.R.S. 
Crown  8vo,  cloth  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ,...  is.  6d. 

PORTLAND   CEMENT,   THE   MODERN   MANUFAO 

TURK  OF.  A  Handbook  for  Manufacturers,  Lasers,  and  all  interested 
in  Portland  Cement.  By  PERCV  C.  H.  WEST,  Fellow  of  the  Chemical 
Society  and  of  the  Society  of  Chemical  Industry.  Vol.  I.  "Machinery 
and  Kilns."  280  pages,  with  159  Illustrations  and  numerous  tables. 
Royal  Svo,  cloth  ...  Net  125.  6d. 

PRODUCER     GAS     PRACTICE     (AMERICAN)     AND 

INDUSTRIAL  GAS  ENGINEERING.  By  NISBET  LATTA,  M.Amer. 
Soc.M.E.,  M.Amer.  Gas  Inst.  558  pp.,  with  247  Illustrations.  Demy 
4to,  cloth Net  255. 


22  CROSBY  LOCKWOOD   &  SON'S   CATALOGUE. 

PRODUCER  GAS  PRACTICE.— continued. 

PRODUCER  OPERATION— CLEANING  THE  GAS— WORKS  DETAILS— PRODUCER  TYPES— MOVING 
GASES— SOLID  FUELS — PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  GASES — CHEMICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  GASES — GAS 
ANALYSIS— GAS  POWER— GAS  ENGINES— INDUSTRIAL  GAS  APPLICATIONS— FURNACES  AND  KILNS- 
BURNING  LIME  AND  CEMENT — PRE-HEATING  AIR — DOHERTY  COMBUSTION  ECONOMIZER — COM- 
BUSTION IN  FURNACES -HEAT— TEMPERATURE,  RADIATION,  AND  CONDUCTION— HEAT  MEASURE- 
MENTS :  PYROMETRY  AND  CALORIMETRY — PIPKS,  FLUES,  AND  CHIMNEYS — MATERIALS:  FIRECLAY, 
MASONRY,  WEIGHTS.  AND  ROPE— USEFUL  TABLES— OIL  FUEL  PRODUCER  GAS. 

PRODUCER  GAS* See  also  GAS  ENGINES  AND  PRODUCER  GAS  PLANTS. 

PUMPS  AND  PUMPING*  A  Handbook  for  Pump  Users.  Being 
Notes  on  Selection,  Construction,  and  Management.  By  M.  Powis 
BALE,  M.InstC.E.,  M.I.Mech.E.  Sixth  Edition.  Crown  8vo,  cloth,  as.6d. 

PUNCHES,  DIES,  AND  TOOLS  FOR  MANUFACTUR- 
ING IN  PRESSES.  By  JOSEPH  V.  WOODWORTH.  Medium  Svo,  cloth, 
482  pages  with  700  Illustrations Net  i6s« 

RECLAMATION  OF  LAND  FROM  TIDAL  WATERS. 

A  Handbook  for  Engineers,  Landed  Proprietors,  and  others  interested 
in  Works  of  Reclamation.  By  A.  BEAZELEY,  M.InstC.E.  Svo,  cloth 

Net  i  os.  6d. 

RECOIL  OF  GUNS  WITH  RECOIL  CYLINDERS,  THE 

THEORY  OF.  By  Professor  F.  RAUSENBERGER.  Specially  printed 
from  "  Artilleristische  Monatshefte."  Translated  by  ALFRED  SLATER. 
100  pages,  with  3  Plates.  Demy  Svo,  cloth  Net  los.  6d. 

REFRIGERATION  AND  ICE-MAKING  POCKET-BOOK. 

By  A.  J.  WALLIS-TAYLER,  A.M.lnst.C.E.,  Author  of  "Refrigerating  and 
Ice-making  Machinery,"  etc.  Fifth  Edition,  Revised.  Cr.  Svo,  cloth. 

Net  35.  6d. 

REFRIGERATION,  COLD  STORAGE,  AND  ICE- 
MAKING.  A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Art  and  Science  of  Refrigera- 
tion. By  A.  J.  WALLIS-TAYLER,  A.M.lnst.C.E.  Containing  the  Third 
Edition  of  "  Refrigerating  and  Ice-Making  Machinery."  Third  Edition, 
Thoroughly  Revised.  654  pp.,  414  Illus.  Medium  Svo,  cloth. 

Net  i  os.  6d. 

REINFORCED  CONCRETE*  A  Handbook  for  Architects, 
Engineers  and  Contractors.  By  F.  D.  WARREN,  Massachusetts 
Institute  of  Technology,  with  Illustrations,  271  pages.  Crown  Svo  cloth. 

Net  i  os.  6d. 

REINFORCED  CONCRETE  DESIGN.  A  Graphical  Hand- 
book by  JOHN  HAWKESWORTH,  C.E.,  consisting  of  a  series  of  Plates 
showing  graphically,  by  means  of  plotted  curves,  the  required  design  for 
Slabs,  Beams  and  Columns,  under  various  conditions  of  external  loading, 
together  with  practical  examples  explaining  the  method  of  using  each 
Plate.  With  an  Appendix  containing  the  requirements  of  the  Building 
Code  of  New  York  City  in  regard  to  Reinforced  Concrete.  64  pages. 
1 5  Full-page  Plates.  4to,  cloth tfet  125. 

REINFORCED     CONCRETE     DESIGN     SIMPLIFIED. 

Diagrams,  Tables,  and  other  Data  for  Designing  and  Checking  accurately 
and  speedily.  By  JOHN  C.  GAMMON,  B.Sc.  Eng.  (London)  ;  Assoc. 
City  Guilds  Institute  ;  Member  of  the  Concrete  Institute  ;  Assistant 
Engineer,  Public  Works  Department,  India.  With  an  Introduction  by 
H.  KEMPTON  DYSON,  Secretary  of  The  Concrete  Institute  ;  Lecturer  on 
Reinforced  Concrete,  London  County  Council  School  of  Building. 
Demy  410,  cloth.  122  pages.  With  Thumb  Index.  ...  Net  IDS.  6d. 


CIVIL,  MECHANICAL,  ELECTRICAL  &  MARINE  ENGINEERING.    23 


REINFORCED  CONCRETE  DIAGRAMS.  For  the  Calcu- 
lation of  Beams,  Slabs,  and  Columns  in  Reinforced  Concrete.  By 
G.  S.  COLEMAN,  A.M.Inst.C.E.  Royal  4to,  cloth  Net  35.  6d. 

RIVER  BARS.  The  Causes  of  their  Formation,  and  their  Treat- 
ment by  "  Induced  Tidal  Scour"  ;  with  a  Description  of  the  Successful 
Reduction  by  this  Method  of  the  Bar  at  Dublin.  By  I.  J.  MANN,  Assist. 
Eng.  to  the  Dublin  Port  and  Docks  Board.  Royal  8vo,  cloth.  75.  6d. 

ROADS  AND  STREETS.  By  H.  LAW,  C.E.,  and  D.  K.  CLARK, 
C.E.  Revised,  with  Additional  Chapters  by  A.  J.  WALLIS-TAYLER, 
A.M.Inst.C.E.  Seventh  Edition.  Crown  8vo,  cloth  6s. 

ROOFS  OF  WOOD  AND  IRON.  Deduced  chiefly  from  the 
Works  of  Robison,  Tredgold,  and  Humber.  By  E.  W.  TARN,  M.A., 
Architect.  Fifth  Edition.  Crown  8vo,  cloth  ...  ...  is.  6d. 

SAFE  RAILWAY  WORKING.  A  Treatise  on  Railway  Acci- 
dents,  their  Cause  and  Prevention  ;  with  a  Description  of  Modern  Appli- 
ances and  Systems.  By  CLEMENT  E.  STRETTON,  C.E.  Third  Edition, 
Enlarged.  Crown  Svo,  cloth  35.  6d. 

SAFE  USE  OF  STEAM.  Containing  Rules  for  Unprofessional 
Steam  Users.  By  an  ENGINEER.  Eighth  Edition.  Sewed  ...  6d. 

SAILMAKING.  By  SAMUEL  B.  SADLER,  Practical  Sailmaker,  late 
in  the  employment  of  Messrs.  Ratsey  and  Lapthorne,  of  Cowes  and 
Gosport.  Second  Edition,  Revised.  4to,  cloth  ...  Net  125.  6d. 

SAILOR'S  SEA  BOOK.  A  Rudimentary  Treatise  on  Navigation. 
By  JAMES  GREENWOOD,  B.A.  With  numerous  Woodcuts  and  Coloured 
Plates.  New  and  Enlarged  Edition.  By  W.  H.  ROSSER.  Crown  Svo 
cloth  25.  6d. 

SAILS  AND  SAILMAKING.  With  Draughting,  and  the  Centre  of 
Effort  of  the  Sails.  Weights  and  Sizes  of  Ropes  ;  Masting,  Rigging  and 
Sails  of  Steam  Vessels,  etc.  By  R.  KIPPING,  N.A.  Crown  Svo,  cloth 

2S.  6d. 

SCREW-THREADS,  and  Methods  of  Producing  Them.  With 
numerous  Tables  and  complete  Directions  for  using  Screw-Cutting 
Lathes.  By  PAUL  N.  HASLUCK,  Author  of  "  Lathe-Work,"  etc.  Sixth 
Edition.  Waistcoat-pocket  size  is.  6d. 

SEA  TERMS,  PHRASES,  AND  WORDS  (Technical  Dic- 
tionary. French-English,  English-French),  used  in  the  English  and 
French  Languages.  For  the  Use  of  Seamen,  Engineers,  Pilots,  Ship- 
builders, Shipowners,  and  Shipbrokers.  Compiled  by  W.  PIRRIE,  late  of 
the  African  Steamship  Company.  Fcap.  Svo,  cloth  55. 

SEWERAGE  OF  SEA  COAST  TOWNS.    By  HENRY  C. 

ADAMS,  A.M.Inst.C.E.,  M.I.Mech.E.,   A.M.I.E.E.,    M.R.San. Inst,  &c. 
132  pages,  with  Illustrations.     Crown  Svo,  cloth Net  5S. 

SEWERAGE  SYSTEMS.  Their  Design  and  Construction.  A 
Practical  Treatise  upon  the  Principles  of  the  Design,  Construction,  and 
Maintenance  of  Town  Sewage  Systems,  with  Examples  of  Existing 
Works.  By  HUGH  S.  WATSON,  A.M.Inst.C.E.  With  Legal  Notes  by 
E  LID  YR  B.  HERBERT,  Barrister-  at-  Law.  330  pages.  Illustrated  by  150 
Diagrams  and  Working  Drawings  Royal  Svo,  cloth.  Net  los.  6d. 


24  CROSBY  LOCK  WOOD   &*  SON'S  CATALOGUE. 


SHIPBUILDING  INDUSTRY  OF  GERMANY.    Compiled 

and  Edited  by  G.  LEHMANN-FELSKOWSKI.     With  Coloured  Prints,  Art 
Supplements,  and  numerous  Illustrations  throughout  the  text.     Super- 
royal  4to,  cloth        ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         Net  IDS.  6d. 

SHIPS  AND  BOATS*  By  W.  BLAND.  With  numerous  Illus- 
trations and  Models.  Tenth  Edition.  Crown  8vo,  cloth  ...  is.  6d 

SHIPS  FOR  OCEAN  AND  RIVER  SERVICE.    Principles 

of  the  Construction  of.     By  H.  A.  SOMMERFELDT.     Crown  8vo.    is.  6d. 

ATLAS  OF  ENGRAVINGS.     To  illustrate  the  above.     Twelve  large 

folding  Plates.     Royal  4to,  cloth  jSf  5^. 

SMITHY  AND  FORGE*     Including  the  Farrier's  Art  and  Coach 

Smithing.     By  W.  J.  E.  CRANE.     Crown  8vo,  cloth 3$.  6d 

STATIONARY    ENGINE    DRIVING*     A   Practical    Manual 

for    Engineers    in     Charge     of     Stationary    Engines.       By    MICHAEL 

REYNOLDS,   M.S.E.      Eighth   Edition.       Crown  8vo,  cloth     35.    6d. ; 

cloth  boards  45.  6<jt 

STATIONARY    ENGINES*      A   Practical    Handbook   of  their 

Care  and  Management  for  Men-in-Charge.     By  C.  HURST.    Crown  8vo. 

Net  is. 

STEAM:  THE  APPLICATION  OF   HIGHLY   SUPERB 

HEATED  STEAM  TO  LOCOMOTIVES.  Being  a  reprint  from  a 
Series  of  Articles  appearing  in  "The  Engineer."  By  ROBERT  GARBE, 
Privy  Councillor,  Prussian  State  Railways.  Translated  from  the  German! 
Edited  by  LESLIE  S.  ROBERTSON,  Secretary  of  the  Engineering  Standards 
Committee,  M.Inst.C.E.,  M.I.Mech.E.,  M.Inst.N.A.,  etc.  Medium  8vo 
cloth  7s.  6d! 

STEAM  AND  THE  STEAM  ENGINE,  Stationary  and 
Portable.  Being  an  Extension  of  the  Treatise  on  the  Steam  Engine  of 
Mr.  J.  SEWELL.  By  D.  K.  CLARK,  C.E.  Fourth  Edition.  Crown  8vo, 
cloth  3s.  6d. 

STEAM  AND  MACHINERY  MANAGEMENT*    A  Guide 

to  the  Arrangement  and  Economical  Management  of  Machinery,  with 
Hints  on  Construction  and  Selection.  By  M.  Powis  BALE,  M.Inst.M.E. 
Crown  8yo,  cloth 2S%  5^ 

STEAM  ENGINE.  A  Practical  Handbook  compiled  with  especial 
Reference  to  Small  and  Medium-sized  Engines.  For  the  Use  of  Engine 
Makers,  Mechanical  Draughtsmen,  Engineering  Students,  and  users  of 
Steam  Power.  By  HERMAN  HAEDER,  C.E.  Translated  from  the  German, 
with  additions  and  alterations,  by  H.  H.P.  POWLES,  A.M.I.C.E.,  M.I.M.E? 
Third  Edition,  Revised.  With  nearly  1,100  Illustrations.  Crown  8vo, 
cloth  AV/7S.  6d. 

"This  is  an  excellent  book,  and  should  be  in  the  hands  of  all  who  are  interested  in  the  construction 
and  design  of  medium-sized  stationary  engines.  ...  A  careful  study  of  its  contents  and  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  sections  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  there  is  probably  no  other  book  like  it  in  this  country 
The  volume  aims  at  showing  the  results  of  practical  experience,  and  it  certainly  may  claim  a  complete 
achievement  of  this  idea." — Nature. 

STEAM  ENGINE,  A  Treatise  on  the  Mathematical  Theory  of, 
with  Rules  and  Examples  for  Practical  Men.  By  T.  BAKER,  C.E. 
Crown  8vo,  cloth  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  lSf  ^^ 

STEAM  ENGINE,  For  the  Use  of  Beginners.  By  Dr.  LARDNER. 
Crown  8vo,  cloth Is>  ^d. 


CIVIL,  MECHANIC  ANELECTRICAL  &  MARINE  ENGINEERING.    25 


STEAM  ENGINE*  A  Text-Book  on  the  Steam  Engine,  with  a 
Supplement  on  Gas  Engines  and  Part  II.  on  Heat  Engines.  By  T.  M. 
GOODEVE,  M.A.,  Barrister-at-Law,  Professor  of  Mechanics  at  the  Royal 
College  of  Science,  London  ;  Author  of  "The  Principles  of  Mechanics." 
"  The  Elements  of  Mechanism,"  etc.  Fourteenth  Edition.  Crown  Svo, 
cloth  6s. 

STEAM    ENGINE     (PORTABLE)  :    ITS   CONSTRUE 

TION  AND  MANAGEMENT.  A  Practical  Manual  for  Owners  and 
Users  of  Steam  Engines  generally.  By  W.  D.  WANSBROUGH.  180 
pages,  with  118  Illustrations.  Demy  Svo,  cloth. 

STEAM  ENGINEERING  IN  THEORY  AND  PRACTICE. 

By  GARDNER  D.  Hiscox,  M.E.  With  Chapters  on  Electrical  Engineer- 
ing. By  NEWTON  HARRISON,  E.E.,  Author  of  "Electric  Wiring,  Dia- 
grams, and  Switchboards."  450  pages.  Over  400  Detailed  Engravings. 

Net  I2S.  6d. 

HISTORICAL — STEAM  AND  ITS  PROPERTIES— APPLIANCES  FOR  THE  GENERATION  OF  STEAM 
— TYPES  OF  BOILERS — CHIMNEY  AND  ITS  WORK — HEAT  ECONOMY  OK  THE  FEED  WATER — 
STEAM  PUMPS  AND  THEIR  WORK — INCRUSTATION  AND  ITS  WURK — STEAM  ABOVE  ATMOSPHERIC 
PRESSURE— FLOW  OF  STEAM  FROM  NOZZLES— SUPERHEATED  STEAM  AND  ITS  WORK— ADIABATIC 
EXPANSION  OF  STEAM — INDICATOR  AND  ITS  WORK — STEAM  ENGINE  PROPORTIONS — SLIDE 
VALVE  ENGINES  AND  VALVE  MOTION— CORLISS  ENGINE  AND  ITS  VALVE  GEAR— COMPOUND 
ENGINE  AND  ITS  THEORY — TRIPLE  AND  MULTIPLE  EXPANSION  ENGINE — STEAM  TURBINE — 
REFRIGERATION — ELEVATORS  AND  THEIR  MANAGEMENT — COST  OF  POWER— STEAM  ENGINE 
TROUBLES— ELECTRIC  POWER  AND  ELECTRIC  PLANTS. 

STEAM  TURBINE*     See  MARINE  STEAM  TURBINE. 

STONE  BLASTING  AND  QUARRYING*      For  Building 

and  other  Purposes.  With  Remarks  on  the  Blowing  up  of  Bridges. 
By  Gen.  Sir  J.  BURGOYNE,  K.C.B.  Crown  Svo,  cloth is.  6d. 

STONE  QUARRYING  AND  THE  PREPARATION  OF 
STONE  FOR  THE  MARKET*  By  ALLAN  GREENWELL, 
A. M.lnst.C.E.,  and  Dr.  J.  V.  ELSDEN.  [In  Preparation.  Price  about 

Net  i  os.  6d. 

STONE-WORKING  MACHINERY*  A  Manual  dealing  with 
the  Rapid  and  Economical  Conversion  of  Stone.  With  Hints  on  the 
Arrangement  and  Management  of  Stone  Works.  By  M.  POWIS  BALE, 
M.lnst.C.E.  Crown  8vo,  cloth  95. 

STRAINS,  HANDY  BOOK  FOR  THE  CALCULATION 

OF.  In  Girders  and  Similar  Structures  and  their  Strength.  Consisting 
of  Formulas  and  Corresponding  Diagrams,  with  numerous  details  for 
Practical  Application,  etc.  By  WILLIAM  HUMBER,  A. M.lnst.C.E.,  etc. 
Sixth  Edition.  Crown  Svo,  with  nearly  100  Woodcuts  and  3  Plates, 
cloth  75.  6d. 

STRAINS  ON  STRUCTURES  OF  IRONWORK*    With 

Practical  Remarks  on  Iron  Construction.  By  F.  W.  SHEILDS, 
M.lnst.C.E.  Svo,  cloth  55. 

SUBMARINE  TELEGRAPHS*  Their  History,  Construction, 
and  Working,  together  with  an  appendix  on  "  Wireless  Telegraphy." 
Compiled  from  Authoritative  and  Exclusive  Sources.  By  CHARLES 
BRIGHT,  F.R.S.E.,  M.lnst.C.E.,  M.I.Mech.E.,  M.I.E.E.  Super  royal 
Svo,  nearly  800  pages,  fully  Illustrated,  including  a  large  number  of  Maps 
and  Folding  Plates,  strongly  bound  in  cloth  Net  £3  35. 

SUPERHEATED  STEAM,  THE  APPLICATION  OF,  TO 

LOCOMOTIVEa    See  STEAM. 


26  CROSBY  LOCKWOOD   <5r*  SON'S  CATALOGUE. 

SURVEYING  AS  PRACTISED  BY  CIVIL  ENGINEERS 

AND  SURVEYORS.  Including  the  Setting-out  of  Works  for  Construc- 
tion and  Surveys  Abroad,  with  many  Examples  taken  from  Actual 
Practice.  A  Handbook  for  Use  in  the  Field  and  the  Office,  intended  also 
as  a  Text-book  for  Students.  By  JOHN  WHITELAW,  Jun.,  A.M.Inst.C.E., 
Author  of  "  Points  and  Crossings."  With  about  260  Illustrations.  Second 
Edition,  Demy  8vo,  cloth  Net  IDS.  6d. 

SURVEYING  WITH  THE  CHAIN  ONLY— SURVEYING  WITH  THE  AID  OF  ANGULAR  INSTRUMENTS- 
LEVELLING— ADJUSTMENT  OF  INSTRUMENTS — RAILWAY  (INCLUDING  ROAD)  SURVEYS  AND  SETTING 
OUT— TACHEOMETRY  OR  STADIA  SURVEYING— TUNNEL  ALIGNMENT  AND  SETTING  OUT— SURVEYS 
FOR  WATER  SUPPLY  WORKS — HYDROGRAPHICAL  OR  MARINE  SURVEYING — ASTRONOMICAL  OBSERVA- 
TIONS USED  IN  SURVEYING — EXPLANATION  OF  ASTRONOMICAL  TERMS — SURVEYS  ABROAD  IN 
JUNGLE,  DENSE  FOREST,  AND  UNMAPPED  OPEN  COUNTRY — TRIGONOMETRICAL  OR  GEODETIC 
SURVEYS. 

SURVEYING    SHEETS    FOR    PROFESSIONAL   AND 

EDUCATIONAL  USE.  A  series  of  26  Blank  Ruled  Forms  for  use  in 
the  Field,  of  which  20  are  ruled  under  the  following  headings  : — Chaining  ; 
Traverse ;  Prismatic  Compass  ;  Tacheometer ;  Setting-out  Curve  ; 
Levelling.  By  a  Professional  Instructor.  Oblong  royal  8vo,  paper  wrapper 
with  stiff  back...  Net  is.  6d. 

SURVEYING,  LAND  AND  ENGINEERING.    For  Students 

and  Practical  Use.  By  T.  BAKER,  C.E.  Twentieth  Edition,  by  F.  E. 
DIXON,  A.M.Inst.C.E.  With  Plates  and  Diagrams.  Crown  8vo,  2s. 

SURVEYING,  LAND  AND  MARINE.  In  Reference  to  the 
Preparation  of  Plans  for  Roads  and  Railways  ;  Canals,  Rivers,  Towns 
Water  Supplies  ;  Docks  and  Harbours.  With  Description  and  Use  of 
Surveying  Instruments.  By  W.  DAVIS  HASKOLL,  C.E.  Second  Edition, 
Revised,  with  Additions.  Large  Crown  8vo,  cloth  ...  ...  gs. 

SURVEYING,    LAND    AND     MINING.     As    applied   to 

Collieries  and  other  Mines.  For  Students,  Colliery  Officials  and  Mine 
Surveyors.  By  G.  L.  LESTON.  308  pp.,  with  207  Illustrations,  and  3 
folding  Plates.  Large  crown  8vo,  cloth.  [Jtest  Published.  Net  6s. 

SURVEYING,  PRACTICAL.  A  Text-book  for  Students  Pre- 
paring for  Examinations  or  for  Survey  Work  in  the  Colonies.  By 
GEORGE  W.  USILL,  A.M.Inst.C.E.  Tenth  Edition,  thoroughly  Revised 
and  Enlarged  by  ALEX.  BEAZELEY,  M.Inst.C.E.  With  4  Lithographic 
Plates  and  360  Illustrations.  Large  crown  8vo,  7&.  6d.  cloth  ;  or,  on 
thin  paper,  leather,  gilt  edges,  rounded  corners,  for  pocket  use.  I2S.  6d. 

ORDINARY  SURVEYING — SURVEYING  INSTRUMENTS — TRIGONOMETRY  REQUIRED  IN  SURVEYING 
— CHAIN-SURVEYING — THEODOLITE  SURVEYING —  TRAVERSING  —  TOWN-SURVEYING  —  LEVELLING — 
CONTOURING— SETTING  OUT  CURVES — OFFICE  WORK — LAND  QUANTITIES — COLONIAL  LICENSING 
REGULATIONS — HYPSOMETER  TABLES — INTRODUCTION  TO  TABLES  OF  NATURAL  SINES,  ETC. — 
NATURAL  SINES  AND  CO-SINES—NATURAL  TANGENTS  AND  CO-TANGENTS — NATURAL  SECANTS 
AND  CO-SECANTS. 

SURVEYING,  TRIGONOMETRICAL.     An  Outline  of  the 

Method  of  Conducting  a  Trigonometrical  Survey.  For  the  Formation  of 
Geographical  and  Topographical  Maps  and  Plans,  Military  Recon- 
naissance, Levelling,  etc.  By  Lieut.-General  FROME,  R.E.  Fourth 
Edition,  Revised  by  Major-General  Sir  CHARLES  WARREN.  With  19 
Plates  and  115  Woodcuts.  Royal  8vo,  cloth  i6s. 

SURVEYING  WITH  THE  TACHEOMETER.    A  Practical 

Manual  for  the  Use  of  Civil  and  Military  Engineers  and  Surveyors, 
including  two  series  of  Tables  specially  computed  for  the  Reduction  of 
Readings  in  Sexagesimal  and  in  Centesimal  Degrees.  By  NEIL 
KENNEDY,  M.Inst.C.E.  112  pp.  With  Diagrams  arid  Plates.  Third 
Edition,  Revised.  Demy  8vo,  cloth  [Just Published.  Net  IDS.  6d. 


CIVIL,  MECHANICAL,  ELECTRICAL  6-  MARINE  ENGINEERING.    27 


SURVEY  PRACTICE.  For  Reference  in  Surveying,  Levelling, 
and  Setting-out ;  and  in  Route  Surveys  of  Travellers  by  Land  and  Sea. 
With  Tables,  Illustrations,  and  Records.  By  L.  D'A.  JACKSON, 
A.M.Inst.C.E.  Third  Edition.  8vo,  cloth 125.  6d. 

SURVEYOR'S  FIELD  BOOK  FOR  ENGINEERS  AND 

MINING  SURVEYORS,  Consisting  of  a  Series  of  Tables,  with  Rules, 
Explanations  of  Systems,  and  Use  of  Theodolite  for  Traverse  Surveying 
and  Plotting  the  work  with  minute  accuracy  by  means  of  Straight  Edge 
and  Set  Square  only  ;  Levelling  with  the  Theodolite,  Setting-out  Curves 
with  and  without  the  Theodolite,  Earthwork  Tables,  etc.  By  W.  DAVIS 
HASKOLL,  C.E.  With  numerous  Woodcuts.  Fifth  Edition,  Enlarged. 
Crown  Svo,  cloth  I2S. 

TECHNICAL   TERMS,  ENGLISH-FRENCH,  FRENCH- 

ENGLISH :  A  Pocket  Glossary  ;  with  Tables  suitable  for  the  Archi- 
tectural, Engineering,  Manufacturing,  and  Nautical  Professions.  By 
JOHN  JAMES  FLETCHER.  Fourth  Edition,  200  pp.  Waistcoat-pocket 
size,  limp  leather is.  6d. 

TECHNICAL  TERMS,  ENGLISH-GERMAN,  GERMAN- 
ENGLISH:  A  Pocket  Glossary  suitable  for  the  Engineering,  Manu- 
facturing, and  Mining  Industries.  Compiled  by  J.  G.  HORNER, 
A.M.I.Mech.E.,  Translated  and  Revised  by  ALFRED  SCHLOMANN,  Editor 
of  "  Illustrated  Technical  Dictionaries  in  Six  Languages."  Waistcoat- 
pocket  size  [Nearly  Ready. 

TECHNICAL  TERMS,  ENGLISH-SPANISH,  SPANISH* 

ENGLISH:  A  Pocket  Glossary  suitable  for  the  Engineering,  Manufactur- 
ing, and  Mining  Industries.  By  R.  D.  MONTEVERDE,  B.A.  (Madrid). 
316  pp.  Waistcoat-pocket  size,  limp  leather Net  as.  6d. 

TELEPHONES:    THEIR    CONSTRUCTION,   INSTAL- 

LATION,  WIRING,  OPERATION  AND  MAINTENANCE.  A 
Practical  Reference  Book  and  Guide  for  Electricians,  Wiremen,  Engi- 
neers, Contractors,  Architects,  and  others  interested  in  Standard  Tele- 
phone Practice.  By  W.  H.  RADCLIFFE  and  H.  C.  GUSHING,  JR. 
1 80  pages.  With  125  Illustrations.  Fcap.  Svo,  cloth  ...  Net  4&.  6d. 

TELEPHONES:    FIELD    TELEPHONES    FOR    ARMY 

USE:  INCLUDING  AN  ELEMENTARY  COURSE  IN  ELECTRI- 
CITY AND  MAGNETISM.  By  Lieut.  E.  J.  STEVENS,  R.A., 
A.M.I.E.E.,  Instructor,  School  of  Signalling,  Aldershot,  Late  Instructor 
in  Electricity,  Ordnance  College,  Woolwich.  Second  Edition,  Revised 
and  Enlarged.  Crown  Svo,  cloth,  138  pp.  With  Illustrations 


[Just  Published.     Net  25.  6d. 

iM  —  INI 


BATTERIES  —  ELECTRICAL  CIRCUITS  —  MAGNETISM  —  INDUCTION  —  MICROPHONES  AND  RE- 
CEIVERS— PORTABLE  AND  FIELD  TELEPHONE  SETS — SELF-INDUCTION,  INDUCTIVE  CAPACITY — 
STEVENS-LYON  SIGNAL  LAMP,  ETC. 

TELEPHONY:  A  COMPREHENSIVE  AND  DETAILED 

EXPOSITION  OF  THE  THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  THE 
TELEPHONE  ART.  By.  SAMUEL  G.  McMEEN,  Memb.  Am.  Inst. 
Electrical  Engineers,  and  KEMPSTER  B.  MILLER,  Memb.  Am.  Inst. 
Electrical  Engineers.  950  pp.,  with  670  Illustrations.  Royal  Svo,  cloth. 

[Just  Published.     Net  175. 

%*  Graphic  in  its  treatment,  this  work  is  easy  to  understand,  and  will  add  to  the  knowledge  of 
the  experienced  telephone  operator.  It  covers  the  Installation,  maintenance  and  operation  of  all 
types  of  telephone  systems. 

TELEPHONY.         See  also  WIRELESS  TELEPHONY  and  WIRELESS 

TELEGRAPHY. 


28  CROSBY  LOCKWOOD   &   SON'S   CATALOGUE. 


THREE  PHASE  TRANSMISSION.  See  ELECTRICAL  TRANS- 
MISSION OF  ENERGY. 

TOOLS    FOR    ENGINEERS   AND    WOODWORKERS. 

Including  Modern  Instruments  of  Measurement.  By  JOSEPH  HORNER, 
A.M.Inst.M.E.,  Author  of  "Pattern  Making,"  etc.  Demy  8vo,  with 
456  Illustrations Net  95. 

TOOTHED  GEARING.  A  Practical  Handbook  for  Offices  and 
Workshops.  By  J.  HORNER,  A.M.I.M.E.  Second  Edition,  with  a  New 
Chapter  on  Recent  Practice.  With  184  Illustrations.  Crown  8vo,  cloth. 

6s. 

TRAMWAYS:  THEIR  CONSTRUCTION  AND  WORK- 
ING. Embracing  a  Comprehensive  History  of  the  System  ;  with  an 
exhaustive  Analysis  of  the  Various  Modes  of  Traction,  including  Horse 
Power,  Steam,  Cable  Traction,  Electric  Traction,  &c.  ;  a  Description  of 
the  Varieties  of  Rolling  Stock  ;  and  ample  Details  of  Cost  and  Working 
Expenses,  New  Edition,  thoroughly  revised,  and  Including  the  Progress 
recently  made  in  Tramway  Construction,  etc.  By  D.  KINNEAR  CLARK, 
M.Inst.C.E.  With  400  Illustrations.  8vo,  780  pp.  buckram  ...  285. 

TRUSSES  OF  WOOD  AND  IRON.  Practical  Applications 
of  Science  in  Determining  the  Stresses,  Breaking  Weights,  Safe  Loads, 
Scantlings,  and  Details  of  Construction.  With  Complete  Working 
Drawings.  By  W.  GRIFFITHS,  R.I. B.A.  Oblong  Svo,  cloth.  45.  6d. 

TUNNELLING.  A  Practical  Treatise.  By  CHARLES  PRELINI,  C.E. 
With  additions  by  CHARLES  S.  HILL,  C.E.  With  150  Diagrams  and 
Illustrations.  Royal  Svo,  cloth  ...  ...  ...  ...  Net  i6s. 

TUNNELLING,  PRACTICAL.  Explaining  in  detail  Setting-out 
the  Works,  Shaft-sinking,  and  Heading-driving,  Ranging  the  Lines  and 
Levelling  underground,  Sub-Excavating,  Timbering  and  the  Construction 
of  the  Brickwork  of  Tunnels.  By  F.  W.  SIMMS,  M.Inst.C.E.  Fourth 
Edition,  Revised  and  Further  Extended,  including  the  most  recent  (1895) 
Examples  of  Sub-aqueous  and  other  Tunnels,  by  D.  KINNEAR  CLARK, 
M.Inst.C.E.  With  34  Folding  Plates.  Imperial  Svo,  cloth  ...  £2  2s. 

TUNNEL  SHAFTS.  A  Practical  and  Theoretical  Essay  on  the 
Construction  of  large  Tunnel  Shafts.  By  J.  H.  WATSON  BUCK, 
M.Inst.C.E.,  Resident  Engineer,  L.  and  N.  W.  R.  With  Folding  Plates, 
Svo,  cloth  I2s. 

WAGES  TABLES.  At  54,  52,  50  and  48  Hours  per  Week.  Show- 
ing the  Amounts  of  Wages  from  One  quarter  of  an  hour  to  Sixty-four 
hours,  in  each  case  at  Rates  of  Wages  advancing  by  One  Shilling  from 
4-y.  to  55^.  per  week.  By  THOS.  GARBUTT,  Accountant.  Square  Crown 
Svo,  half-bound 6s. 

WATER  ENGINEERING.  A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Measure- 
ment, Storage,  Conveyance,  and  Utilisation  of  Water  for  the  Supply  of 
Towns,  for  Mill  Power,  and  for  other  Purposes.  By  CHARLES  SLAGG, 
A. M.Inst.C.E.  Second  Edition.  Crown  Svo,  cloth 75.  6d. 

WATER,  FLOW  OF.  A  New  Theory  of  the  Motion  of  Water 
under  Pressure  and  in  Open  Conduits  and  its  practical  Application.  By 
Louis  SCHMEER,  Civil  and  Irrigation  Engineer.  234  pages,  with  Illus- 
trations. Medium  Svo,  cloth  ...  ...  Net  12s.  6d. 


CIVIL,  MECHANICAL,  ELECTRICAL  <5r>  MARINE  ENGINEERING.    29 


WATER,  POWER  OF.  As  Applied  to  Drive  Flour  Mills  and  to 
give  Motion  to  Turbines  and  other  Hydrostatic  Engines.  By  JOSEPH 
GLYNN,  F.R.S.,  etc.  New  Edition.  Illustrated.  Crown  8vo,  cloth  as. 

WATER    SUPPLY    OF    CITIES    AND    TOWNS.      By 

WILLIAM  HUMBER,  A.M.Inst.CE.  and  M.InstM.E.,  Author  of  "Cast 
and  Wrought  Iron  Bridge  Construction,"  etc.,  etc.  Illustrated  with  50 
Double  Plates,  i  Single  Plate,  Coloured  Frontispiece,  and  upwards  of 
250  Woodcuts,  and  containing  400  pp.  of  Text.  Imperial  4to,  elegantly 
and  substantially  half-bound  in  morocco Net  £6  6s. 

LIST    OF    CONTENTS:— I.  HISTORICAL    SKETCH  OF  SOME  OF  THE  MEANS  THAT  HAVE 

BEEN     ADOPTED     FOR    THK    SUPPLY    OF     WATER    TO    ClTIES    AND    TOWNS— II.      WATER     AND     THE 

FOREIGN  MATTER  USUALLY  ASSOCIATED  WITH  IT.  — III.  RAINFALL  AND  EVAPORATION. — IV. 
SPRINGS  AND  THE  WATER-BEARING  FORMATIONS  OF  VARIOUS  DISTRICTS.— V.  MEASUREMENT 
AND  ESTIMATION  OF  THE  FLOW  OF  WATER. — VI.  ON  THE  SELECTION  OF  THE  SOURCE  OF 
SUPPLY.— VII.  WELLS.— VIII.  RESERVOIRS.— IX.  THE  PURIFICATION  OP  WATER.— X.  PUMPS.— 
XI.  PUMPING  MACHINERY.— XII.  CONDUITS.— XIII.  DISTRIBUTION  OF  WATEK.— XIV.  METERS, 
SERVICE  PIPES,  AND  HOUSE  FITTINGS. — XV.  THE  LAW  AND  ECONOMY  OF  WATER  WORKS. — 
XVI.  CONSTANT  AND  INTERMITTENT  SUPPLY. — XVII.  DESCRIPTION  OF  PLATES — APPENDICES, 
GIVING  TABLES  OF  RATES  OF  SUPPLY,  VELOCITIES,  ETC.,  ETC.,  TOGETHER  WITH  SPECIFICATIONS 
OF  SEVERAL  WORKS  ILLUSTRATED,  AMONG  WHICH  WILL  BE  FOUND:  ABERDEEN,  BIDEFORD, 
CANTERBURY,  DUNDEE,  HALIFAX,  LAMBETH,  ROTHERHAM,  DUBLIN,  AND  OTHERS. 

"  The  roost  systematic  and  valuable  work  upon  water  supply  hitherto  produced  in  English,  or  in 
any  other  language.  Mr.  Humber's  work  is  characterised  almost  throughout  by  an  exhaustiveness 
much  more  distinctive  of  French  and  German  than  of  English  technical  treatises." — Engineer. 

WATER  SUPPLY  OF  TOWNS  AND  THE  CON- 
STRUCTION OF  WATERWORKS.  A  Practical  Treatise  for  the 
Use  of  Engineers  and  Students  of  Engineering.  By  W.  K.  BURTON, 
A.M.Inst.C.E.,  Consulting  Engineer  to  the  Tokyo  Waterworks.  Third 
Edition,  Revised.  Edited  by  ALLAN  GREENWELL,  F.G.S.,  A.M.Inst.C.E., 
with  numerous  Plates  and  Illustrations.  Super-royal  8vo,  buckram.  255. 

I.  INTRODUCTORY.— II.  DIFFERENT  QUALITIES  OF  WATER.— Ill,  QUANTITY  OF  WATER  TO  BE 
PROVIDED. — IV.  ON  ASCERTAINING  WHETHER  A  PROPOSED  SOURCE  OK  SUPPLY  is  SUFFICIENT. — V. 
ON  ESTIMATING  THE  STORAGE  CAPACITY  REQUIRED  TO  BE  PROVIDED. — VI.  CLASSIFICATION  OF 
WATERWORKS. — VII.  IMPOUNDING  RESERVOIRS. — VIII.  EARTHWORK  DAMS. — IX.  MASONRY 
DAMS.— X.  THE  PURIFICATION  OF  WATER.— XI.  SETTLING  RESERVOIRS.— XII.  SAND  FILTRA- 
TION.— XIII.  PURIFICATION  OF  WATER  BY  ACTION  OF  IRON, SOFTENING  OF  WATER  BY  ACTION  OF 
LIME,  NATURAL  FILTRATION. — XIV.  SERVICE  OR  CLEAN  WATER  RESERVOIRS— WATER  TOWERS — 
STAND  PIPES. — XV.  THE  CONNECTION  OF  SETTLING  RESERVOIRS,  FILTER  BEDS  AND  SERVICE 
RESERVOIRS.— XVI.  PUMPING  MACHINERY. — XVII.  FLOW  OF  WATER  IN  CONDUITS — PIPES  AND 
OPEN  CHANNELS.— XVIII.  DISTRIBUTION  SYSTEMS. — XIX.  SPECIAL  PROVISIONS  FOR  THE  EXTINC- 
TION OF  FIRES. — XX.  PIPES  FOR  WATERWORKS. — XXI.  PREVENTION  OF  WASTE  OF  WATKK. — 
XXII.  VARIOUS  APPLIANCES  USED  IN  CONNECTION  WITH  WATERWORKS. 

APPENDIX  I.  BY  PROF.  JOHN  MILNE,  F.R.S. — CONSIDERATIONS  CONCERNING  THE  PROBABLE 
EFFECTS  OF  EARTHQUAKES  ON  WATERWORKS  AND  THE  SPECIAL  PRECAUTIONS  TO  BE  TAKEN  IN 
EARTHQUAKE  COUNTRIES. 

APPENDIX  II.  BY  JOHN  DE  RIJKE,  C.E. — ON  SAND  DUNES  AND  DUNE  SANDS  AS  A  SOURCE  OF 
WATER  SUPPLY. 

"We  congratulate  the  author  upon  the  practical  commonsense  shown  in  the  preparation  of  this 
work.  .  .  .  The  plates  and  diagrams  have  evidently  been  prepared  with  great  care,  and  cannot 
fail  to  be  of  great  assistance  to  the  student." — Builder. 

WATER  SUPPLY,  RURAL,  A  Practical  Handbook  on  the 
Supply  of  Water  and  Construction  of  Water  Works  for  small  Country 
Districts.  By  ALLAN  GREENWELL,  A.M.Inst.C.E.,  and  W.  T.  CURRY, 
A.M.Inst.C.E.,  F.G.S.  With  Illustrations.  Second  Edition,  Revised. 
Crown  8vo,  cloth  55. 

"  The  volume  contains  valuable  information  upon  all  matters  connected  with  water  supply.  .  .  . 
It  is  full  of  details  on  points  which  are  continually  before  water-works  engineers." — Nature. 

WELLS  AND  WELL-SINKING.  By  J.  G.  SWINDELL,  A.R.I.B. A, 
and  G.  R.  BURNELL,  C.E.  Revised  Edition.  Crown  8vo,  cloth  25. 


30  CROSBY  LOCKWOOD   &  SON'S  CATALOGUE. 

WIRELESS     TELEGRAPHY:     ITS     THEORY     AND 

PRACTICE.  A  Handbook  for  the  use  of  Electrical  Engineers,  Students, 
and  Operators.  By  JAMES  ERSKINE-MURRAY,  D.Sc.,  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh,  Member  of  the  Institution  of  Electrical 
Engineers.  Fourth  Edition,  Revised  and  considerably  Enlarged,  450 
pages,  with  195  Diagrams  and  Illustrations.  Demy  Svo,  cloth. 

{fust  Published.     Net  IDS.  6d. 

ADAPTATIONS  OF  THE  ELECTRIC  CURRENT  TO  TELEGRAPHY — EARLIER  ATTEMPTS  AT  WIRE- 
LESS TELEGRAPHY— APPARATUS  USED  IN  THE  PRODUCTION  OF  HIGH  FREQUENCY  CURRENTS- 
DETECTION  OF  SHORT-LIVED  CURRENTS  OF  HIGH  FREQUENCY  BY  MEANS  OF  IMPERFECT 
ELECTRICAL  CONTACTS— DETECTION  OF  OSCILLATORY  CURRENTS  OF  HIGH  FREQUENCY  BY 
THEIR  EFFECTS  ON  MAGNETISED  IRON — THERMOMETRIC  DETECTORS  OF  OSCILLATORY  CURRENTS 
OF  HIGH  FREQUEMCY  —  ELECTROLYTIC  DETECTORS  AND  CRYSTALLINE  RECTIFIERS  —  THE 
•  MARCONI  SYSTEM — THE  LODGE-MUIRHEAD  SYSTEM — THE  FESSENDEN  SYSTEM — THE  HOZIER- 
BROWN  SYSTEM  —  WIRELESS  TELEGRAPHY  IN  ALASKA  —  THE  DE  FOREST  SYSTEM  —  THE 
POULSEN  SYSTEM — THE  TELEFUNKEN  SYSTEM  —  THE  LEVEL  AND  OTHER  SHOCK-EXCITATION 
SYSTEMS— DIRECTED  SYSTEMS— SOME  POINTS  IN  THE  THEORY  OF  JIGS  AND  JIGGERS— ON 
THEORIES  OF  TRANSMISSION  —  WORLD- WAVE  TELEGRAPHY  —  ADJUSTMENTS,  ELECTRICAL 
MEASUREMENTS  AND  FAULT  TESTING— ON  THE  CALCULATION  OF  A  SYNTONIC  WIRELESS 
TELEGRAPH  STATION— TABLES  AND  NOTES. 

".  .  .  .  A  serious  and  meritorious  contribution  to  the  literature  on  this  subject.  The  Author 
brings  to  bear  not  only  great  practical  knowledge,  gained  by  experience  in  the  operation  of  wireless 
telegraph  stations,  but  also  a  very  sound  knowledge  of  the  principles  and  phenomena  of  physical 
science.  His  work  is  thoroughly  scientific  in  its  treatment,  shows  much  originality  throughout,  and 
merits  the  close  attention  of  all  students  of  the  subject." — Engineering. 

WIRELESS  TELEPHONES  AND  HOW  THEY  WORK. 

By  JAMES  ERSKINE  MURRAY,  D.Sc.,  F.R.S.E.,  M.I.E.E.,  Lecturer  on 
Wireless  Telegraphy  and  Telephony  at  the  Northampton  Institute, 
London  ;  Fellow  of  the  Physical  Society  of  London  ;  Author  of  "  Wire- 
less Telegraphy,"  and  Translator  of  Herr  Ruhmer's  "Wireless  Tele- 
phony." Second  Edition,  Revised.  76  pages.  With  Illustrations  and 
Two  Plates.  Crown  Svo,  cloth  Net  is.  6d. 

How  WE  HEAR — HISTORICAL— THE  CONVERSION  OF  SOUND  INTO  ELECTRIC  WAVES — WIRELESS 
TRANSMISSION— THE  PRODUCTION  OF  ALTERNATING  CURRENTS  OF  HIGH  FREQUENCY— How  THE 
ELECTRIC  WAVES  ARE  RADIATED  AND  RECEIVED — THE  RECEIVING  INSTRUMENTS — DETECTORS — 
ACHIEVEMENTS  AND  EXPECTATIONS  —GLOSSARY  OF  TECHNICAL  WORDS — INDEX. 

WIRELESS  TELEPHONY  IN  THEORY  AND  PRAC 

TICE.  By  ERNST  RUHMER.  Translated  from  the  German  by 
J.  ERSKINE-MURRAY,  D.Sc.,  M.I.E.E.,  etc.  Author  of  "A  Handbook 
of  Wireless  Telegraphy."  With  numerous  Illustrations.  Demy  Svo, 
cloth.. Net  IDS.  6d. 

"  A  very  full  descriptive  a  count  of  the  experimental  work  which  has  been  carried  out  on  Wireless 
Telephony  is  to  be  found  in  Professor  Ruhmer's  book.  .  ,  .  The  volume  is  profusely  illustrated 
by  both  photographs  and  drawings,  and  should  prove  a  useful  reference  Work  for  those  directly  or 
indirectly  interested  in  the  subject." — Nature. 

"The  explanations  and  discussions  are  all  clear  and  simple,  and  the  whole  volume  is  a  very 
readable  record  of  important  and  interesting  work." — Engineering. 

WORKSHOP  PRACTICE.  As  applied  to  Marine,  Land,  and 
Locomotive  Engines,  Floating  Docks,  Dredging  Machines,  Bridges, 
Shipbuilding,  etc.  By  J.  G.  WINTON.  Fourth  Edition,  Illustrated. 
Crown  Svo,  cloth 35.  6d. 

WORKS'  MANAGER'S  HANDBOOK,    Comprising  Modem 

Rules,  Tables,  and  Data.  For  Engineers,  Millwrights,  and  Boiler 
Makers  ;  Toolmakers,  Machinists,  and  Metal  Workers  ;  Iron  and  Brass 
Founders,  etc.  By  W.  S.  HUTTON,  Civil  and  Mechanical  Engineer, 
Author  of  "  The  Practical  Engineer's  Handbook,"  Seventh  Edition, 
carefully  Revised  and  Enlarged.  Medium  Svo,  strongly  bound  155. 

STATIONARY  AND  LOCOMOTIVE  STEAM-ENGINES,  GAS  PRODUCERS,  GAS-ENGINES,  OIL-ENGINES, 
ETC. — HYDRAULIC  MEMORANDA:  PIPES,  PUMPS,  WATER-POWER,  ETC. — MILLWORK  :  SHAFTING, 
GEARING,  PULLEYS,  ETC. — STEAM  BOILERS,  SAFETY  VALVES,  FACTORY  CHIMNEYS,  ETC. 
— HEAT,  WARMING,  AND  VENTILATION — MELTING,  CUTTING,  AND  FINISHING  METALS — 
ALLOYS  AND  CASTING— WHEEL-CUTTING.  SCREW-CUTTING,  ETC.— STRENGTH  AND  WEIGHT  OP- 
MATERIALS — WORKSHOP  DATA,  ETC. 


CIVIL,  MECHANICAL.  ELECTRICAL  &  MARINE  ENGINEERING.     31 

PUBLICATIONS    OF    THE 
ENGINEERING    STANDARDS  COMMITTEE. 


M 


ESSRS.  CROSBY  LOCKWOOD  and  SON,  having  been  appointed 
OFFICIAL  PUBLISHERS  to  the  ENGINEERING  STANDARDS 
COMMITTEE,  beg  to  invite  attention  to  the  List  given  below. 

The  Reports  are  Foolscap  Folio,  Sewed,  except  where  otherwise  stated. 

Reports  already  published  — 

1.  BRITISH    STANDARD    SECTIONS  (9  lists).     (Included  in  No.  6).— 

ANGLES,  EQUAL  AND  UNEQUAL — BULB  ANGLES,  TEES  AND  PLATES — Z 
AND  T  BARS— CHANNELS — BEAMS         ...     ' is.  Net. 

2.  TRAMWAY  RAILS  AND  FISH-PLATES          2is.  Net. 

3.  REPORT   ON    THE   INFLUENCE   OF    GAUGE   LENGTH,     By 

Professor  W.  C.  UNWIN,  F.R.S 55.  Net. 

4.  PROPERTIES  OF  STANDARD  BEAMS.    (Included  in  No.  6.) 

Demy  8vo>  sewed       ...         ..         ...         ...         ...          IS.  Net. 

5.  STANDARD  LOCOMOTIVES  FOR  INDIAN  RAILWAYS. 

Superseded. 

6.  PROPERTIES  OF  BRITISH  STANDARD  SECTIONS.     Diagrams 

and  Definitions,  Tables,  and  Formulae.     Demy  Sv0,  doth  2S.   6d.  Net. 

7.  TABLES    OF    BRITISH     STANDARD    COPPER     CON- 

DUCTORS           55.  Net. 

8.  TUBULAR  TRAMWAY  POLES     55.  Net. 

9-     BULL-HEADED  RAILWAY  RAILS          2 is.  Net. 

10.  TABLES  OF  PIPE  FLANGES         2s.  6d.  Net. 

11.  FLAT-BOTTOMED  RAILWAY  RAILS 2is.  Net. 

12.  SPECIFICATION  FOR  PORTLAND  CEMENT        ...        55.  Net. 

13.  STRUCTURAL  STEEL  FOR  SHIPBUILDING          ...        55.  Net. 

14.  STRUCTURAL  STEEL  FOR  MARINE  BOILERS  ...        5*.  Net. 

15.  STRUCTURAL  STEEL  FOR  BRIDGES  AND  GENERAL  BUILD- 

ING CONSTRUCTION         5S.  Net. 

16.  SPECIFICATIONS   AND   TABLES    FOR   TELEGRAPH 

MATERIALS     2is.  Net. 

17.  INTERIM  REPORT  ON  ELECTRICAL  MACHINERY 

Superseded. 

19.  REPORT    ON    TEMPERATURE    EXPERIMENTS   ON    FIELD 

COILS  OF  ELECTRICAL  MACHINES  ...         IDS.  6d.  Net. 

20.  BRITISH  STANDARD  SCREW  THREADS     ...  2s.  6d.  Net. 

21.  BRITISH  STANDARD  PIPE  THREADS          ...  2s.  6d.  Net. 

22.  REPORT  ON  EFFECT  OF  TEMPERATURE  ON  INSULATING 

MATERIALS       55.  Net 

23.  STANDARDS  FOR  TROLLEY  GROOVE  AND  WIRE       is.  Net. 

24.  MATERIAL  USED  IN  THE  CONSTRUCTION   OF   RAILWAY 

ROLLING  STOCK       2is.  Net. 

25.  ERRORS   IN   WORKMANSHIP.      Based  on  Measurements  carried  out 

for  the  Committee  by  the  National  Physical  Laboratory  I  OS.   6d.   Net. 

26.  SECOND  REPORT  ON  STANDARD  LOCOMOTIVES  FOR 

INDIAN    RAILWAYS  Superseded. 

27.  STANDARD  SYSTEMS  OF  LIMIT  GAUGES  FOR   RUNNING 

FITS         55.  Net. 

28.  NUTSt  BOLT-HEADS,  AND  SPANNERS        ...  2s.  6d.  Net. 

29.  INGOT  STEEL  FORCINGS  FOR  MARINE  PURPOSES.    5$.  Net. 

P.T.O. 


32  CROSBY  LOCKWOOD  &>  SON'S  CATALOGUE. 

PUBLICATIONS  OF  THE  ENGINEERING  STANDARDS  COMMITTEE-O«/rf.) 

30.  INGOT  STEEL  CASTINGS  FOR  MARINE  PURPOSES.    55.  Net. 

31.  STEEL  CONDUITS  FOR  ELECTRICAL  WIRING       ...     5s.  Net. 

32.  STEEL  BARS  (for  use  in  Automatic  Machines)      2S.  6d.  Net. 

33.  CARBON  FILAMENT  GLOW  LAMPS 5s.  Net. 

35.  COPPER  ALLOY  BARS  (for  use  in  Automatic  Machines)      2S.  6d.  Net. 

36.  STANDARDS  FOR  ELECTRICAL  MACHINERY.     2s.  6d.  Net. 

37.  CONSUMERS'    ELECTRIC    SUPPLY    METERS    (Motor  Type  for 

Continuous  and  Single-Phase  Circuits)       ...         ...         ...         ...         55.  Net. 

38.  LIMIT  GAUGES  FOR  SCREW  THREADS      55.  Net. 

39.  COMBINED     REPORTS     ON     SCREW     THREADS    (containing 

Reports  Nos.  20,  28,  38)      75.   6d.  Net. 

40.  CAST  IRON  SPIGOT  AND  SOCKET  LOW  PRESSURE  HEAT- 

ING PIPES 2s.  6d.  Net. 

41.  CAST    IRON    SPIGOT    AND    SOCKET    FLUE    OR     SMOKE 

PIPES  2s.  6d.  Net. 

42.  RECIPROCATING    STEAM     ENGINES     FOR    ELECTRICAL 

PURPOSES  55.  Net. 

43.  CHARCOAL  IRON  LAPWELDED  BOILER  TUBES    2S.  6d.  Net. 
44-    CAST-IRON  PIPES  FOR  HYDRAULIC  POWER       ...        55.  Net. 

45.  STANDARD  DIMENSIONS  FOR  THE  THREADS  OF  SPARK- 

ING PLUGS  (FOR  INTERNAL  COMBUSTION  ENGINES) 

2S.   6d.  Net. 

46.  KEYS  AND  KEY  WAYS 2s.  6d.  Net. 

47.  STEEL  FISHPLATES  FOR  BULL-HEAD  AND  FLAT-BOTTOM 

RAILWAY  RAILS          IDS.  6d.  Net. 

48.  WROUGHT    IRON    OF    SMITHING    QUALITY    FOR    SHIP- 

BUILDING (Grade  D)      2s.6d.JVfe/. 

49.  AMMETERS  AND  VOLTMETERS  5s.  Net. 

50.  THIRD    REPORT    ON     STANDARD     LOCOMOTIVES    FOR 

INDIAN  RAILWAYS.   Incorporating  Reports  Nos.  5  and  26.   2 is.  Net. 

51.  WROUGHT  IRON  FOR  USE  IN  RAILWAY  ROLLING  STOCK. 

"  Best  Yorkshire"  and  Grades  A.,  B.  and  C ios.  6d.  Net 

52.  BAYONET  SOCKET  LAMP-HOLDERS  AND  CAPS  ...    55.  Net. 

53.  COLD   DRAWN  WELDLESS   STEEL   TUBES    FOR  LOCOMO- 

TIVE BOILERS          2s.  6d.  Net. 

54.  THREADS,  NUTS  AND  BOLT  HEADS  FOR  USE  IN  AUTOMO- 

BILE CONSTRUCTION     2s.  6d.  Net. 

55.  HARD-DRAWN  COPPER  AND  BRONZE  WIRE        ios.  6d.  Net. 

56.  DEFINI TIONS  OF  YIELD  POINT  AND  ELASTIC  LIMIT.  Gratis. 

57.  HEADS  FOR  SMALL  SCREWS  2s.  6d.  Net. 

58.  CAST  IRON  SPIGOT  AND  SOCKET  SOIL  PIPES      ...     5*.  Net. 

59.  SPIGOT  AND  SOCKET  WASTE  AND  VENTILATING  PIPES 

FOR  OTHER  THAN  SOIL  PURPOSES 5s.  Net. 

60.  REPORT   OF   EXPERIMENTS  ON    TUNGSTEN   FILAMENT 

GLOW  LAMPS  (in  two  parts)         2is.  od.  Ntt. 

61.  COPPER  TUBES  AND  THEIR  SCREW  THREADS ...  2s.  6d.  Net. 


London:   Crosby  Lockwood   &  Son, 

7,  STATIONERS'   HALL  COURT,   LUDQATE   HILL,   E.C. 

and  5,  Broadway,  Westminster,  S.W. 

BRADBURY,    AGNEW   &   CO.,    LD.,    PRINTERS,    LONDON    AND   TONBRIDGE.         87.  25.4.   13 


AD  VERTISEMENTS. 


THE     BRITISH 


Telegrams:  "  HUMBOLDTIA,  LONDON." 


HUMBOLDT 

Telephone :  272  Central.  ENGINEERING    CO.     LTD. 

Dixon   House,   Lloyd's  Avenue,   London,   E.C. 


SO2,    NH3,   and    CO2 

ICE  &  REFRIGERATING  MACHINERY 


Refrigerating  Machines  at  Cologne  Municipal  Abattoirs. 


COMPLETE    PLANTS  for  any  Refrigerating 
Purpose  on  Land,  Rail,  or  Water. 

NUMEROUS     HIGHEST    REFERENCES     FROM     PLANTS     ERECTED 
IN     ALL    PARTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


Founded    1856. 


4,OOO   hands  employed, 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 
BERKELEY 

Return  to  desk  from  which  borrowed. 
This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below 


7Apr52W 
lOA.prS2LU 


SEND   FOR  CATALOGUE,   No.   109 
MANUFACTURERS 

The  RUBEROID  Co.  Ltd. 

81  and  83  KNIGHTRIDER  ST.,  LONDON,  B.C. 
WORKS  -    -  BRIMSDOWN,  MIDDLESEX 


AD  VER  TISEMEN  7S. 


TRADE 


STANLEY 


MARK 


The  Largest   Manufacturers  of 

Surveying  and  Drawing  Instruments 


in  the  World. 


274253 


STAN 

DRAWI 

(all  Cj_ 

The  result  of  over  thirty 
years'  experience. 


Please  send  for  our 
"  K  57  "Catalogue,  and 
compare  our  prices 
with  those  of  other 
FIRST-CLASS  Makers 


STANLEY'^  NEW 


UNLEY 

WATERPROOF 
RAWING 


EVEL. 

:  and 
level 
With 
will 
ment 


TICE 

RY 

_lied   on 

the  most  favourable  terms. 
A  very  large  Stock  kept. 


We  were  awarded 
Four  Grands  Prix 
and  a  Gold  Medal  at 
the  Turin  Exhibition, 
1911. 


REFRIGERATOR  THERMOMETERS 

a  speciality.     Patent  Alarm  Thermometers  can  be  set  to  ANY  temperature,  and  an 
alarm  given  at  any  distance  immediately  the  temperature  rises  above  that  point. 


W.  F.  STANLEY  &  CO.  Ltd.,  Great  Turnstile,  Holborn,  London,  Eng. 

Showrooms:   286  HIGH  HOLBORN,  LONDON,  W.C. 


